THEORIES OF ERIKSON, PIAGET AND KOHLBERG

Introduction

Good Morning Students! Today we are going to study in depth the theories of Erikson,
Piaget and Kohlberg regarding development. All three theories are stage theories of
development and address some very important issues for educators and teachers. Let
us first analyse the importance of stage theories for educators. Stage theories,
proposed by Jean Piaget and Erik Erikson, state that development progresses through
determined stages.

While this perspective underscores the contributions of both biology and the
environment, a greater emphasis is placed on a predetermined progression through a
fixed developmental sequence.

Many researchers and theorists dispute such a rigid, step-like theory of development,
emphasizing instead a more continuous, gradual process influenced equally by both
brain maturation and environmental stimulation.

Two important educational questions relevant to this issue are the extent to which
children can be taught particular concepts or skills prior to entering a given
developmental stage. The other issue is whether concepts learned in one domain are
automatically transferred to other similar domains as a child reaches a new
developmental stage. A related theme of stage theory of development centres on the
existence of critical or sensitive periods in human development.

A critical or sensitive period is defined as a time of growth during which an organism is

maximally responsive to certain environmental or biological events.

Critical periods emphasize the interaction of both nature and nurture; with
environmental experiences (nurture) activating biologically programmed (nature)
developmental changes, or, conversely, biologically determined changes enabling an
organism to assimilate certain environmental experiences.

For example, in terms of language development, educators often wonder whether there
is a critical or sensitive period during which children should learn a second language.Let
us begin by a study of Erikson’s stage theory of psychosocial development.

Erikson's theory

Erikson believed that personality develops in a series of stages. In each stage, Erikson
believed people experience a conflict that serves as a turning point in development.
In Erikson's view, these conflicts are cantered on either developing a psychological
quality or failing to develop that quality.

During these times, the potential for personal growth is high, but so is the potential for
failure.
1. Trust vs. Mistrust (birth - 18 months)
During this stage the infant is uncertain about the world in which they live. To
resolve these feelings of uncertainty the infant looks towards their primary
caregiver for stability and consistency of care.
2. Autonomy vs. Shame and Doubt (18 months - 3 years)
Between the ages of one and three, children begin to assert their independence.
Erikson says that this is the point at which the child can develop a certain amount
of independence/autonomy.
3. Initiative vs. Guilt (3 - 5 years)
The child takes initiatives which the parents will often try to stop in order to
protect the child. The child will often overstep the mark in his forcefulness and
the danger is that the parents will tend to punish the child and restrict his
initiatives too much.
4. Industry (competence) vs. Inferiority (5 - 12 years)
It is at this stage that the child’s peer group will gain greater significance and will
become a major source of the child’s self esteem. The child now feels the need
to win approval by demonstrating specific competencies that are valued by
society, and begin to develop a sense of pride in their accomplishments.
5. Identity vs. Role Confusion (12 - 18 years)
It is during this stage that the adolescent will re-examine his identity and try to
find out exactly who he is.
Erikson suggests that two identities are involved: the sexual and the
occupational.
According to Bee (1992), what should happen at the end of this stage is “a
reintegrated sense of self, of what one wants to do or be, and of one’s
appropriate sex role”. During this stage the body image of the adolescent
changes.
6. Intimacy vs. Isolation (young adulthood)
 Occurring in young adulthood (ages 18-40), we begin to share ourselves more
intimately with others. We explore relationships leading toward longer term
commitments with someone other than a family member.
7. Generatively vs. Stagnation (middle adulthood)
During middle adulthood (ages 40-65), we establish our careers, begin our own
families and develop a sense of being a part of the bigger picture. We give back
to society through raising our children, work, and becoming involved in
community activities and organizations. By failing to achieve these objectives, we
become stagnant and feel unproductive. Success in this stage will lead to the
virtue of care.
8. Ego Integrity vs. Despair (old age)
As we grow older (65 years and over) and become senior citizens, we tend to
slow down our productivity, and explore life as a retired person.
It is during this time that we contemplate our accomplishments and are able to
develop integrity if we see ourselves as leading a successful life.

Erik Erikson believed if we see our lives as unproductive, feel guilt about our pasts, or
feel that we did not accomplish our life goals, we become dissatisfied with life and
develop despair, often leading to depression and hopelessness.

Success in this stage will lead to the virtue of wisdom.

Piaget's theory

Students, now let us move on to study another famous stage theory – Piaget’s theory of
cognitive development.

In Piaget’s theory stage theory each stage represents a qualitatively different type of
thinking. Transitions from one stage to another are generally fast, and the stages
always follow the same sequence.

The four stages of Piaget’s theory of Cognitive Development

1. STAGE ONE: The Sensor motor stage

Occurs from birth to approx. 2 years old The child utilizes innate behaviours to
enhance this learning process, such as sucking, looking, grasping, crying and
listening. Object impermanence mental representation of this stage. Object
 permanence is when objects exist even when out of sight. In the first stages,
children will not attempt to search for an object which is hidden from their view; in
their mind, the object simply ceases to exist as they cannot see it.
2. STAGE TWO: The Pre-operational Stage Occurs from 2-7 years of age
In this stage a child can use one object to represent another. For example, a
child swinging their arms in a circular motion might represent the wheels on a
train. This shows the relationships children can form between language, actions
and objects at this stage. A major characteristic of this stage is egocentrism:
perception of the world in relation to oneself only. Another feature of this stage is
conservation. Children struggle to understand the difference in quantity and
measurements in different situations. Suppose a child is shown a short, fat
beaker full of water. When that water is transferred to a tall, thin beaker – we
would know the level of water is identical – only the beaker has changed.
However, a child in this stage will conclude there is more water in the tall beaker,
just because the level of water looks higher.
3. STAGE THREE: The Concrete Operational Stage
Occurs from 7-11 years of age Children struggle to apply concepts to anything
which cannot physically be manipulated or seen. Child continues to improve their
conservation skills, and by the age of 11 they can conserve numbers, weight and
volume. Simple math’s such as addition/subtraction becomes much easier.
4. STAGE FOUR: The Formal Operational Stage Occurs from age 11 onwards
Children at this stage acquire the ability to think hypothetically. Logical
conclusions can be inferred from verbal information, and “concrete”, physical
objects are no longer necessary.

When presented with a problem, children at this stage can consider solutions to the
problem in a logical manner. Scientific reasoning is apparent in this stage.
Kohlberg's theory

Students, we all agree that moral development is a major topic of interest in both
psychology and education.

One of the best known theories was developed by psychologist Lawrence Kohlberg who
modified and expanded upon Jean Piaget's work to form a theory that explained the
development of moral reasoning.

Kohlberg based his theory upon research and interviews with groups of young children.
A series of moral dilemmas were presented to these participants and they were also
interviewed to determine the reasoning behind their judgments of each scenario.

Kohlberg was not interested so much in the answer to the question of whether Heinz
was wrong or right, but in the reasoning for each participant's decision.

The responses were then classified into various stages of reasoning in his theory of
moral development.

1. Level 1: Pre-conventional Morality

• Stage 1 - Obedience and Punishment
The earliest stage of moral development is especially common in young
children, but adults are also capable of expressing this type of reasoning.
At this stage, children see rules as fixed and absolute. Obeying the rules
is important because it is a means to avoid punishment.
• Stage 2 - Individualism and Exchange
 At this stage of moral development, children account for individual points
of view and judge actions based on how they serve individual needs. In
the Heinz dilemma, children argued that the best course of action was the
choice that best-served Heinz’s needs. Reciprocity is possible at this point
in moral development, but only if it serves one's own interests.
2. Level 2. Conventional Morality
• Stage 3 - Interpersonal Relationships
Often referred to as the "good boy-good girl" orientation, this stage of
moral development is focused on living up to social expectations and
roles. There is an emphasis on conformity, being "nice," and consideration
of how choices influence relationships.
• Stage 4 - Maintaining Social Order
At this stage of moral development, people begin to consider society as a
whole when making judgments. The focus is on maintaining law and order
by following the rules, doing one’s duty and respecting authority.
3. Level 3. Post conventional Morality
• Stage 5 - Social Contract and Individual Rights
At this stage, people begin to account for the differing values, opinions
and beliefs of other people. Rules of law are important for maintaining a
society, but members of the society should agree upon these standards.
• Stage 6 - Universal Principles
Kohlberg’s final level of moral reasoning is based upon universal ethical
principles and abstract reasoning. At this stage, people follow these
internalized principles of justice, even if they conflict with laws and rules.

Advantages and disadvantages of stage theories

Student’s we will now analyse each of the above theories separately for their
advantages and disadvantages

Stage theories, especially those of Piaget generated interest in child development and
had an enormous impact on the future of education and developmental psychology. But
they also suffered from various disadvantages.

Erikson's 8 stages tended to focus on childhood rather than the adult life through it was
called a life span theory. Erikson’s theory also applied to boys more than girls.

Finally, the rigid structure to Erikson's theory didn't take into consideration cultural
differences that may have affected the time during which an individual was in one
particular stage. For example: potty training begins at different ages depending on the
culture.

A popular criticism of Piaget’s stage theory is that he underestimated the abilities of an

infant. Studies have shown that they have more of a capacity in memory and
understanding of objects than he believed.
While presented in a series of progressive stages, even Piaget believed that
development does not always follow such a smooth and predictable path. In spite of the
criticism, the theory has had a considerable impact on our understanding of child
development. Piaget's observation that kids actually think differently than adults helped
bring in a new era of research on the mental development of children.

Piaget's focus on qualitative development had an important impact on education. While

Piaget did not specifically apply his theory in this way, many educational programs are
now built upon the belief that children should be taught at the level for which they are
developmentally prepared.

In addition to this, a number of instructional strategies have been derived from Piaget's
work. These strategies include providing a supportive environment, using social
interactions and peer teaching, and helping children see the inconsistencies in their
thinking.

Much of the criticism of Piaget's work is in regards to his research methods. A major
source of inspiration for the theory was Piaget's observations of his own three children.

In addition to this, the other children in Piaget's small research sample were all from
well-educated professionals of high socioeconomic status. Because of this
unrepresentative sample, it is difficult to generalize his findings to a larger population.

Research has disputed Piaget's argument that all children will automatically move to the
next stage of development as they mature. Some data suggests that environmental
factors may play a role in the development of formal operations.

The disadvantages of Kohlberg’s theories area in many questions it leaves unanswered.

Is justice the only aspect of moral reasoning we should consider? Critics have pointed
out that Kohlberg's theory of moral development overemphasizes the concept as justice
when making moral choices. Factors such as compassion, caring and other
interpersonal feelings may play an important part in moral reasoning.
Kohlberg's theory is also said to overemphasize Western philosophy. Individualistic
cultures emphasize personal rights while collectivist cultures stress the importance of
society and community. Eastern cultures like Indian and Chinese culture may have
different moral outlooks that Kohlberg's theory does not account for. But all in all
Kohlberg moral development theory has a positive effect on educational matters,
especially the education of young adults and their sense of intellectual and moral
development. Kohlberg's belief was that the development of moral thought would help
individuals to develop a greater understanding of the norms of society.

Comparison of Piaget and Erikson’s stage theories

What types of children behaviours demonstrate Piaget’s “preoperational stage” and his
“concrete operational stage?

What is the relationship between these two stages identified by Piaget and Erikson’s
“initiative v. guilt” or “industry v. inferiority” stages?

For Piaget the Preoperational Stage extends from age two to approximately ages six or
seven. During this period the child acquires motor skills and develops a sense of self.
She/he is capable of imaginative thinking and playful activity. While she/he can focus on
discrete information items she/he is not capable of logical, discursive thought. The
Concrete Operational Stage extends from age seven to approximately ages 11 or 12.
During this period the child becomes more capable of independently acquiring
information about the world and thinking in terms of cause-effect relationships. The child
also becomes less egocentric and more aware of the presence of others.

Erikson theorized there were eight stages of psychosocial development. Each had a
syntonic (harmonious) element and a dystonic (disruptive) element. They reconciled in
an ego quality or strength (a “basic strength”). Erikson’s third stage of development is
the Play Age, which is approximately from age three to age five. During this stage the
child develops fluid motor movement and coping skills. Rather than simply reacting the
child begins interacting purposefully with the external world.

The conflict between initiative and guilt becomes the play age’s dominant psychosocial
crisis. Resolution of the antinomy produces the basic strength of purpose.

Erikson’s Play Age overlaps with Piaget’s Preoperational Stage. They are different
characterizations of what appear to be essentially the same phenomena. From an age
standpoint many of the subjects observed appeared to be in Erikson’s earlier stage of
Toddler, which is characterized by autonomy versus shame and doubt; or even the
infant stage, which is characterized by trust versus mistrust.

Erikson’s stages of development are elastic from a chronological standpoint. There is

considerable overlap of behaviours within the different age categories.
Erikson’s terms for the various psychosocial crises associated with each stage of
development seem arbitrary.

While clearly there are instances of behaviour that fit within each counterpart there are
many other behaviours that would be better described by use of some other criteria.

This particularly is true when Erikson attempts to resolve each crisis in a neat synthesis
(the “basic strength”).

To illustrate point it seems highly unlikely that infants and children in Piaget’s
Preoperational Stage and those in Erikson’s Play Age are able to develop goals and
intentions of the sort both Piaget and Erikson assume.

Goals and intentions are complex cognitive phenomena and the brain structure of
subjects is insufficiently developed to support the level of activity both Piaget and
Erikson hypothesize.

For this reason a model based on operant conditioning may be more explanatory.
Operant conditioning as refined by Skinner envisions four types of reinforcement
situations:
a. positive reinforcement which is a reward for increasing desirable
behaviour, causing it to go up;
b. extinction which is the removal of a previously-given positive reinforce,
causing undesirable behaviour to go down;
c. Punishment which is the administration of an aversive, causing
undesirable behaviour to go down; and
d. Negative reinforcement which is the removal of previously-administered
punishment, causing the desired behaviour to go up.
Conclusion:

Stage theories helped to bring awareness among educators and societies about the
different ways in which children learn and also the difficulties faced by children in
learning.

The practical implications of stage theories for parents and educators are as follows.
Parents can use Piaget's theory when deciding how to support what to buy in order to
support their child's growth.

Teachers can also use Piaget's theory, for instance when discussing whether the
syllabus subjects are suitable for the level of students or not.

For example, recent studies have shown that children in the same grade and of the
same age perform differentially on tasks measuring basic addition and subtraction
fluency.

Teachers who work with children in both the preoperational and the concrete
operational levels of cognitive development should adopt suitable academic
expectations with regard to children's cognitive developmental abilities. The need for
educators to individualize and adopt appropriate academic expectations appears to be
most relevant for children at the first-grade level.

Kohlberg’s stage theory of moral development can be used as a guide by educators and
parents alike while teaching their children the appropriate values to live in harmony with
others and with society.

Kohlberg’s theory will help them to formulate the right methodology when it comes to
moral education which will lead to great effectiveness and efficiency in moral education,
with great gains to society as well as the individual.

Thus stage theories have helped educators to formulate the right methodology suitable
for the age of the students in cognitive, social and moral fields.