RESEARCH METHODOLOGY

1. Briefly describe the steps in research process.

The research process involves the following steps:

1. Defining the research problem: This step involves identifying and defining the
research question or problem that needs to be addressed.
2. Conducting a literature review: This step involves reviewing existing literature to
gain an understanding of the existing research on the topic.
3. Formulating a hypothesis: Based on the literature review and initial observations,
a hypothesis is formulated that can be tested.
4. Designing the research study: The research design specifies the methods and
procedures that will be used to collect and analyze data to test the hypothesis.
5. Collecting data: Data can be collected through various methods such as surveys,
experiments, observations, and interviews.
6. Analyzing data: The collected data is analyzed using statistical or qualitative
methods to test the hypothesis.
7. Drawing conclusions: Based on the results of the data analysis, conclusions are
drawn about the hypothesis.
8. Communicating findings: The final step involves presenting the findings of the
research in a clear and concise manner through publications, presentations, or
reports.

2. What do you understand by Research? Explain its importance

Research is a systematic process of investigation that involves collecting and analyzing

data in order to answer a question or solve a problem. Research can be conducted using
various methods, including experiments, surveys, observations, and interviews.

The importance of research is multi-faceted. Here are some key points:

1. Advancement of knowledge: Research is critical to advancing knowledge in

various fields, including science, medicine, social sciences, and humanities.
 Research generates new ideas, theories, and discoveries that can lead to better
understanding and progress.
2. Development of new products and services: Research plays a critical role in the
development of new products and services. By conducting research, companies
can gather insights into customer needs and preferences, and develop new
products or services that better meet those needs.
3. Improvement of existing products and services: Research can also be used to
improve existing products and services. By gathering feedback from customers
and analyzing data on product usage, companies can identify areas for
improvement and make changes that enhance the customer experience.
4. Policy-making: Research is critical to policy-making in various areas such as
education, healthcare, and public policy. By conducting research, policymakers
can gather evidence-based information that helps inform policy decisions.
5. Personal growth and development: Research can also be used for personal
growth and development. By conducting research on topics of personal interest,
individuals can learn more about a subject, develop critical thinking skills, and
gain a deeper understanding of the world around them.

Overall, research is an essential tool for advancing knowledge, solving problems, and
driving progress in various fields.

3. Give difference between Research and Research Methodology.

Research refers to the systematic process of investigation that involves collecting and analyzing data
in order to answer a question or solve a problem. It is the broad concept of inquiry that includes
various techniques, tools, and methods used to investigate a problem or issue.

Research methodology, on the other hand, refers to the overall strategy or plan for conducting
research. It encompasses the various methods and techniques that are used to collect and analyze
data, as well as the underlying principles and assumptions that guide the research process.

In other words, research methodology is the framework or blueprint that outlines the steps and
procedures for conducting research. It includes the following elements:

1. Research design: This refers to the overall plan or strategy for conducting the research.
 2. Data collection methods: This refers to the specific techniques used to gather data, such as
surveys, experiments, interviews, or observations.
3. Sampling methods: This refers to the techniques used to select participants or samples for
the study.
4. Data analysis methods: This refers to the specific techniques used to analyze the data, such
as statistical analysis or qualitative analysis.

In summary, research is the broad concept of inquiry, while research methodology is the specific plan
or strategy for conducting research. Research methodology guides the researcher in selecting
appropriate methods and techniques for data collection and analysis, and ensures that the research
is conducted in a systematic and rigorous manner.

4. Give difference between Probability and Non-Probability Sampling

Probability sampling and non-probability sampling are two different techniques used to
select participants for a research study. The main difference between them is in the way
they select participants and the likelihood of each participant being selected for the
study.

Probability sampling refers to a sampling technique where each member of the

population has a known and equal chance of being selected for the study. This means
that every member of the population has an equal probability of being selected, and the
sample is selected randomly. Probability sampling techniques include simple random
sampling, stratified random sampling, and cluster sampling. Probability sampling is
preferred when the goal is to achieve a representative sample of the population and to
make statistical inferences about the population based on the sample.

Non-probability sampling, on the other hand, refers to a sampling technique where the
chance of each member of the population being selected for the study is not known or
equal. In non-probability sampling, the sample is selected based on non-random
criteria, such as convenience, availability, or the judgment of the researcher. Non-
probability sampling techniques include purposive sampling, snowball sampling, and
quota sampling. Non-probability sampling is preferred when the goal is to select a
specific group of participants or when it is not feasible or practical to use probability
sampling.

In summary, probability sampling is a technique where each member of the population

has an equal chance of being selected, while non-probability sampling is a technique
where the chance of each member being selected is not known or equal. Probability
sampling is preferred when the goal is to achieve a representative sample of the
population, while non-probability sampling is preferred when the goal is to select a
specific group of participants or when probability sampling is not feasible.

5. Explain the difference between Null Hypothesis and Alternative Hypothesis.

In hypothesis testing, the null hypothesis and alternative hypothesis are two opposing
statements used to determine whether a research hypothesis is supported by the data.

The null hypothesis (H0) is a statement that suggests that there is no significant
difference between two groups or no relationship between two variables. It is the
default position or assumption that is made before any data is collected or analyzed.
The null hypothesis is often stated as "there is no significant difference" or "there is no
relationship" between the variables being studied. In hypothesis testing, the null
hypothesis is tested against the alternative hypothesis to determine whether there is
sufficient evidence to reject or fail to reject the null hypothesis.

The alternative hypothesis (Ha) is a statement that suggests that there is a significant
difference between two groups or a relationship between two variables. It is the
hypothesis that the researcher wants to support, and it is typically the opposite of the
null hypothesis. The alternative hypothesis is often stated as "there is a significant
difference" or "there is a relationship" between the variables being studied. In
hypothesis testing, the alternative hypothesis is tested against the null hypothesis to
determine whether there is sufficient evidence to reject the null hypothesis in favor of
the alternative hypothesis.

In summary, the null hypothesis and alternative hypothesis are two opposing statements
used in hypothesis testing. The null hypothesis suggests that there is no significant
difference or relationship, while the alternative hypothesis suggests that there is a
significant difference or relationship. Hypothesis testing involves testing the null
hypothesis against the alternative hypothesis to determine whether there is sufficient
evidence to support the alternative hypothesis.
 6.Explain in detail Type I Error and Type II Error.

Type I error and Type II error are two types of errors that can occur in hypothesis
testing.

Type I Error: Type I error occurs when the null hypothesis is rejected when it is actually
true. In other words, it occurs when the researcher concludes that there is a significant
difference or relationship between two variables when in reality, there is no such
difference or relationship. This error is also known as a false positive. The probability of
making a Type I error is denoted by alpha (α) and is typically set at 0.05 or 0.01 in most
research studies.

For example, suppose a researcher is testing the effectiveness of a new drug and
concludes that the drug is effective in treating a particular condition when, in fact, the
drug is not effective. This conclusion would be a Type I error because the null hypothesis
(i.e., the drug is not effective) was rejected when it was actually true.

Type II Error: Type II error occurs when the null hypothesis is not rejected when it is
actually false. In other words, it occurs when the researcher concludes that there is no
significant difference or relationship between two variables when in reality, there is such
a difference or relationship. This error is also known as a false negative. The probability
of making a Type II error is denoted by beta (β).

For example, suppose a researcher is testing the effectiveness of a new drug and
concludes that the drug is not effective in treating a particular condition when, in fact,
the drug is effective. This conclusion would be a Type II error because the null
hypothesis (i.e., the drug is not effective) was not rejected when it was actually false.

In summary, Type I error occurs when the null hypothesis is rejected when it is actually
true, while Type II error occurs when the null hypothesis is not rejected when it is
actually false. Both types of errors can have serious consequences in research, and it is
important for researchers to control the probability of making these errors by choosing
appropriate sample sizes, conducting power analyses, and using appropriate statistical
tests.

6. What are the criteria of a good research?

A good research study should meet the following criteria:

1. Significance: The research should be relevant and significant to the field of study,
addressing a research question or problem that has practical, theoretical or social
importance.
2. Clear objective: The research should have a clearly defined objective, with specific
research questions or hypotheses that are testable and relevant to the research
problem.
3. Methodological soundness: The research should be based on a rigorous and
appropriate methodology that is suitable for the research questions or
hypotheses and can produce reliable and valid data.
4. Validity: The research should produce results that are valid and accurate, with
measures that accurately capture the phenomena being studied.
5. Reliability: The research should be consistent and replicable, with methods that
can be repeated by other researchers to produce similar results.
6. Ethical considerations: The research should follow ethical guidelines and
procedures to ensure that the rights and welfare of participants are protected,
and the research is conducted with integrity.
7. Generalizability: The research should have findings that can be generalized to the
larger population beyond the study sample, with conclusions that are supported
by the data.
8. Clear presentation: The research should be presented in a clear and organized
manner, with results that are easily understood by readers, and a discussion that
draws conclusions and implications from the findings.
9. Contribution: The research should make a meaningful contribution to the field of
study, by extending knowledge, challenging assumptions, or offering new
perspectives or applications.

In summary, a good research study should be significant, clear, methodologically sound,

valid, reliable, ethical, generalizable, well-presented, and make a meaningful
contribution to the field.

8.Give difference between Primary and Secondary Data.

Primary data and secondary data are two types of data used in research studies. The main differences
between primary and secondary data are:
 1. Definition: Primary data is the original data collected by the researcher for a specific research
purpose, while secondary data is the data that is collected by someone else or for some
other purpose, and is subsequently used by the researcher.
2. Collection Method: Primary data is collected through methods such as surveys, experiments,
observation, interviews, and focus groups, while secondary data is collected from sources
such as published literature, government reports, company records, and online databases.
3. Cost: Primary data collection can be expensive and time-consuming, while secondary data is
usually cheaper and more readily available.
4. Control: Primary data provides the researcher with greater control over the data collection
process, while secondary data may be less reliable or subject to bias because it was collected
by someone else.
5. Originality: Primary data is original and unique to the research study, while secondary data is
often used by multiple researchers for various purposes.
6. Context: Primary data is collected within a specific research context, while secondary data
may not necessarily be relevant to the specific research questions or hypotheses.

In summary, primary data is original data collected by the researcher for a specific research purpose,
while secondary data is data collected by someone else or for some other purpose and subsequently
used by the researcher.

9. Explain in detail the types of Research

Research can be defined as a systematic investigation of a particular subject matter to

gain new knowledge or insights about it. It involves collecting and analyzing data, and
drawing conclusions from that data. Research can be classified into different types
based on the purpose, nature, scope, and methods used in conducting the study. In this
answer, we will discuss the main types of research:

1. Descriptive Research: This type of research is used to describe the characteristics

of a particular phenomenon or group of people without influencing or changing
it. It involves collecting data through surveys, observations, or interviews and
presenting it in a descriptive form. The aim of descriptive research is to provide a
detailed picture of the research subject.
2. Exploratory Research: This type of research is used to explore a particular
phenomenon or subject matter where there is limited information or no existing
theory. It involves collecting preliminary data through interviews, focus groups, or
observation and analyzing it to gain insights into the research subject. The aim of
exploratory research is to formulate hypotheses or identify research questions for
further investigation.
 3. Explanatory Research: This type of research is used to explain the relationship
between two or more variables. It involves collecting data through experiments,
surveys, or observations and analyzing it to establish causal relationships. The aim
of explanatory research is to determine why and how certain phenomena occur.
4. Correlational Research: This type of research is used to determine the relationship
between two or more variables without establishing causality. It involves
collecting data through surveys, observations, or experiments and analyzing it to
determine the degree of association between the variables. The aim of
correlational research is to identify patterns of association between variables.
5. Experimental Research: This type of research is used to test a hypothesis or to
establish causality between two or more variables. It involves manipulating one
variable while keeping all other variables constant, and then measuring the effect
of the manipulation on the dependent variable. The aim of experimental research
is to determine cause and effect relationships.
6. Cross-Sectional Research: This type of research is used to collect data from a
sample of individuals at a specific point in time. It involves collecting data
through surveys or observations and analyzing it to draw conclusions about the
research subject. The aim of cross-sectional research is to provide a snapshot of a
particular phenomenon at a specific point in time.
7. Longitudinal Research: This type of research is used to collect data from a sample
of individuals over a period of time. It involves collecting data through surveys or
observations at different time points and analyzing it to draw conclusions about
the research subject. The aim of longitudinal research is to identify patterns of
change over time.

In conclusion, researchers use different types of research depending on the research

question, the nature of the phenomenon under investigation, and the methods used to
collect and analyze data. Each type of research has its strengths and weaknesses and
may be more suitable for some research questions than others.

10. What are the problems encountered by Researchers in India?

Researchers in India face several challenges that can hinder their ability to conduct
research effectively. Here are some of the main problems encountered by researchers in
India:
 1. Lack of Funding: One of the biggest challenges faced by researchers in India is
the lack of funding. Most research funding comes from the government, and
there is often a shortage of funds for research projects. This lack of funding
makes it difficult for researchers to conduct large-scale studies or to purchase
equipment and resources needed for their research.
2. Limited Infrastructure: The infrastructure for research in India is limited, especially
in rural areas. Laboratories and research facilities are often inadequate, and there
is a lack of access to modern equipment and technology. This can hinder
researchers' ability to conduct research in certain areas.
3. Poor Quality Data: The quality of data collected in India is often poor, which can
be a major challenge for researchers. This can be due to a lack of resources for
data collection or poor training of data collectors. Poor quality data can lead to
inaccurate research findings and can undermine the credibility of research
studies.
4. Lack of Collaboration: Researchers in India often work in isolation and may not
have access to a network of colleagues with whom they can collaborate. This can
limit their ability to share ideas, exchange knowledge, and develop new research
projects.
5. Bureaucratic Challenges: Researchers in India often face bureaucratic hurdles in
obtaining research permissions and approvals. The process can be time-
consuming and can delay research projects.
6. Limited Access to Literature: Access to scientific literature and research articles is
often limited in India, especially for researchers working in smaller institutions or
universities. This can limit their ability to stay up-to-date on the latest research
and to conduct comprehensive literature reviews.
7. Ethical Concerns: Ethical issues can arise when conducting research in India,
especially in areas such as clinical trials or studies involving vulnerable
populations. Researchers must navigate complex ethical guidelines and
regulations to ensure that their research is conducted ethically and with respect
for participants' rights.

In conclusion, researchers in India face a range of challenges that can limit their ability
to conduct research effectively. Addressing these challenges will require a commitment
from government, universities, and research institutions to invest in infrastructure,
training, and support for researchers.
 11. What is Research Problem?

A research problem is a statement or question that identifies an area of concern or

uncertainty in a field of study that requires investigation. It is a gap in knowledge or
understanding that needs to be addressed through research. A research problem usually
arises from the observation of a real-world phenomenon, a theoretical framework, or a
practical concern that has not been adequately explained or resolved.

A research problem should be clear, specific, and well-defined to guide the research
process effectively. It should provide a focus for the research, identify the key research
questions, and guide the selection of appropriate research methods. A well-defined
research problem also ensures that the research study remains relevant, feasible, and
meaningful.

There are several ways to identify a research problem. Some of these include:

1. Reviewing the Literature: Conducting a thorough review of existing literature can

help identify gaps in knowledge or areas where further research is needed.
2. Observing Real-World Phenomena: Observing and analyzing real-world
phenomena can help identify areas of concern or uncertainty that require further
investigation.
3. Talking to Experts: Talking to experts in a particular field can help identify areas of
research that are currently of interest or require further investigation.
4. Examining Theory: Examining theories and conceptual frameworks can help
identify areas where further research is needed to test or refine the theory.

In conclusion, a research problem is a statement or question that identifies a gap in

knowledge or understanding that requires investigation. It is an important first step in
the research process and serves as a guide for the selection of appropriate research
methods and the collection and analysis of data.

12. Explain the types of Variables with examples.

Variables are key components of any research study. They are characteristics or
attributes that can vary or change in a study, and they are used to describe or explain a
phenomenon. There are different types of variables, including:
 1. Independent Variables: Independent variables are the variables that are
manipulated or changed in a study to observe their effect on the dependent
variable. They are also known as explanatory or predictor variables. For example,
in a study on the effects of exercise on weight loss, the independent variable is
exercise, and the researcher may manipulate the frequency or intensity of
exercise to observe its effect on weight loss.
2. Dependent Variables: Dependent variables are the variables that are measured or
observed to determine the effect of the independent variable. They are also
known as outcome or response variables. In the same example, weight loss is the
dependent variable, and the researcher measures the amount of weight loss to
observe the effect of exercise.
3. Confounding Variables: Confounding variables are variables that can affect the
relationship between the independent and dependent variables. They can create
an alternative explanation for the results of a study. For example, in a study on
the effects of exercise on weight loss, age, gender, or diet can be confounding
variables that affect weight loss, independent of exercise.
4. Control Variables: Control variables are variables that are kept constant in a study
to isolate the effect of the independent variable. They are used to ensure that any
changes in the dependent variable are due to the independent variable and not
other variables. For example, in a study on the effects of exercise on weight loss,
the researcher may control for age, gender, and diet to isolate the effect of
exercise.
5. Continuous Variables: Continuous variables are variables that can take any value
within a given range. They are also known as quantitative variables. Examples
include height, weight, and age.
6. Categorical Variables: Categorical variables are variables that can be divided into
categories or groups. They are also known as qualitative variables. Examples
include gender, race, and occupation.
7. Nominal Variables: Nominal variables are categorical variables where the
categories have no intrinsic order or value. Examples include gender, ethnicity,
and religion.
8. Ordinal Variables: Ordinal variables are categorical variables where the categories
have an inherent order or value. Examples include socioeconomic status,
educational level, and job hierarchy.

In conclusion, understanding the different types of variables is essential for designing

and conducting a research study effectively. By identifying and controlling for different
types of variables, researchers can ensure the validity and reliability of their findings.
 13. Differentiate between Questionnaire and Schedule

A questionnaire and a schedule are both research tools used to collect data from study
participants, but they differ in some key ways.

1. Definition: A questionnaire is a set of standardized questions designed to obtain

information from study participants, while a schedule is a form used to record
information about the participant, such as demographic information or medical
history.
2. Content: A questionnaire typically consists of a series of closed-ended questions
that ask the participant to select from a list of pre-determined responses, while a
schedule usually consists of open-ended questions that require the participant to
provide detailed responses.
3. Structure: A questionnaire is usually structured in a standardized format, with the
questions presented in a fixed order, while a schedule is often more flexible,
allowing the interviewer to ask questions in a more natural and conversational
way.
4. Administration: A questionnaire is usually self-administered by the participant,
while a schedule is usually administered by an interviewer or researcher.
5. Purpose: A questionnaire is typically used to gather information about attitudes,
beliefs, opinions, and behaviors, while a schedule is typically used to gather
information about the characteristics and history of the participant.
6. Time: Questionnaires are usually completed in one sitting, while schedules may
require multiple sessions or follow-up appointments to complete.

In summary, while both questionnaires and schedules are used to collect data, they
differ in terms of their content, structure, administration, and purpose. Questionnaires
are typically used to collect information about attitudes and behaviors, while schedules
are used to gather information about the characteristics and history of the participant.

14. “Research Design in exploratory studies must be flexible but in descriptive studies, it must
minimize bias and maximize reliability.” Discuss

Exploratory studies and descriptive studies are two different types of research designs that serve
different purposes. In exploratory studies, researchers aim to gain a better understanding of a
research problem or phenomenon, often with limited prior knowledge or information. On the other
hand, descriptive studies aim to describe and measure a specific phenomenon, behavior, or
population.

In exploratory studies, the research design must be flexible because the research problem or
question may not be well-defined, and the researcher may need to explore different avenues to gain
insights into the phenomenon. This flexibility allows the researcher to adapt the study as new
information emerges, and to change the research direction if needed. The researcher may use a
variety of data collection methods, such as interviews, surveys, focus groups, or observations, to
explore the phenomenon from different perspectives.

In contrast, in descriptive studies, the research design must minimize bias and maximize reliability to
ensure that the results accurately reflect the phenomenon being studied. Descriptive studies typically
have a well-defined research question and hypothesis, and the researcher aims to measure and
describe the phenomenon as accurately as possible. The researcher needs to carefully select the
study sample, define the variables, and choose appropriate data collection methods to minimize bias
and maximize reliability.

To minimize bias in descriptive studies, the researcher may use random sampling to ensure that the
study sample is representative of the population being studied. The researcher may also use
standardized data collection methods, such as questionnaires or structured interviews, to ensure that
all participants are asked the same questions in the same way. Additionally, the researcher may use
statistical methods to analyze the data and control for potential confounding variables.

In summary, the research design in exploratory studies must be flexible to allow the researcher to
explore different avenues to gain insights into the research problem. In descriptive studies, the
research design must minimize bias and maximize reliability to ensure that the results accurately
reflect the phenomenon being studied.

15. What is Research Design? Discuss the basis ofstratification to be employed in sampling public
opinion on inflation.

Research design refers to the overall plan or strategy used to conduct a research study,
including the selection of the research problem, research question, data collection
methods, and data analysis techniques. A well-designed research study should be able
to answer the research question accurately, efficiently, and ethically.

Sampling is an important aspect of research design, particularly in studies that involve

public opinion research. Stratified sampling is a technique that involves dividing the
population into subgroups, or strata, based on certain characteristics, and then selecting
a sample from each stratum to ensure that the sample is representative of the
population being studied. In the case of sampling public opinion on inflation, the
following stratification could be employed:

1. Geographical Stratification: The population could be stratified by geographic

location, such as urban and rural areas, to ensure that the sample is
representative of the population in terms of location.
2. Socioeconomic Stratification: The population could be stratified by
socioeconomic status, such as income or education level, to ensure that the
sample is representative of the population in terms of socioeconomic diversity.
3. Age Stratification: The population could be stratified by age groups, such as 18-
24, 25-34, 35-44, and so on, to ensure that the sample is representative of the
population in terms of age diversity.
4. Gender Stratification: The population could be stratified by gender, to ensure that
the sample is representative of the population in terms of gender diversity.
5. Ethnic Stratification: The population could be stratified by ethnicity or race, to
ensure that the sample is representative of the population in terms of ethnic
diversity.

By employing stratified sampling, the researcher can increase the representativeness of

the sample, reduce sampling error, and increase the accuracy of the results. The
researcher can also ensure that the sample is balanced in terms of the important
characteristics that are likely to affect public opinion on inflation.

16. What are the features of a good research design?

A good research design should have the following features:

1. Clarity of purpose: The research design should clearly define the research
problem, research question, and research objectives. This will help to ensure that
the research is focused and that the results obtained are meaningful.
2. Validity: The research design should be valid, meaning that it should measure
what it intends to measure. The researcher should use appropriate research
methods, techniques, and instruments to ensure that the results are accurate and
reliable.
3. Reliability: The research design should be reliable, meaning that the results
should be consistent and reproducible. The researcher should use appropriate
statistical analysis techniques to ensure that the results are reliable.
 4. Feasibility: The research design should be feasible, meaning that it should be
practical and achievable within the available resources and time frame. The
researcher should consider the availability of resources, such as funding,
equipment, and personnel, when designing the research.
5. Ethics: The research design should be ethical, meaning that it should be
conducted in an ethical and responsible manner, and that the rights and privacy
of research participants are protected. The researcher should obtain informed
consent from participants, and adhere to ethical guidelines and standards.
6. Generalizability: The research design should aim for generalizability, meaning that
the results obtained from the sample should be applicable to the larger
population. The researcher should use appropriate sampling methods to ensure
that the sample is representative of the population being studied.
7. Flexibility: The research design should be flexible, meaning that it should be able
to adapt to changes in the research environment or circumstances. The
researcher should be prepared to modify the research design as needed to
address unexpected challenges or new information.

In summary, a good research design should have a clear purpose, be valid, reliable,
feasible, ethical, aim for generalizability, and be flexible enough to adapt to changes.

17.What is Sample Design? What are the main steps of sampling design?

Sample design refers to the process of selecting a representative group, or sample, from
a larger population for the purpose of research. A well-designed sample can improve
the accuracy, reliability, and generalizability of research results.

The main steps of sample design are as follows:

1. Define the Population: The first step in sample design is to define the population
of interest. The population refers to the entire group of individuals, objects, or
events that the researcher wishes to study.
2. Determine the Sampling Frame: The sampling frame is a list or inventory of all the
members of the population that are accessible to the researcher. The sampling
frame should be comprehensive, up-to-date, and accurate.
3. Choose the Sampling Method: There are different sampling methods, including
probability sampling and non-probability sampling. Probability sampling
methods ensure that every member of the population has an equal chance of
 being selected, while non-probability sampling methods do not guarantee equal
representation.
4. Determine the Sample Size: The sample size refers to the number of participants
or objects that will be included in the sample. The sample size should be large
enough to ensure representativeness and statistical power, but not so large that
it becomes impractical or costly.
5. Select the Sample: Once the sampling method and sample size have been
determined, the researcher can select the sample. In probability sampling
methods, the researcher uses random selection to ensure that every member of
the population has an equal chance of being selected. In non-probability
sampling methods, the researcher may use a variety of techniques, such as
purposive sampling or snowball sampling, to select the sample.
6. Verify the Sample: After the sample has been selected, the researcher should
verify that it is representative of the population in terms of relevant
characteristics. This can be done by comparing the sample characteristics to
those of the population or by conducting statistical tests.

Overall, the main steps of sample design include defining the population, determining
the sampling frame, choosing the sampling method, determining the sample size,
selecting the sample, and verifying the sample. These steps can help to ensure that the
sample is representative and that the research results are accurate and reliable.

18. Explain in detail Probability and Non-Probability Sampling.

Probability Sampling:

Probability sampling is a method of selecting a sample from a population in which every

member of the population has an equal chance of being selected. It involves random
selection, which means that each member of the population is assigned a number, and a
random number generator is used to select participants from the population. Probability
sampling methods are preferred over non-probability sampling methods because they
allow the researcher to make statistical inferences about the population based on the
sample data. There are four types of probability sampling:

1. Simple random sampling: In simple random sampling, each member of the

population has an equal chance of being selected. For example, if a researcher is
conducting a study on the opinions of students on a particular issue, they could
 assign a unique identification number to each student and then use a random
number generator to select a sample of students.
2. Stratified random sampling: In stratified random sampling, the population is
divided into subgroups, or strata, based on a particular characteristic, such as age
or gender. The sample is then randomly selected from each stratum in proportion
to the population size of the stratum.
3. Cluster sampling: In cluster sampling, the population is divided into clusters, or
groups, based on geography or other criteria. The researcher then randomly
selects clusters, and all members of the selected clusters are included in the
sample.
4. Systematic sampling: In systematic sampling, the researcher selects every nth
member of the population after the first member is selected at random. For
example, if the researcher wants a sample of 100 participants from a population
of 1,000, they would select every 10th participant.

Non-Probability Sampling:

Non-probability sampling is a method of selecting a sample from a population in which

not every member of the population has an equal chance of being selected. It is often
used when probability sampling is not feasible or practical. Non-probability sampling
methods are less reliable than probability sampling methods because they are subject to
bias and may not be representative of the population. There are several types of non-
probability sampling:

1. Convenience sampling: Convenience sampling involves selecting participants who

are easily accessible or available. For example, a researcher conducting a study on
the attitudes of shoppers in a mall might approach shoppers who are willing to
participate in the study.
2. Quota sampling: Quota sampling involves selecting participants based on pre-
determined quotas or targets for particular characteristics, such as age or gender.
For example, a researcher might want to ensure that the sample includes an
equal number of men and women.
3. Purposive sampling: Purposive sampling involves selecting participants based on
a specific purpose or criterion, such as including individuals with a particular
experience or expertise. For example, a researcher conducting a study on the
experiences of cancer survivors might purposively sample individuals who have
undergone cancer treatment.
4. Snowball sampling: Snowball sampling involves selecting participants through
referrals from other participants. For example, a researcher conducting a study on
illegal drug use might ask a participant to refer others who use drugs.
In conclusion, probability sampling involves random selection and every member of the
population has an equal chance of being selected, while non-probability sampling
methods involve non-random selection and not every member of the population has an
equal chance of being selected. Probability sampling methods are preferred because
they allow for statistical inferences about the population based on the sample data,
while non-probability sampling methods are often used when probability sampling is
not feasible or practical.

19. Describe qualitative and quantitative measures with examples.

Qualitative and quantitative measures are two broad categories of research methods
used to collect and analyze data in different fields of study.

Qualitative measures involve collecting non-numerical data, such as opinions,

observations, and narratives, to explore subjective experiences and meanings. They are
often used in fields such as social sciences, anthropology, psychology, and education.
Here are some examples of qualitative measures:

1. Interviews: Researchers conduct face-to-face, phone or online interviews to

collect in-depth information from participants about their experiences, attitudes,
and beliefs.
2. Focus Groups: A group of people is brought together to discuss a particular topic
in depth, to generate ideas, and to collect opinions on a specific issue.
3. Case studies: A researcher examines a single individual, group, or organization in
detail to gain insight into a particular phenomenon.
4. Ethnography: A researcher lives among the participants of a culture or social
group for an extended period, observing and documenting their daily activities,
beliefs, and practices.

Quantitative measures, on the other hand, involve collecting numerical data through
structured questionnaires, surveys, or experiments to examine patterns, relationships,
and cause-and-effect relationships. They are often used in fields such as economics,
medicine, engineering, and natural sciences. Here are some examples of quantitative
measures:
 1. Surveys: Researchers use questionnaires to collect data from a large number of
participants in a structured manner. The data collected is numerical and can be
analyzed using statistical methods.
2. Experiments: Researchers manipulate one or more variables and observe the
effects on another variable while controlling for extraneous variables.
3. Observational studies: Researchers observe and record the behavior of
participants in natural settings or laboratory settings and collect numerical data.
4. Statistical analysis: Researchers use statistical techniques to analyze data
collected from surveys, experiments, or observational studies to draw
conclusions.

In conclusion, qualitative measures involve collecting non-numerical data to explore

subjective experiences and meanings, while quantitative measures involve collecting
numerical data through structured questionnaires, surveys, or experiments to examine
patterns, relationships, and cause-and-effect relationships. Both qualitative and
quantitative measures have their own strengths and limitations and are used in different
fields of study depending on the research questions and goals.

20. Discuss the four types of measurement scales.

Measurement scales are used to quantify and categorize variables in research. There are
four main types of measurement scales:

1. Nominal Scale: A nominal scale is the simplest type of measurement scale. It

categorizes data into distinct groups or classes based on characteristics or
attributes. Examples of nominal scales include gender (male or female), ethnicity
(Caucasian, African American, Hispanic, etc.), or political affiliation (Republican,
Democrat, Independent, etc.). Nominal scales have no inherent order or
magnitude, and it is not meaningful to compare the values of different categories
or rank them.
2. Ordinal Scale: An ordinal scale orders data based on relative positions or
rankings. It represents the ranking of variables in order from highest to lowest.
Examples of ordinal scales include educational level (high school, associate
degree, bachelor's degree, master's degree, etc.), socioeconomic status (low,
middle, high), or military rank (private, sergeant, captain, general). However,
ordinal scales do not indicate the size of the intervals between the rankings, and
they may not have equal distance between the categories.
 3. Interval Scale: An interval scale measures data on a linear scale with equal
intervals between adjacent values. Examples of interval scales include
temperature measured in Celsius or Fahrenheit, IQ scores, and standardized test
scores. On an interval scale, the distance between any two points is equal, but
there is no true zero point. Therefore, it is not possible to say that one value is
twice or half of another value.
4. Ratio Scale: A ratio scale is the most informative and advanced measurement
scale. It has all the features of an interval scale, but it also has a true zero point,
meaning that a value of zero indicates the complete absence of the variable
being measured. Examples of ratio scales include height, weight, distance, or
time. On a ratio scale, it is possible to compare values in terms of ratios, such as
one value being twice or half of another value.

21. What are the techniques of measurement scales

There are different techniques of measurement scales used to assign numbers or scores to variables
in research. The four main techniques of measurement scales are:

1. Nominal Technique: The nominal technique is the simplest measurement technique. It

involves assigning numerical values to categories or labels. For example, assigning the value
1 to "male" and 2 to "female" in a study on gender.
2. Ordinal Technique: The ordinal technique involves assigning numerical values to data based
on their order or ranking. For example, assigning the value 1 to "low," 2 to "medium," and 3
to "high" for a study on income levels.
3. Interval Technique: The interval technique involves assigning numerical values to data based
on equal intervals between them, but without a true zero point. For example, assigning
temperature in Celsius or Fahrenheit.
4. Ratio Technique: The ratio technique involves assigning numerical values to data based on
equal intervals between them, and with a true zero point. For example, assigning weight,
height, or time.

In addition to these four techniques, there are also different scales used in research, such as Likert
scales, semantic differential scales, and visual analog scales. These scales allow participants to rate or
score their responses on a range of values, such as from strongly disagree to strongly agree, or from
low satisfaction to high satisfaction.

Overall, the choice of technique or scale depends on the nature of the data being collected and the
research question. It is important to choose a valid and reliable technique or scale to ensure accurate
and meaningful results.
 22. Explain the Itemized Rating Scale

An itemized rating scale is a measurement scale that is commonly used in surveys and
questionnaires to gather data from participants. It involves a set of statements or items,
each of which is rated by the participant on a scale. The ratings are then used to
quantify and compare the responses of different participants.

The itemized rating scale typically consists of a set of statements or items that the
participant is asked to evaluate. These items can be in the form of questions, statements,
or adjectives. For example, a study on customer satisfaction may ask participants to rate
their level of satisfaction with a product or service on a scale of 1 to 5, with 1 indicating
"very dissatisfied" and 5 indicating "very satisfied."

The itemized rating scale can take different forms, such as:

1. Likert Scale: The Likert scale is one of the most commonly used itemized rating
scales. It involves a series of statements that the participant rates on a 5-point or
7-point scale, ranging from strongly agree to strongly disagree.
2. Semantic Differential Scale: The semantic differential scale involves a series of
bipolar adjectives that the participant rates on a scale, such as from "cold" to
"hot," "good" to "bad," or "friendly" to "unfriendly."
3. Visual Analog Scale: The visual analog scale involves a line with anchors at the
ends, such as "not at all satisfied" at one end and "completely satisfied" at the
other end. The participant marks their response on the line.

The itemized rating scale is a reliable and valid way of measuring attitudes, opinions,
and perceptions. However, it is important to ensure that the items are clear and
unambiguous, and that the scale used is appropriate for the data being collected.

23. What are the methods of collecting Primary and Secondary Data?

There are several methods for collecting primary and secondary data in research.

Methods of collecting Primary Data:

1. Surveys: Surveys involve collecting data from a sample of participants using questionnaires,
interviews, or online surveys. This method is often used to gather data on attitudes, opinions,
behaviors, and demographics.
2. Interviews: Interviews involve a one-on-one conversation between the researcher and the
participant. This method can be structured, semi-structured, or unstructured, and can be
conducted in person, over the phone, or online.

3. Observations: Observations involve watching and recording behaviors or events in a natural

or controlled setting. This method is often used in studies of human or animal behavior.

4. Experiments: Experiments involve manipulating one or more variables to observe the effect
on an outcome. This method is often used to establish cause-and-effect relationships between
variables.

Methods of collecting Secondary Data:

1. Literature Review: A literature review involves analyzing existing research studies, reports,
and publications to gather information on a topic of interest.

2. Government Publications: Government publications such as census data, economic indicators,

and health statistics can provide useful secondary data for research studies.

3. Company Reports: Company reports such as annual reports, financial reports, and marketing
reports can provide valuable secondary data for business and marketing studies.

4. Online Databases: Online databases such as JSTOR, ProQuest, and PubMed can provide access
to academic journals, books, and other publications.

The choice of method for collecting primary and secondary data depends on the research
question, the type of data being collected, and the resources available. It is important to choose
a reliable and valid method to ensure the accuracy and credibility of the data collected.

24. Why tabulation is considered essential in research study? Narrate the characteristics of a
good table.

Tabulation is an essential part of the research study as it helps to summarize, organize and
present the data collected in a clear and concise manner. It helps to provide a visual
representation of the data, making it easier for the researcher to analyze and interpret the
results.

The characteristics of a good table include:

1. Clarity: A good table should be clear and easy to understand, with a well-defined structure
and headings.

2. Simplicity: A good table should be simple and straightforward, avoiding unnecessary

complexity and confusing formatting.

3. Completeness: A good table should present all relevant data and information, including any
limitations or assumptions.

4. Accuracy: A good table should be accurate, with correct values, labels, and calculations.

5. Consistency: A good table should be consistent in its formatting, with consistent units,
symbols, and scales used throughout.

6. Appropriate Design: A good table should be designed to fit the research question and the type
of data being presented. The layout, format, and style should be appropriate for the purpose of
the table.

In summary, a good table should present the data in a clear, concise, and accurate manner, with
an appropriate design that fits the research question and type of data being presented. A well-
designed table can enhance the credibility and impact of a research study by providing an easily
accessible and understandable summary of the findings.

25. When is median preferred over mean to represent a set of values? Give example

Median is preferred over mean to represent a set of values when the data is skewed or contains
outliers. In such cases, the mean may not accurately represent the central tendency of the data
and may be heavily influenced by the extreme values. The median, on the other hand, is less
sensitive to outliers and represents the middle value in the dataset.

For example, let's consider the salaries of ten employees in a small company:

$30,000, $35,000, $40,000, $45,000, $50,000, $55,000, $60,000, $65,000, $70,000, $100,000

The mean of the above data is

(30,000+35,000+40,000+45,000+50,000+55,000+60,000+65,000+70,000+100,000)/10 =
$54,500. However, the value of $100,000 is an outlier and is significantly higher than the other
values. Therefore, the mean is not a good measure of central tendency for this dataset.
In this case, the median of the data is $52,500. This value is not significantly affected by the
outlier and provides a more accurate representation of the central tendency of the data. Thus,
the median is preferred over the mean in this case.

Therefore, the choice of whether to use the median or mean as a measure of central tendency
depends on the characteristics of the data and the research question being addressed.

26. Explain the requirement of a measure of dispersion.

A measure of dispersion is required in data analysis to provide information about the spread or
variability of the data. A measure of central tendency, such as mean or median, gives us an idea
about the typical or central value of the data set, but it does not tell us anything about how the
data is distributed around this central value.

Measures of dispersion help to provide information about the variability, or how much the data
points differ from each other. They provide insights into the consistency and stability of the data
set.

Some of the main reasons why measures of dispersion are important are:

1. To describe the variability in the data: Measures of dispersion allow us to describe how much
the data varies, which is important in understanding the characteristics of the data set.

2. To make inferences and draw conclusions: Measures of dispersion are useful in making
inferences and drawing conclusions from a data set. For example, if the data has a small
dispersion, it may be easier to generalize the findings to a larger population.

3. To compare data sets: Measures of dispersion are useful in comparing data sets. For example,
if two sets of data have the same mean, but one has a larger dispersion than the other, then the
data with the larger dispersion may be less consistent.

Some common measures of dispersion include range, interquartile range, variance, and
standard deviation. The choice of measure depends on the characteristics of the data and the
research question being addressed.

27. What is a Hypothesis? What characteristics it must possess in order to be a good research
hypothesis?
A hypothesis is a tentative statement or explanation that proposes a relationship between two
or more variables. It is a proposed explanation for a phenomenon that can be tested through
research.

A good research hypothesis should possess the following characteristics:

1. Testable: A hypothesis must be testable and verifiable through empirical research. This means
that it should be possible to collect data that can be used to either support or reject the
hypothesis.

2. Clear and specific: A hypothesis should be clear and specific in its statement and should be
easily understood by the readers.

3. Falsifiable: A good hypothesis should be falsifiable, meaning that it should be possible to find
evidence that contradicts the hypothesis. If a hypothesis cannot be falsified, it is not considered
to be a scientific hypothesis.

4. Relevant: A hypothesis should be relevant to the research question and should be based on a
sound understanding of the literature and previous research.

5. Logical: A hypothesis should be logically consistent with the existing theories and empirical
evidence.

6. Parsimonious: A hypothesis should be simple and concise, without unnecessary complexities

or assumptions.

7. Based on empirical evidence: A hypothesis should be based on empirical evidence and not
just on speculation or personal beliefs.

In summary, a good research hypothesis should be testable, clear and specific, falsifiable,
relevant, logical, parsimonious, and based on empirical evidence. These characteristics ensure
that the hypothesis is scientifically sound and can be used to guide research investigations.

28. Explain Coding in Data Preparation process

Coding is an important step in the data preparation process, which involves assigning numerical
values or symbols to the responses or variables in a data set. The coding process makes it easier
to organize and analyze data, as it enables researchers to convert qualitative data into a
quantitative format that can be analyzed using statistical techniques.
The coding process typically involves the following steps:

1. Identifying the variables to be coded: This involves identifying the variables that are relevant
to the research question being investigated.

2. Developing a coding scheme: A coding scheme involves assigning a numerical code or symbol
to each possible response or value of a variable. For example, in a survey question asking
respondents to rate their satisfaction with a product on a scale of 1-5, the coding scheme might
assign a code of 1 for "very dissatisfied," 2 for "somewhat dissatisfied," 3 for "neutral," 4 for
"somewhat satisfied," and 5 for "very satisfied."

3. Preparing the data for coding: Before the coding process begins, the data should be cleaned
and organized to ensure that it is complete and accurate.

4. Coding the data: This involves assigning the codes or symbols from the coding scheme to the
corresponding responses or values of the variables in the data set.

5. Checking for errors: Once the data has been coded, it is important to check for errors or
inconsistencies in the coding. This can be done by double-checking the codes against the original
data and reviewing the data for any inconsistencies or outliers.

Overall, the coding process is an important step in the data preparation process that enables
researchers to organize and analyze data in a quantitative format. Proper coding can help
ensure that the data is accurate and can be used to answer the research questions being
investigated.

29. Explain the Measures of Central Tendency.

Measures of central tendency are statistical measures that provide information about the
typical or central value of a data set. The three most commonly used measures of central
tendency are:

1. Mean: The mean is the arithmetic average of a set of data. It is calculated by adding up all the
values in the data set and then dividing by the number of values. For example, the mean of the
numbers 1, 2, 3, 4, and 5 is (1+2+3+4+5)/5 = 3.

2. Median: The median is the middle value in a data set when the values are arranged in order
from lowest to highest (or highest to lowest). If there are an odd number of values, the median
is the middle value. If there are an even number of values, the median is the average of the two
middle values. For example, the median of the numbers 1, 2, 3, 4, and 5 is 3.
3. Mode: The mode is the value that appears most frequently in a data set. In some cases, a data
set may have more than one mode (i.e., two or more values that appear with the same
frequency). For example, in the set of numbers 1, 2, 2, 3, 4, 4, 4, and 5, the mode is 4.

Each of these measures of central tendency provides a different perspective on the typical value
of a data set, and each has its own strengths and limitations. The mean is a useful measure
when the data is normally distributed and does not contain outliers. The median is a useful
measure when the data contains outliers or is skewed. The mode is a useful measure when the
data contains discrete categories or when the frequency of values is important.

30. Explain the difference between Correlation and Regression Analysis

Correlation and regression analysis are two statistical techniques that are used to analyze the
relationship between variables. While these techniques are related, they have some important
differences.

Correlation analysis is used to measure the strength and direction of the relationship between
two variables. It is often represented by a correlation coefficient, which is a value between -1
and 1. A correlation coefficient of 0 indicates that there is no relationship between the two
variables, while a correlation coefficient of 1 or -1 indicates a perfect positive or negative
relationship, respectively. For example, a study might use correlation analysis to examine the
relationship between a person's age and their income.

Regression analysis, on the other hand, is used to model the relationship between two or more
variables. It involves fitting a regression line to a set of data points in order to make predictions
about the value of one variable based on the value of another variable. Regression analysis can
also be used to examine the relationship between multiple independent variables and a
dependent variable. For example, a study might use regression analysis to predict a person's
income based on their age, education level, and work experience.

While both correlation and regression analysis are used to analyze relationships between
variables, they have some important differences. Correlation analysis simply measures the
strength and direction of the relationship between two variables, while regression analysis
models the relationship and can be used to make predictions about one variable based on
another. Additionally, correlation analysis is typically used when both variables are continuous,
while regression analysis can be used with both continuous and categorical variables.