EARTH SCIENCES HANDOUT

Astronomy

literally means “the study of the stars”

Astronomers study the universe by investigating the origins, evolution, composition, motions, relative
positions, and sizes of celestial bodies.

Astrology

Group of systems, traditions, and beliefs which hold that the relative positions of celestial bodies and
related details can provide information about personality, human affairs, and other terrestrial matters.

practitioner --- astrologer

--- pseudoscience or superstition

THEORIES OF THE ORIGINS OF THE UNIVERSE

1. BIG-BANG THEORY

--- Edwin Hubble (1889-1953).

--- dense fireball called YLEM

--- describes the universe as having a definite beginning and definite end

--- this theory states that the universe started out of what is known as a singularity 13.7 billion years ago.

* Vesto M. Slipher (1912-1914)--- an astronomer discovered something which in one way or the other supports
the idea of the expanding universe

--- redshift in the color spectra of the 15 galaxies indicating one thing that the galaxies are moving away.

2 WEAKNESSES OF THE BIG-BANG THEORY

a. The theory could explain how the YLEM came to be.

b. The theory could not explain how the other elements in the universe were formed.

2. STEADY STATE THEORY

--- this theory was proposed by 3 scientists: Herman Bondi, Thomas Gold and Fred Hoyle

--- theory suggests that there is no beginning or end to the universe

--- theory asserts that matter is eternal

*Robert Dicke and his companions Wilson and Penzias (1965) an astrophysicists, support idea of the steady
state theory

--- radiations were remnants of the big bang and that they serve as the materials from which new galaxies and
stars are formed

WEAKNESS OF THE STEADY STATE THEORY

a. The theory violates the Law of conservation of matter and energy.

3. OSCILLATING UNIVERSE THEORY OR CYCLIC UNIVERSE THEORY

--- proposed by Fred Hoyle

--- birth of the universe is an evolutionary process

** Light Year (ly) ---- is defined as the distance which a beam of light travels in one year at the speed of 186,000
miles per second.

Examples:

1. The Alpha Centauri, the nearest star to our solar system is 4.3 light years away.

2. The sun is only 93,000,000 miles away from us. In light years, it is only 8 light minutes away from us.

GALAXIES (star system)

Edwin Hubble (1925) --- an American astronomer using 100 inch optical telescope at Mt. Wilson observatory
studied about 600 galaxies and classified them into 3 types:

1) Spiral Galaxies --- these types have arms which spiral out from the central disk.

TYPES OF SPIRAL GALAXIES

a) Sa

b) Sb

c) Sc

* Further investigations led him to discover that some spiral galaxies have a bar of stars that passes through the
central disk and the arms spiral from each end of the bar. The codes used in classifying barred spirals --- SBa, SBb,
SBc.

2) Elliptical Galaxies --- these have flat, circular shapes.

3) Irregular Galaxies --- these are galaxies which do not have symmetry or are shapeless.

* It is estimated that 75% of the galaxies composing the universe are spiral galaxies, 21% are elliptical and 4% are
irregular.

MILKY WAY GALAXY (OUR GALAXY)

--- 100 billion stars

--- sun located about 2/3 of the way from the center or the sun is located in one spiral arms around 30,000 light
years from the center

--- disk is about 100,000 light years in diameter and the center about 5,000 light years thick
---rotates counterclockwise

--- sun completes a revolution in 250 million years

1) Harlow Shapley --- discovered that the center of the milky is located in the region of the constellation
Sagittarius (archer) which can be seen in the southern sky during summer.

2) Galileo --- using a telescope in 1610 observed that Milky Way consisted of faint and distant stars.

3) Herschel and his son measured the altitude and distance of most stars in the Milky Way.

THE STARS AND CONSTELLATIONS

CONSTELLATIONS

--- are pattern of a star

--- arrangement suggested animals, gods and legendary heroes

Examples:

1. Ursa major --- great bear

2. Cygnus --- swan

3. Pegasus --- winged horse

4. Perseus --- slayer of monsters

5. Orion --- hunter

--- 88 constellations and 12 of which are the zodiac constellations

Stars: Birth, nature, and death

--- a self-luminous celestial body

--- mass of gas held together by its own gravity in which the energy generated by nuclear reactions in the interior

--- heavenly bodies with so much central heat and pressure that energy generated in their interiors by nuclear
reactions

Properties of stars

1. Distance

--- Friedrich Wilhelm Bessel

--- method is a simple process of triangulation called the parallax method

--- apparent change in the position of a star due to a change in the position of the observer is called parallax.
 Two things to be remembered in measuring the parallax of stars.

a. The farther away the star is, the smaller is the parallax angle formed.

b. The greater the change in the position of observer is, the bigger is the parallax angle formed.

--- using another unit called parsec (parallax per second)

--- parsec is the distance from the sun to an astronomical object which has a parallax angle of one arcsecond
(Parsec=1/sec). One parsec is equal to 3.26 ly or equal to 31 trillion Kilometers.

STAR PARALLAX ANGLE PARSEC LIGHT YEAR

(arcseconds)

Alpha Centauri 0.763 1.31 4.27

Proxima Centauri 0.752 1.33 4.34

Bernard star 0.545 1.83 5.67

Sirius 0.377 2.67 8.70

GI cygni 0.292 3.42 11.75

Kapteyn’s star 0.251 3.98 12.97

** Other than the Sun, which has a parallax of 90 degrees, there is no known star whose parallax is more than one
arcsecond (that is, there is no known star whose distance from Earth is less than one parsec). The next closest star
is Proxima Centauri with a parallax of 0.77 arcseconds; it is thus 1.31 parsec (4.27 ly) from Earth.

2. Magnitude --- refers to the brightness of stars.

A. Apparent Magnitude

--- brightness of a star as it appears to an observer on earth

--- Hipparchus --- Greek astronomer introduced a scheme of classifying stars according to their brightness as
magnitude 1,2,3,4,5, and 6.

 Magnitude 1 --- 2.5 times brighter than a star of magnitude 2.

 Magnitude 2 --- 2.5 times brighter than a star of magnitude 3.
 Magnitude 3 --- 2.5 times brighter than a star of magnitude 4.
 Magnitude 4 --- 2.5 times brighter than a star of magnitude 5.
 Magnitude 5 --- 2.5 times brighter than a star of magnitude 6.

Astronomer point out two reasons why the apparent brightness of stars vary:

a. first, their distance on earth vary;

b. second, stars actually differ in actual brightness.

B. Absolute Magnitude

--- brightness of a star would have when it is viewed at equal distance from other stars
--- standard distance is 10parsecs or 32.6 ly

--- instrument called photometer

COMPARATIVE APPARENT AND ABSOLUTE MAGNITUDES OF SOME STARS

STAR APPARENT ABSOLUTE MAGNITUDE DISTANCE (ly)

MAGNITUDE

Sirius -1.50 1.45 8.7

Vega 0.00 0.50 27

A. Centauri 0.01 4.39 4.3

Rigel 0.15 -7.10 900

Betelguese 0.40 -5.6 520

Anatares 0.92 -5.1 520

Castor 1.97 1.3 45

Capella 0.06 -0.6 45

Aldebaran 0.86 0.7 68

Sun -26.73 4.81 8 light minute

** Note that the lower apparent magnitude number is brighter than the higher apparent magnitude number. A
star with negative apparent magnitude number is brighter than those with positive apparent magnitude number.

3. Size

--- classified as supergiant, giant or dwarf --- brightness of stars.

4. Color and Temperature

--- may contain many different elements, but these elements do not determine the color of stars

--- most important factor that affects the color of stars is temperature.

--- red stars are relatively cool, and bluish-white stars have relatively high surface temperature

COLOR AND TEMPERATURE OF SOME STARS

STAR COLOR SURFACE TEMP. (oC)

Betelguese & Antares Red 1,500-3,500

Arcturus Orange 5,000

Sun & Canopus Yellow 6,000

Vega White 7,500-11,000

Rigel bluish-white over 25,000

5. Composition

--- different colors which the stars reflect however are not caused by the chemicals composing them but rather by
the differences in their temperature

--- composed of 72% hydrogen, 25% helium and 3% of all other elements (iron, carbon, nickel, etc)
--- Bluish-white stars have high temperature that can burn hydrogen

--- Red stars have cool temperature enough only to burn carbon or titanium oxide

--- introduced by an Italian priest and astronomer, Fr. Angelo Secchi

--- Padre Faura --- pioneered the study of astronomy in our country and who established the Manila observatory

Hertzsprung–Russell diagram

--- scatter graph of stars showing the relationship between the stars' absolute magnitudes or luminosity versus
their spectral types or classifications and effective temperatures

--- created circa 1910 by Ejnar Hertzsprung and Henry Norris Russell and represents a major step towards an
understanding of stellar evolution or "the lives of stars"

Life sequence of Stars

1. Initially, formation of stars begins with NEBULAE. Nebulae are interstellar cloud of dust,
hydrogen gas, helium gas and plasma.

2. Stars start as protostars; the aggregation of matter that goes into and precedes the formation of the star.

3. Main sequence stars are stars, such as our Sun, that are burning hydrogen to helium in their cores. It is the
longest stage in the life of a star, covering almost 90% of its lifespan. The duration of a main sequence star
depends mainly on its mass.

4. Red giants are enormous, cool stars with high luminosity that forms after a star has used up the fuel at its core,
which then collapses under its own weight.

5. White dwarfs result when a star utilizes all of its fuel, collapsing on itself due to gravity, leaving an extremely
compact star called a white dwarf.

6. White dwarfs may exhaust their nuclear fuel and turn into a Black Dwarf;

7. If the white dwarf is a part of a binary (a star with a partner); it is possible that it may result to Nova or Super
Nova (explosion of the stars)

8. Black Hole is created after the super nova.

SOLAR SYSTEM

--- composed of the sun and family of objects orbiting around it

MODELS OF THE SOLAR SYSTEM

--- Claudius Ptolemy --- Geocentric model

--- Nicolaus Copernicus --- Heliocentric model --- Father of Modern Astronomy

A) SUN

--- only star in the solar system

--- about 150,000,000 Km (93,000,000 mi or 92,960,000 mi)

--- diameter of 1,140,000 Km, about a hundred times the diameter of the Earth
--- volume could take in a million earth's with a room to spare

--- rotates once every 25 days at the equator and once every 33 days at the poles

--- our main source of energy

A. INTERNAL STRUCTURE OF THE SUN

1. Core

--- innermost layer of the sun

--- temperature is about 15,000,000K.

--- nuclear fusion reactions

2. Radiative zone

--- one photon --- travels about 1 micron (1 millionth of a meter) before being absorbed by a gas molecule

--- approximately 1025 absorptions and re-emissions take place

--- single photon might take 100,000 years to journey through the radiative zone

3. Convective zone

--- final 30 percent of the sun's radius

--- dominated by convection currents that carry the energy outward to the surface.

--- the sun's surface

B. ATMOSPHERIC LAYERS OF THE SUN

When we look the sun at dawn or during sunset, its atmospheric layers are the most familiar sight.

1. Photosphere (light sphere)

--- light that we see from the sun comes from this part.

--- main body of the sun and its diameter is measured from this region.

--- lowest region of the sun's atmosphere

---180-240 miles (300-400 kilometers wide)

--- average temperature of 5,800 Kelvin

2. Chromosphere (color sphere)

-- appears rosepink in color

--- extends above the photosphere to about 1,200 miles (2,000 kilometers)

--- temperature rises across the chromosphere from 4,500 K to about 10,000 K

--- spicules or faculae.

--- approximately 3,000 miles (5,000 kilometers) above the photosphere and lasts only a few minutes
3. Corona (halo)

--- outermost layer of the sun's atmosphere

--- like the chromosphere, the corona is visible only during a solar eclipse

--- temperature of the corona averages 2,000,000 K

--- coronal holes.

In 1930 a French astronomer, Bernard Lyot built an instrument called chronograph, which artificially
eclipses the sun and allows the intriguing gases of the corona and chromosphere to be studied.

The Sun's Features: Sunspots, Solar Prominences and Solar Flares

--- Dark, cool areas called sunspots appear on the photosphere

--- clouds of gases from the chromosphere will rise and orient themselves along the magnetic lines from sunspot
pairs --- solar prominences

---- these eruptions are called coronal mass ejections

--- violent explosions from the sun occur --- solar flares.

--- radiation and these particles reach the Earth's magnetic field, they interact with it at the poles to produce the
auroras (borealis and australis)

Sun Facts:

Average distance from Earth: 93 million miles (150 million kilometers)

Radius: 418,000 miles (696,000 kilometers

Mass: 1.99 x 1030 kilograms (330,000 Earth masses)

Makeup (by mass): 74 percent hydrogen, 25 percent helium, 1 percent other elements

Average temperature: 5,800 Kelvin (surface), 15.5 million Kelvin (core)

Estimated age: 4.6 – 5 billion years

Type of star: yellow middle-sized star or G2 type star

Life span: 11 billion years

B. Planets

--- celestial body orbiting a star

--- stellar remnant that is massive enough to be rounded by its own gravity,

--- divine, or as emissaries of the gods

In 2006, the International Astronomical Union officially adopted a resolution defining planets within
the Solar System. This definition has been both praised and criticized, and remains disputed by some
scientists.

The definition of "planet" set in 2006 by the International Astronomical Union (IAU) states that in
the Solar System a planet is a celestial body that:
  is in orbit around the Sun,
 has sufficient mass to assume hydrostatic equilibrium (a nearly round shape), and
 has "cleared the neighbourhood" around its orbit.

 A non-satellite body fulfilling only the first two of these criteria is classified as a "dwarf planet".
 According to the IAU, "planets and dwarf planets are two distinct classes of objects".
 A non-satellite body fulfilling only the first criterion is termed a "small solar system body" (SSSB).
 Initial drafts planned to include dwarf planets as a subcategory of planets, but because this could
potentially have led to the addition of several dozens of planets into the Solar System, this draft was
eventually dropped.

The Pluto Controversy:

 Pluto is tiny
 Pluto has weird orbit
 Pluto’s Real Score: It doesn’t leave its neighborhood

Pluto (Roman god of darkness and the underworld)

--- predicted by Percival Lowell in 1916

--- March 30, 1930, fourteen years after Lowell's death, Clyde Tombaugh discovered it

--- In 1978, James Christy, an American astronomer, discovered Pluto's lone satellite, Charon, which is about
half the size of Pluto.

Kuiper belt --- is a region of the Solar System beyond the planets extending from the orbit of Neptune (at 30 AU) to
approximately 50 AU from the Sun. It is similar to the asteroid belt, although it is far larger—20 times as wide and
20 to 200 times as massive.

Is there a planet called Biyo?

Yes. It is considered a minor planet and is listed as planet 13,241 as entered by the International
Astronomical Union (IAU).

Yes, there is a planet called 'planet biyo' which is named after a Filipino teacher Dr. Josette T. Biyo who
discovered it.

13241 Biyo (1998 KM41) is an asteroid named after Filipino teacher Dr. Josette Biyo, a high school teacher
cited for winning the 2002 Intel International Science and Engineering Fair in Louisville, Kentucky. She was the first
Asian teacher to win the Intel Excellence in Teaching Award.

TWO CATEGORIES OF PLANETS

a. Terrestrial or Inner Planets --- they are composed mostly of dense, rocky and metallic materials with small
amount of gases.

b. Jovian or Outer Planets --- they are composed mainly of hydrogen and helium. Their cores are believed to
contain rocky and metallic materials.

1. Mercury (Messenger of the Roman gods)

--- nearly airless planet that orbits closest to the Sun

--- about 1.5 times the size of the Moon and about 4.5 times the Moon's mass

--- smallest of the terrestrial planets

--- heavily cratered surface very much like the Moon

--- weak gravity would explain why it has no atmosphere

--- gravity of Mercury is only about 0.37 times than that of the earth

2. Venus (Roman goddess of love and beauty)

--- near twin to Earth,

--- named as the Morning Star and the Evening Star

--- hotter than Mercury

--- 96 percent carbon dioxide (CO2) and slightly less than 4 percent

molecular nitrogen (N2), with the remainders being argon (Ar) and water vapor (H2O), and trace amounts of sulfuric
acid (H2SO4), hydrochloric acid (HCl), and hydrofluoric acid (HF)

3. Earth: Home Sweet Home

--- only planet that scientists can study in detail

--- appears bluish-green in space due to the hydrosphere that envelops it

4. Mars (Roman god of war)

--- many years ago some astronomers speculated that intelligent life exist on Mars

--- Giovanni Schiaparelli in 1877 --- observed thin lines on  the surface of Mars which called canals or channels

--- Olympus Mons --- the largest volcano in the solar system

5. Jupiter (Jove, Chief Roman god)

--- largest planet in the solar system

--- appears reddish --- well-defined belts (darker zones) and bands (brighter zones) .

--- In 1979, Voyager I and II space  expeditions discovered the very bright ring encircling Jupiter.

6. Saturn (Roman god of farming)

--- appears as a pale, yellow planet with rings when viewed from earth

--- rings surrounding Saturn are made up of icy, coated rocks

--- second largest planet

7. Uranus

--- appears as a nearly featureless bluish-green ball because of methane in the outer atmosphere

--- size (four times that of Earth) and mass (14 times that of Earth), Uranus is almost a

--- twin of the planet Neptune

--- rings which were discovered in 1977 are thinner and are composed of meteoric materials
8. Neptune (Roman god of the sea)

--- appears deeply blue because of the even greater content of methane in its outer atmosphere

--- cyclonic storms --- storm the size of Earth

--- slightly more massive than Uranus

C) ASTEROID BELT

--- gap of about 350 million miles between Mars and Jupiter --- miniature planets called asteroids or planetoids

--- "missing planet" --- occupied a distance of about 2.8 AU

--- In Jan. 1, 1801, ----Giuseppi Piazzi discovered a planetoid which is about 764 Km in diameter --- Ceres

--- majority of them move in circular orbits around the sun

--- some have orbits which are highly elliptical and rest have eccentric orbits

--- they occasionally pass close to earth

D. METEOROIDS AND METEORS

--- seen in the night sky as shooting stars or falling stars

---- stray of stony or metallic rocks that pass through the earth atmosphere

Meteors that visit the earth come from two sources:

1. The majority come from the asteroid belt between Mars and Jupiter.

2. The rest come from the tails of comets.

---- travel at great speeds that can exceed 100,000 million miles per hour

--- about 55 miles above the earth, they are pulled by the earth's gravity

--- friction with the earth's atmosphere causes them to glow and vaporize completely in space

--- large ones reach the earth's surface in solid form ---- meteorites.

--- meteor crater which is about 570 feet deep and extends to about one mile in diameter --- Arizona, USA

--- meteor showers are a regular sight in the mid-month of August

E. COMETS

3 SCIENTISTS FIRST OBSERVED AND STUDIED COMETS

1. Tycho Brahe --- observed and studied the path of a comet in 1577

--- proposed the idea that comets are not intruders that invade the atmosphere but instead are natural members
of our solar system

2. Sir Isaac Newton --- suggested that the comets are members of our solar system

--- subjected to the same laws of motion as the planets

3. Edmund Halley --- calculated the orbit of comet which he had observed and predicted its reappearance in 1910

--- comet was named after him-Halley's Comet

---Halley's comet appears every 76 years

PARTS OF COMETS

1. Nucleus --- it is solid and composed of frozen gases, water vapor and dust particles.

2. Coma --- a cloudlike structure that surrounds the nucleus is composed of gas and small bits of rocks and
dust.

3. tail --- may be composed of gas or dust particles or both. If the tail appears blue, it is made of gas. If it appears
yellow, it is made of dust particles.

Why the tail of comet always directed away from the sun?

Some astronomers explain that the pressure of the sun's ray repel the gases of the tail. Others proposed
that the solar wind blows off materials from the tail, hence it always points away from the sun.

SPACE EXPLORATION
(Astronautics)
“That’s one small step for a man, one giant leap for mankind.” These memorable words were spoken by
Neil A. Armstrong on July 20, 1969, as he became the first person to step onto the moon.

Escape from the earth

--- rocket is the only kind of vehicle presently available which is able to leave the earth

--- escape velocity is slightly more than 25,000 miles per hour

Beyond the solar system

None of the methods of the space flight now known can make possible travel to other stars. The closest
star to the sun is 4.3 light years away. Even at 223,000 miles per hour, nine times the earth’s escape velocity; it
would take 1,200 years to get there. It is clear that man’s space exploration will be confined to the solar system for
many years to come. In fact, we may never get beyond the solar system.

Geology

PLANET EARTH

The third planet of the solar system, the only planet inhabited by man. It is our home in space.

PHYSICAL FEATURES OF THE PLANET EARTH

A) Distance from the sun

--- average distance is about 93,000,000 mi (92,960,000) away from the sun

--- nearer the sun  (perihelion) 91,000,000 mi

--- farther from the sun(aphelion)  95,000,000 mi

B) Size of the earth

Eratosthenes

925 Km
 angle of 7.2o

The circumference of the earth that calculated by Eratosthenes was 46,250 Km (27,000 mi not too far
from modern value about 25,000 mi.)

Basically the same method is still used today to estimate the size of the earth.

1. First accurate measurements are made of the angles of heavenly bodies from various locations.
2. Also precise measurements of the distances between these points are made.

C) SHAPE OF THE EARTH

In 200 BC, Aristarchus, a Greek philosopher, using common observations proposed that the earth is
round.

SOME EVIDENCES:

1. Columbus pointed out that observing a ship sailing away from you at the shore seems to sink slowly
beyond the horizon.

2. The mast of an approaching ship is seen first before its hull.

3. A ship that sails from one place in one direction returns to the same place from the opposite
direction.

4. The shadow that the earth casts on the face of the moon during a lunar eclipse is curved. If the earth
were a flat disk, its shadow on the moon must be a straight line.

As early as the 17 century, Sir Isaac Newton, an English Scientist and Mathematician, pointed out that the
earth cannot be perfectly round. It's rotation flattens the earth at the poles and bulges it at the equator is
therefore, slightly larger than that at the poles.

His preposition was proven correct when in 1743 it was determined that the earth’s equatorial diameter
(12,926 km) is greater that its polar diameter (12,714 km).

Careful analysis made by man-made satellites that orbit the earth revealed that the bulge is not directly
at the equator but halfway  between the equator and the south pole and the flattening is between the
equator and the north pole. This result in a shape like that of a coconut/pear.

Geoid: The Earth’s ‘Actual’ Shape

Calculated to take account of its mass, elasticity, and rate of spin. Slightly pear-shaped, with the North
Pole 18.9 miles (30 km) further from Earth’s center than other places and the South Pole 25.8 miles (42 km) nearer.

D) THE AGE OF THE EARTH

1. Using the age of stars, as basis astronomers dated that the oldest stars (red) in our galaxy is less
than 20 billion years. The sun being a yellow star is definitely younger than these stars and that it cannot be
much older than ten billion years. Therefore, planet earth is as old or a few billion years younger than the sun.

2. In 1902, Ernest Rutherford and Frederick Sody postulated the existence of radioactive decay among
elements. This provided a reliable clue to a more precise estimate of the age of the earth. The time it takes for
a radioactive material to change into a stable element is called RADIOACTIVE DECAY.

The time for such a decay to occur is from 60 million years to less than 100 million years. The method
that makes use of principle is called radioactive dating technique. Subjecting several rock sample to this
technique revealed that the oldest rock on earth is 4.5 billion years old.
 The age of meteorites been calculated to be 4.5 billion years. Materials from the moon also yielded the
same age as that of the meteorites. Thus, from all the inventions made and from all the evidences now available,
all parts of the solar system come into existence at the same time. It is now generally accepted that the earth is
4.5 billion years.

E.) INCLINATION

--- tilting of the earth's axis

--- earth's axis is inclined by 23.5.

--- four hundred years ago , the earth axis pointed to as fainter star named THUBAN OF THE DRACO
CONSTELLATION

--- At present, the axis points to the bright star Polaris of the Ursa Minor  Constellation

---Twelve thousand years from now, the axis will point to the brilliant blue STAR VEGA

F) LOCATING PLACES ON EARTH

(1) Latitude

--- distance from the equator to the north or south pole or the north-south location of any place on
earth

--- since the equator is used as the starting point in determining the measurement of latitude, it is
designated as 0o

--- latitude is measured from 0o at the equator to 90o at the north pole

--- the same is true for the southern half of the globe

• A line joining locations with the same latitude is called a “parallel.”

• Parallels are so called because they run parallel to the equator and to one another.

Examples:

Manila is at 14oN latitude.

Melbourne in Australia is at 36o S latitude.

Washington, D.C. in United States is 39o N latitude

--- each degree of latitude is divided into 60 equal parts called minutes (symbol')

--- each minutes is likewise divided into equal parts called seconds (symbol")

--- In actual distance over the earth's surface, a degree of latitude is equal to about 70 miles.

--- A minute of latitude is 70/60 miles or 1 1/6 miles, or one nautical mile.

--- A second of latitude is equal to approximately 100 feet.

Examples:

A more precise latitude for Washington, D.C. is 38o 53'N.

Baguio City Latitude is 16° 24' 59” N.

(2) Longitude

--- Another set of imaginary lines called meridians running from the north to south poles are drawn on
earth perpendicular to the parallels of latitude.

---The east and west location of a place on earth is called longitude.

--- In 1884, by international agreement, a meridian of longitude  which serve as the starting point,
designated at 0o is called the prime meridian and it passes through Greenwich, England.

--- Using a globe and facing the prime meridian half of the earth going the right of the prime meridian
up to the 180th meridian is eastern longitude.

---The other half to the left of the prime meridian also reaching the 180th meridian is western
longitude.

Examples:

Washington, D.C. is west of the prime meridian its longitude is 77o W longitude.

Cairo in Egypt is at 31o E longitude.

New York in the United  states is at 74o W longitude.

Manila is at 120o E longitude.

Both Longitude and Latitude are used in geography to precisely point locations on Earth.

Baguio’s Location

– Latitude:
• 16° 24' 59” N
•
– Longitude:
• 120° 35' 35” E
The fix position of Washington is precisely, 38o 53‘ N and 77o 1‘ W.

(3) Telling time

--- The beginning of the modern system of telling time started in 1883 when the railroads in the
United States agreed to set up four  standard zones across the country.

Today, the earth is divided into 24 standard zones. These time zones were based upon the meridians
of longitude drawn 15o apart starting from the prime meridian.

Examples:

Since the Philippines is located in one time zone, then its time is the same throughout the country.

Large countries like  United States of America has several time zones, hence a state in one time zone
will have a different time from another state in different time zone.

When traveling, time is advanced by one hour for every time zone you cross going eastward.

Time is moved back by one hour for every time zone you cross going westward.

The number of hours you move back or move forward in time depends upon the number of time
zones you cross.
Example:

If the time at prime meridian is 12 noon, at 180th meridian which is directly opposite it is 12 midnight.
Fifteen degrees west of the prime meridian is 11 A.M. and 15 degrees east of the prime meridian is 1 P.M. If you
are traveling westward, you have to set your watch back by one hour every time a zone is crossed. Likewise, when
traveling eastward, you have to set your watch advanced by one hour every time a time zone is crossed.

4) The International Date Line

The International date line runs about down the middle of the Pacific Ocean, although it jogs a bit in a
few places to avoid cutting through groups of islands and through Alaska.

The calendar date changes as one crosses this imaginary line.

If the line is crossed going from west to east, the day moves forward by one day.

If the is crossed going from  east to west, the day is repeated. Here we can see that eastern countries
are ahead by one day from western countries.

A well-known example is the date when the Imperial Japanese Navy  bombed Pearl Harbor in Hawaii,
known in the United States as Sunday,  December 7, 1941, but taught to Japanese students as taking place on
December 8.

If the line is crossed going from east to west at 8 P.M., Sunday, the time and date would also be Sunday
since at that time and date, the east is dated Monday. If the line is crossed from west to east, the date would
become 8 P.M., Monday.

COMPUTING TIME AND DAY DIFFERENCES

A) EAST – WEST

1. When going to west back one hour for each time zones crossed and  subtract one day.

2. Divide the given degree of both countries by 15 and add both quotients and minus the given hour.

Example:

In Baghdad their time is 3:00 PM, where it is located at 45o E and the day is Friday. What is the time and
day in Denver that is located 105oW?

B) WEST – EAST

1. When going to the east, add one for each time zone cross and add  one day.

2. Divide the given degree of both countries by 15 and add both quotients and add the given hour.

Example:

Bolivia at 75oW is 1:00 AM and the day is Saturday. What is the time and day in Kobe located at 135oE?

C) EAST – EAST

1. If it is lower degree to higher degree subtract the quotients and  add the given hour.

2. If it is higher degree to lower degree subtract the quotients and  minus the given hour.

Examples:

1. If it is 3:00 AM in India where located 75oE. What is the time in  the Philippines that is located at
120oE?
 2. In Manila the time is 2:00 PM located at 120oE. What is the time  in Kabul located at 60oE?

D) WEST – WEST

1. If it is lower degree to higher degree subtract the quotients and  minus the given hour.

2. If it is higher degree to lower degree subtract the quotients and  add the given hour.

Examples:

1. Brazil 2:00 PM at 45oW. What is the time in California located at 120oW?

2. California located at 120oW the time is 9:00 AM. What is the time in Brazil located 45oW?

F) Motions of the Earth

In the 16th century people believe that the earth is a stationary object at the center of the universe. The
rising of the stars, sun and moon in the east and their setting in the west are due to their movements around the
earth.

1. ROTATION

Two thousand years ago, a Greek philosopher named Aristarchus proposed that the movement of the
heavenly bodies across the sky is due to the spinning of the earth in its axis known as rotation.

As we observe these heavenly bodies rise and set across the sky from the east and west, respectively
and the constant or regular repetition of this motion every 24 hours (23 hrs 56 mins 4 secs), we say that indeed,
the earth is rotating and its rotation is from west to east or counterclockwise.

As the earth makes one complete rotation from west to east in 24 hours, one half of it receives light while
the other half is in darkness. The bright side facing the sun experiences day and the other half away from the
sun experiences night. Thus, we say that the earth rotation determines the changes in days and nights.

2. REVOLUTION

Aristarchus pointed out that the earth does not only spin in its axis but also revolves

around the sun in a path called orbit. Observing the sun moving slightly to the west as the earth moves
around, it will give us the idea that the earth's revolution is counterclockwise.

** Tropical year --- the time it takes for the earth to complete one revolution using the sun as the reference point.
A tropical year is equal to 365 days, 5 hours, 48 minutes and 46 seconds.

** Sidereal year --- is the length of time it takes for the earth to complete one revolution using a fixed star as
reference point. Stars are so distant that the wobbling of the earth will make a slight difference observed
positions as compared to the sun.

What are some evidences that the earth revolves around the sun? 

1. Ancient sky observers can describe some patterns in the sky in the way stars are grouped called
constellation. They also noticed that each pattern was prominent on certain times of the year and they appeared
regularly and sequentially from year to year.

2. Another evidence is the regular marches of the seasons to mark the passage of one year.
 Earth’s Orbit

Earth’s path around the Sun = influenced by Sun’s gravity and inertia

– Sun’s gravity= pulls the Earth towards it

– Inertia= prevents the Earth from being pulled
– Resulting to Earth orbit
Velocity= 18.5 mps (29.8 km/s)

Earth’s path

• Revolution around the sun= counterclockwise

• Revolution is elliptical, therefore:
– Closest to the sun in January (perihelion)
– Farthest from the sun in July (aphelion)

3. PRECESSION

The slight wobbling of the earth as it turns in its axis. The gravitational pull of the moon causes the slight
wobbling of the earth as it rotates.

Precession makes the tropical year a little short by 20 minutes than the actual time it takes the earth to
make a complete revolution.

To cope with this short of time, an extra day is added every four years to the calendar date of February.
This month instead of having the usual 28 days has 29 days.

A leap year (or intercalary year) is a year containing one extra day in order to keep the calendar year
synchronized with the astronomical or seasonal year. For example, in the Gregorian calendar (common calendar),
February in a leap year has 29 days instead of the usual 28 days, so the year lasts 366 days instead of the usual 365
days.

G) SEASONS ON EARTH

The earth is spherical in shape. Because of this, the rays coming from the sun strike its surface in a vertical
and slanting manner. The parts of the earth directly facing the sun receive vertical rays. The parts of the earth
that curve away from the sun receive slanting rays.

We learned earlier that the earth's axis is not upright. It is inclined 23.5o from the plane of its orbit
around the sun. If it were upright, then all parts of the earth would receive equal distribution of solar radiation.
But because the earth axis is tilted and it remains tilted in the same direction as it rotates and revolves, there
are times wherein the poles are tilted  toward the sun and other times away from it.

Consequently due to the earth's inclination, the vertical rays of the sun move northward and southward
in one year. Thus, the earth experiences the different seasons.

The Seasons

• Seasons: periods of the year with characteristic weather.

• Tropical and subtropical regions= wet and dry
• Temperate= winter, spring, summer, fall
• Seasons is a result of the Earth’s non-perpendicular position to the plane of its axis
Tilting= 23.5 degrees

The Tropic of Cancer is the circle of latitude on the earth that marks the apparent position of the sun at
the time of the northern solstice. Also referred to as the Northern tropic that represent the extremes of the sun's
path across the sky with the change of the seasons.

The Tropic of Cancer lies 23° 26′ 16″ north of the Equator.
 The Tropic of Capricorn, or Southern tropic, it lies 23° 26′ 16″ south of the Equator.

On June 21 or 22, the northern hemisphere faces the sun. The vertical rays are at 23.5oN, the Tropic of
Cancer. The area north of 66.5oN (arctic circle) has 24 hours of daytime. At this time of the year, the north
hemisphere has longer daytime than night. It is summer in northern hemisphere.

On the same day, night is longer than daytime in the southern Hemisphere and it is winter. The area
beyond 66.5oS has 24 hours of night (antarctic circle).

• At the summer solstice the Northern Hemisphere is tilted toward the Sun. Summer is the hottest time of
year.

A solstice is an astronomical event that happens twice each year when the Sun's apparent

position in the sky reaches its northernmost or southernmost extremes. The name is derived from the Latin sol
(sun) and sistere (to stand still).

As the earth continues to revolve, the vertical rays of the sun move southward from the Tropic of Cancer.
Daytime in the northern hemisphere becomes shorter and the night becomes longer. In the  southern
hemisphere the night becomes shorter and daytime longer.

On September 21 or 22, the vertical rays are at the equator and everywhere on the earth daytime is as
long as the night. This is the start of autumn in the northern hemisphere and spring in the southern hemisphere.

• At the autumnal equinox, the Sun is directly overhead above the equator. In the fall daytime grows
shorter, crops ripen, and deciduous trees shed leaves.

An equinox occurs twice a year, when the tilt of the Earth's axis is inclined neither away from nor towards the
Sun, the centre of the Sun being in the same plane as the Earth's equator. The name "equinox" is derived from the
Latin aequus (equal) and nox (night), because around the equinox, the night and day are approximately equally
long.

The earth continues to revolve in its orbit. The vertical rays sweep southward from the equator.

By December 21 or 22, the vertical rays reach 23.5oS, the Tropic of Capricorn. It is now summer in the
southern hemisphere and winter in the in the northern hemisphere. The south polar region (66.5oS) has 24 hours
of daytime. The north polar region (66.5oN) has 24 hours of night. Daytime is longer than the night time in the
southern hemisphere. The nights are longer than daytime in the northern hemisphere.

• At the winter solstice, the Northern Hemisphere is tilted away from the Sun. Winter is the coldest time of
year. Daytime hours are shortest. Plant growth slows or stops.

Then the vertical rays of the sun begin to move northward from the Tropic of Capricorn. On March 21 or 22,
they again reach the equator. Daytime is as long as the night. It is spring in the northern hemisphere and
autumn in the southern hemisphere. The vertical rays continue to move northward from the equator.

• At the vernal equinox, the Sun is overhead at the equator. In spring, days lengthen and plants grow.
 By June 21 or 22, the vertical rays again reach the Tropic of Cancer. The cycle of the moving vertical rays of
the sun is now complete.

SATELLITE

Astronomy. A celestial body that orbits a planet; a moon.

Aerospace. An object launched to orbit Earth or another celestial body.

In the context of spaceflight, a satellite is an object which has been placed into orbit by human endeavor.
Such objects are sometimes called artificial satellites to distinguish them from natural satellites such as the Moon.

Satellites are used for a large number of purposes. Common types include military and civilian Earth
observation satellites, communications satellites, navigation satellites, weather satellites, and research satellites.
Space stations and human spacecraft in orbit are also satellites.

Natural Satellites

A moon is a natural satellite rotating around a planet.

While moons vary in size, each moon is much smaller than its planet.

Almost 140 moons are known in the Solar System.

Several moons are larger than Pluto and two moons are larger than the planet Mercury.

There also are many small moons that may be asteroids captured by their planets.

Only Mercury and Venus do not have any moons. By comparison, Earth has one moon and Mars has two.
Jupiter has the most of any planet. Saturn is second.

Mars has two tiny natural moons, Phobos and Deimos, which orbit very close to the planet. Their known
composition suggests the moons are captured asteroids but their origin

remains uncertain.

Jupiter has 63 named natural satellites. Of these, 47 are less than 10 kilometres in diameter and have only
been discovered since 1975. The four largest moons, known as the "Galilean moons", are Io, Europa, Ganymede
and Callisto.

Saturn has at least 62 moons. Titan, the largest, comprises more than 90 percent of the mass in orbit
around Saturn, including the rings. Saturn's second largest moon Rhea may have a tenuous ring system of its own.
Many of the other moons are very small: 34 are less than 10 km in diameter, and another 14 less than 50 km.

Uranus has 27 known natural satellites. The names for these satellites are chosen from characters from
the works of Shakespeare and Alexander Pope. The five main satellites are Miranda, Ariel, Umbriel, Titania and
Oberon.

Neptune has 13 known moons. The largest by far is Triton, discovered by William Lassell just 17 days after
the discovery of Neptune itself. Unlike all other large planetary moons in the Solar System, Triton has a retrograde
orbit, indicating that it was captured rather than forming in place; it probably was once a dwarf planet in the
Kuiper belt.

The largest moon is Ganymede with a diameter of 3,280 miles, even larger than the planet Mercury.

Saturn's moon Titan is the second largest in the Solar System with a diameter of 3,200 miles, half again as
large as Earth's Moon.

Atmospheres of Moons
 Most moons are airless Jupiter's Io, Saturn's Titan and Neptune's Triton seem to have atmospheres.

Titan may be flooded with an ocean of liquid ethane.

Triton may be covered by an ocean of liquid nitrogen.

Io seems to have a thin sulphur dioxide atmosphere from volcanoes.

Our Moon: LUNA

The Moon (Latin: Luna) is Earth's only natural satellite and the fifth largest natural satellite in the Solar
System.

The average centre-to-centre distance from the Earth to the Moon is 384,403 km.

The Moon's diameter is 3,474 km, a little more than a quarter that of the Earth.

This means that the Moon's volume is about 2 percent that of Earth and the pull of gravity at its surface
about 17 percent that of the Earth.

The Moon makes a complete orbit around the Earth every 27.3 days (the orbital period), and the periodic
variations in the geometry of the Earth–Moon–Sun system are responsible for the lunar phases that repeat every
29.5 days

The moon’s near side always faces the earth due to its revolution and own rotation in its axis.

How is the moon formed?

1. The Fission Theory

The Moon was once part of the Earth and somehow separated from the Earth early in the history of the
Solar System.

The present Pacific Ocean basin is the most popular site for the part of the Earth from

which the Moon came.

2. The Condensation Theory

The Moon and the Earth condensed together from the original nebula that formed the Solar System.

3. The Colliding Planetisimals Theory

The interaction of earth-orbiting and Sun-orbiting planetesimals (very large chunks of rocks like asteroids)
early in the history of the Solar System led to their breakup.

The Moon condensed from this debris.

4. The Ejected Ring Theory

A planetesimal the size of Mars struck the earth, ejecting large volumes of matter.

A disk of orbiting material was formed, and this matter eventually condensed to form the Moon in orbit
around the Earth.

Galileo was the first man to view the moon using his telescope. One of the most prominent features he
observed was the presence of dark areas which he called Maria or "seas" covering about 15% of the moon's
surface.
 In 1969, lunar expedition Apollo 11 of the United States sent three astronauts to the moon. This space
expedition provided us with the information we know now about the moon.

When Neil Armstrong took that historical step of "one small step for man one giant step for mankind" it
would not have occurred to anyone that the step he took in the dust of the moon was there to stay. It will be there
for at least 10 million years.

1. There are no bodies of water in the moon. The dark areas seen by Galileo are actually flat plains
which are relatively smooth surrounding the mountainous regions. There are about 16 "seas" on the side of the
moon facing the earth.

2. Many craters poke the moon's surface. Each crater is a shallow circular depression enclosed by ring
of mountains. Its largest crater is Clavius which is about 240 Km in diameter. One famous large crater which could
be observed before full moon is name Tycho, after the Danish aristocrat Tycho Brahe.

Two theories have been formulated on the formation of craters.

a. The craters came from large volcanoes that collapsed and are products of volcanic activities.

b. The craters were formed by the impact of large meteorites that landed on the moon's surface. This is
due to the absence of the thick atmosphere to protect itself from landing meteors.

3. Rilles and rays also cover the surface. Rilles are crevices or trenches which may be straight or
winding. Rays are bright streaks which radiate from certain craters. They are almost perfectly straight and are
theorized to be caused by the impact of meteoric collision. Tycho crater has the most distinct ray pattern.

4. The bright, elevated portions of the moon consist largely of steep-walled and rugged mountain ranges
which are all named after the earth's mountain ranges.

Phases of the Moon

The light that we see from the moon is reflected light from the sun. The other side that faces the earth
varies in its area of illumination, giving the of the moon is called its phases.

When the moon is in its orbit between the earth and sun, the lighted part is the half that faces the
sun. The other side that faces the earth is not lighted. The phase in which the moon is faintly visible in the sky is
called new moon.

About two to three days later, the earth has moved a little eastward. A small portion of the moon's
lighted side becomes visible in the form of waxing crescent whose horns are away from the sun.

About a week after the new moon, the Moon has reached one fourth of its orbit around the earth. The
side of the moon that faces us is half lighted and the other half is dark. This is the first quarter.

As the moon continues to move in its orbit, the lighted portion increases. We see the humped-phase of
the moon or the waxing gibbous.

About two weeks after the new moon, the moon has reached one half of its orbit around the earth. The
side of the moon facing the earth is well-lighted. This is the full moon phase.

From this phase the rest of the phases are repeated in the next two weeks but in reversed order. That is,
the moon wanes from full moon, to waning gibbous, last quarter, waning crescent and finally to the dark new
moon again.

Once in a Blue Moon

Once in a Blue Moon ... is a common way of saying not very often, but what exactly is a Blue Moon?
 According to the popular definition, it is the second Full Moon to occur in a single calendar month.

The average interval between Full Moons is about 29.5 days, whilst the length of an average month is
roughly 30.5 days. This makes it very unlikely that any given month will contain two Full Moons, though it does
sometimes happen.

On average, there will be 41 months that have two Full Moons in every century, so you could say that
once in a Blue Moon actually means once every two-and-a-half years.

When will the 2009 or 2010 Blue Moon occur? December, January or March, depending on your time
zone. The Far East, Australia and New Zealand enjoy a rare double Blue Moon in 2010.

MOON'S DATA:

Distance from the earth

Average: 384,000 Km (238,856 mi)

Perigee: 354,000 Km (221,463 mi)

Apogee: 404,800 Km (252,710 mi)

Diameter: 3,474 Km

Gravity: 1/6 or 17% than that of the earth

Rotation: 27.3 days

Revolution

Sidereal month: 27.3 days

Synodic month: 29.5 days

Speed of revolution: 2,200 mi/hr

* Perigee --- moon sometimes comes nearer to earth.

* Apogee --- moon sometimes farther from the earth.

Synodic month

This is the average period of the Moon's revolution with respect to the sun. The synodic month is
responsible for the moon's phases, because the Moon's appearance depends on the position of the Moon with
respect to the Sun as seen from the Earth.

Sidereal month

The sidereal month is the time the Moon takes to complete one full revolution around the Earth with
respect to the background stars. However, because the Earth is constantly moving along its orbit about the Sun,
the Moon must travel slightly more than 360° to get from one new moon to the next.

Thus, the synodic month, or lunar month, is longer than the sidereal month. A sidereal month lasts
27.322 days, while a synodic month lasts 29.531 days.

What is the temperature on the moon?

The Moon has no atmosphere, so there is no "air temperature". The surface temperature varies greatly
depending on whether it is in sunlight or not.
 The average daytime temperature on the Moon is around 107°C (225°F), but can be as high as 123°C
(253°F).

When an area rotates out of the sun, the "nighttime" temperature falls to an average of –153°C (-243°F).

The temperatures near the poles (which get the least solar heating) can fall as low as -233°C (-387°F). This
is only 40°C above absolute zero.

However, there are craters (Hermite, Peary and Bosch craters), that never receive any sunlight and their
temperatures can be below -249 °C (-416°F, 26 Kelvin).

Eclipses: Sun Blocked?

Eclipses can occur only when the Sun, Earth, and Moon are all in a straight line.

The eclipse’s are rare due to the 5 degree inclination of the orbit of the moon around the Earth, with
respect to the planar orbit of the Earth around the Sun.

The Moon's shadow actually has two parts:

1. Penumbra

• The Moon's faint outer shadow.

• Partial solar eclipses are visible from within the penumbral shadow.
2. Umbra

• The Moon's dark inner shadow.

• Total solar eclipses are visible from within the umbral shadow.

TWO TYPES OF ECLIPSE

1. Solar Eclipse

Occurs when the moon passes between the sun and the earth.

3 conditions

a. The moon must be in its new moon's phase.

b. The plane of the moon's orbit and that earth must cross each other.

c. The moon must be at perigee (near) so that its umbra will reach the earth.

There are four types of solar eclipses:

1. A total solar eclipse occurs when the dark silhouette of the Moon completely obscures the intensely bright disk
of the Sun, allowing the much fainter solar corona to be visible.

2. An annular solar eclipse occurs when the Sun and Moon are exactly in line, but the apparent size of the Moon is
smaller than that of the Sun. Hence the Sun appears as a very bright ring, or annulus, surrounding the outline of
the Moon.

3. A hybrid solar eclipse (also called annular/total eclipse) shifts between a total and annular eclipse. At some
points on the surface of the Earth it appears as a total eclipse, whereas at others it appears as annular. Hybrid
eclipses are comparatively rare.
4. A partial solar eclipse occurs when the Sun and Moon are not exactly in line and the Moon only partially
obscures the Sun. This phenomenon can usually be seen from a large part of the Earth outside of the track of an
annular or total eclipse.

2. Lunar Eclipse

In contrast, lunar eclipses occur during a full moon, when the Earth is directly between the Sun and Moon.

Three types of lunar eclipses:

1. Penumbral Lunar Eclipse

The Moon passes through Earth's penumbral shadow.

These events are of only academic interest because they are subtle and hard to observe.

2. Partial Lunar Eclipse

A portion of the Moon passes through Earth's umbral shadow.

These events are easy to see, even with the unaided eye.

3. Total Lunar Eclipse

The entire Moon passes through Earth's umbral shadow.

These events are quite striking due to the Moon's vibrant red color during the total phase (totality).

TIDES

--- pertain to the regular rise and fall in the level of the ocean water or bodies of water.

Tides are created because the Earth and the moon are attracted to each other, just like

magnets are attracted to each other.

The moon tries to pull at anything on the Earth to bring it closer. But, the Earth is able to

hold onto everything except the water. Since the water is always moving, the Earth cannot hold onto it, and the
moon is able to pull at it.

Each day, there are two high tides and two low tides. The ocean is constantly moving from high tide to
low tide, and then back to high tide. There is about 12 hours and 25 minutes

between the two high tides.

The sun's gravitational force on the earth is only 46 percent that of the moon. Making the

moon the single most important factor for the creation of tides.

Whenever the Moon, Earth and Sun are aligned, the gravitational pull of the sun adds to that of the moon
causing maximum tides.

The surf grows when it approaches a beach, and the tide increases. In bays and estuaries, this effect is
amplified. (In the Bay of Fundy, tides have a range of 44.6 ft.)

The highest tides in the world are at the Bay of Fundy in Nova Scotia, Canada.
 TWO TYPES OF TIDES

1. Spring Tides

Twice each month, this occurs during new moon and full moon. At such times, the earth, sun and moon
are in line with each other. As a result, the tidal effect of the moon and sun are added together.

2. Neap Tides

Twice a month also, this happens during the first and last quarter phases of the moon. The sun, earth and
moon are at right angle to each other. The gravitational pulls of the sun and moon tend to cancel each other.

Structure of the Earth

The very center of the Earth is known as the core. This is actually comprised of a solid inner core with a
radius of 1,220 km, and then a liquid outer core that extends out to 3,400 km. Scientists think that during the
Earth's formation, the heaviest elements – like iron – sunk down to the center of the Earth and helped to form this
core. We know that the Earth's core rotates, generating a magnetic field that protects us from the Sun's solar wind.
Nobody really knows how hot it is down there, but scientists think it's probably 3,000-5,000 Kelvin.

Inner Core

• Composed of iron and nickel

• It is subject to so much pressure that it remains in a solid state in spite of temperatures higher than
9,000°F
• Diameter =933 miles (1,400 km

Outer Core

• Composed of molten metal

• 1,333 miles thick (2000 km)
• The magnetic field is caused by electric currents circulating inside the outer core.

Outside the core is the mantle, the thickest part of the Earth's interior layers. This is a vast underground
ocean… of liquid rock! The lava we see pouring out of volcanoes comes from the mantle. The heat released from
the Earth's core drives convection in the mantle, and the crust's tectonic plates serve to stir up the mantle as well.
Hotter material rises, and relatively cooler blobs of rock sink down through the mantle.

Lower mantle

• Little-known layer with a thickness of about 1,420 mi.

• Its slow-moving currents, called convection currents, are caused by temperature variations.
• Gutenburg discontinuity
• Zone separating the lower mantle from the core; it is located at a depth of about 1,800 mi.

Upper mantle

• Layer of hard rock nearly 390 mi thick.

• It is made up of the asthenosphere and the base of the lithosphere.

• Asthenosphere-
– Layer of the upper mantle with a thickness of 125 mi
– It is composed of molten rock, on top of which the lithospheric plates slide.

The outermost layer of the Earth is the crust – the cooled and hardened part of the Earth. That's what
you're standing on right now! The depth of the crust varies from 5 km underneath the oceans and 30 km thick
underneath the continents. You might be surprised to know that the Earth's crust only accounts for about 1% of
the entire volume of the Earth.
The Earth is separated into layers based on mechanical properties in addition to composition. The topmost
layer is the lithosphere, which is comprised of the crust and solid portion of the upper mantle. The lithosphere is
divided into many plates that move in relation to each other due to tectonic forces. The lithosphere essentially
floats atop a semi-liquid layer known as the asthenosphere. This layer allows the solid lithosphere to move around
since the asthenosphere is much weaker than the lithosphere.

Crust

• Mohorovicic discontinuity
– Zone that separates the Earth’s crust from the asthenosphere.
• Earth’s Crust
– Solid layer; thickness varies from 6 mi beneath the oceans to 35 mi beneath the mountains.
– Continental Crust; 20-45 miles, composed mainly of granite
– Oceanic Crust; ocean floor, thinner, denser and younger than continental crust

History of plate tectonics

Plate tectonic theory had its beginnings in 1915 when Alfred Wegener proposed his theory of
"continental drift." Wegener proposed that the continents plowed through crust of ocean basins, which would
explain why the outlines of many coastlines (like South America and Africa) look like they fit together like a puzzle.
Wegener was not the first to notice this puzzle-like fit of the continents (Magellan and other early explorers also
noticed this on their maps), but he was one of the first to realize that the Earth's surface has changed through
time, and that continents that are separated now may have been joined together at one point in the past.

Continental Drift

• Alfred Wegener (1180-1930) proposed in 1915 that continents had drifted around the world
• Basis: South America and Africa almost fit together
• Most continents and part of Asia also seem to fit together
• This boosted the belief on Pangaea

FOLDING AND FAULTING

What is the difference between folding and faulting?

The difference between folding and faulting is that folding is the pressure of converging plates causing the
crust to fold and buckle, resulting in the creation of mountains and hills and faulting is where cracks in the earth's
rock are created because of different movement of tectonic plates.

Folding – the bending of rocks in the Earth as a result of compressional tectonic forces such as continental
collisions. Occurs at depth in the Earth.

Types of folds

An anticline is a convex up fold in rock that resembles an arch-like structure with the rock beds (or limbs)
dipping way from the center of the structure.

A syncline is a fold where the rock layers are warped downward. Both anticlines and synclines are the
result of compressional stress.

Faulting – fracturing of rocks in the Earth causing breakage and slip parallel to the fracture. Caused by
compressional, extensional and shear forces. Occurs close to surface of the Earth.

KINDS OF FAULTS

These faults are named according to the type of stress that acts on the rock and by the nature of the
movement of the rock blocks either side of the fault plane.

Normal faults.
Reverse faults

Graben fault is produced when tensional stresses result in the subsidence of a block of rock. On a large scale these
features are known as Rift Valleys.

Horst fault is the development of two reverse faults causing a block of rock to be pushed up.

Strike-slip or transform fault. A well-known example of this type of fault is the San Andreas Fault in California.

Strike-slip fault – fault whose movement is horizontal, parallel to the strike of the fault plane – caused by
shearing. Right lateral fault – strike slip with movement to the right, Left lateral fault, strike slip fault with
movement to the left.

Folds and faults have an economic importance. Anticlines and horsts are good sites for oil accumulation
forming oil reservoirs whereas synclines and grabens are suitable for water accumulation forming aquifers or
groundwater basins.

KINDS OF ROCKS

1. Igneous Rocks

 Igneous means made from fire or heat.

 Igneous rocks form when molten lava (magma) cools and turn to solid rock. The magma comes from the
Earth’s core which is molten rock . The core makes up about 30% of the Total Earth Mass (31.5%)
 There are 5 kinds of igneous rocks, depending on the mix of minerals in the rocks.
o Granite contains quartz, feldspar & mica
o Diorite contains feldspar & one or more dark mineral. Feldspar is dominant.
o Gabbro contains feldspar & one or more dark mineral. The dark minerals are dominant.
o Periodotite contains iron and is black or dark.
o Pegmatite is a coarse-grained granite with large crystals of quartz, feldspar and mica.
 Obsidian is nature’s glass. It forms when lava cools quickly on the surface. It is glassy and smooth.
 Pumice is full of air pockets that were trapped when the lava cooled when it frothed out onto the surface.
It is the only rock that floats.

2. Sedimentary Rocks

 Sedimentary rocks cover 75% of the earth’s surface. Most of the rocks found on the Earth’s surface is
sedimentary even though sedimentary rocks only make up less than 5% of all the rocks that make up
Earth.
 When rocks are exposed to the elements – air, rain, sun, freeze/thaw cycle, plants – erosion occurs and
the little bits of rock worn away get deposited as sediments. Over time, these sediments harden as they
get buried by more sediments and turn into sedimentary rocks.
 Sedimentary rocks are usually formed in layers (strata).
 There are 6 main kinds of sedimentary rocks depending on the appearance of the rock.
 Conglomerate rock has rounded rocks (pebbles, boulders) cemented together in a matrix.
 Sandstone is a soft stone that is made when sand grains cement together. Sometimes the
sandstone is deposited in layers of different coloured sand.
 Shale is clay that has been hardened and turned into rock. It often breaks apart in large flat
sections.
 Limestone is a rock that contains many fossils and is made of calcium carbonate &/or
microscopic shells.
 Gypsum, common salt or Epsom salt is found where sea water precipitates the salt as the water
evaporates.
 Porphory rock is when jagged bits of rock are cemented together in a matrix.

3. Metamorphic Rocks

 Metamorphic rocks are rocks that have changed. The word comes from the Greek "meta" and "morph"
which means to change form.
 Metamorphic rocks are the least common of the 3 kinds of rocks. Metamorphic rocks are igneous or
sedimentary rocks that have been transformed by great heat or pressure.
  Foliated metamorphic rocks have layers, or banding.
 Slate is transformed shale. It splits into smooth slabs.
 Schist is the most common metamorphic rock. Mica is the most common mineral.
 Gneiss has a streaky look because of alternating layers of minerals.
 Non-foliated metamorphic rocks are not layered.
 Marble is transformed limestone.
 Quartzite is very hard.

THE ROCK CYCLE:

Igneous rocks form from the cooling and crystallization of magma as it migrates closer to the Earth's
surface. If the crystallization process occurs at the Earth's surface, the rocks created are called extrusive igneous
rocks. Intrusive igneous rocks are rocks that form within the Earth's solid lithosphere. Intrusive igneous rocks can
be brought to the surface of the Earth by denudation and by a variety of tectonic processes.

All rock types can be physically and chemically decomposed by a variety of surface processes collectively
known as weathering. The debris that is created by weathering is often transported through the landscape by
erosional processes via streams, glaciers, wind, and gravity. When this debris is deposited as a permanent
sediment, the processes of burial, compression, and chemical alteration can modify these materials over long
periods of time to produce sedimentary rocks.

A number of geologic processes, like tectonic folding and faulting, can exert heat and pressure on both
igneous and sedimentary rocks causing them to be altered physically or chemically. Rocks modified in this way are
termed metamorphic rocks.

All of the rock types described above can be returned to the Earth's interior by tectonic forces at areas
known as subduction zones. Once in the Earth's interior, extreme pressures and temperatures melt the rock back
into magma to begin the rock cycle again.

TERMS OR PROCESSES OF THE ROCK CYCLE:

1. Cementation- The process by which clastic sediment is lithified by precipitation of mineral cement, such as
calcite cement, among the grains of the sediment.

2. Compaction- Tighter packing of sedimentary grains causing weak lithification and a decrease in porosity, usually
from the weight of overlying sediment.

3. Deposition- The settling of materials out of a transporting medium.

4. Erosion- The processes that loosen sediment and move it from one place to another on Earth's.surface. Agents
of erosion include water, ice, wind, and gravity.

5. Lithification- The processes by which sediment is converted into sedimentary rock. These processes include
cementation and compaction.

6. Magma- Molten rock, generally a silicate melt with suspended crystals and dissolved gases.

7. Melting- To go from a solid state to a liquid state.

8. Metamorphism- Alteration of the minerals and textures of a rock by changes in temperature and pressure,
and/or by a gain or loss of chemical components.

9. Pressure- The force per unit of area exerted upon something, such as on a surface.

10. Sediment- Material (such as gravel, sand, mud, and lime) that is transported and deposited by wind, water, ice,
or gravity; material that is precipitated from solution; deposits of organic origin (such as coal and coral reefs).
11. Transportation- The processes that carry sediment or other materials away from their point of origin.
Transporting media include wind, water and mantle convection currents

12. Uplift-A structurally high area in the crust, produced by movements that raise the rocks, as in a broad dome or
arch.

13. Weathering- The processes by which rocks are chemically altered or physically broken into fragments as a
result of exposure to atmospheric agents and the pressures and temperatures at or near Earth's surface, with little
or no transportation of the loosened or altered material

The Word Volcano:

The word volcano comes from the Roman god of fire, Vulcan. Vulcan was said

to have had a forge (a place to melt and shape iron) on Vulcano, an active volcano on the Lipari Islands in Italy.

Extreme Volcanoes:

The largest volcano on Earth is Hawaii's Mauna Loa. Mauna Loa is about 6 miles (10 km) tall from the sea
floor to its summit (it rises about 4 km above sea level). It also has the greatest volume of any volcano, 10,200
cubic miles (42,500 cubic kilometers). The most active volcano in the continental USA is Mt. St. Helens (located in
western Washington state).

The largest volcano in our Solar System is perhaps Olympus Mons on the planet Mars. This enormous
volcano is 17 miles (27 km) tall and over 320 miles (520 km) across.

A volcano constitutes a vent, a pipe, a crater, and a cone.

1. The vent is an opening at the Earth's surface.
2. The pipe is a passageway in the volcano in which the magma rises through to the surface during an eruption.
3. The crater is a bowl-shaped depression at the top of the volcano where volcanic materials like, ash, lava, and
other pyroclastic materials are released.
4. Solidified lava, ashes, and cinder form the cone. Layers of lava, alternate with layers of ash to build the steep
sided cone higher and higher.

Things that come out of a volcano:

 Lava --- 2012º F--sticky--hardens when cooled

 Rock fragments - sticky magma--pressure breaks it into fragments
 Volcanic dust - 1/400 inch in diameter--can be carried around the globe -- bright red
 Volcanic ash - fragments 1/5 inch in diameter
 Volcanic bombs - size range from baseballs to basketballs
 Gas - mostly steam - with carbon dioxide, nitrogen, sulfur dioxide

Volcanologists have classified volcanoes into groups based on the shape of the volcano, the materials
they are built of, and the way the volcano erupts.

The groups are:

1. Composite Volcanoes (also called strato volcanoes)
A steep-coned volcano that explosively emits gases, ash, pumice, and a small amount of stiff, silica lava
(called rhyolite). This type of volcano can have eruptions accompanied by lahars -- deadly mudflows. Most
volcanoes on Earth are of this type. Strato volcanoes kill more people than any other type of volcanoes - this is
because of their abundance on Earth and their powerful mudflows. Examples are Krakatoa in Indonesia, Mt.
Pinatubo in the Philippines, and Mt. St. Helens in Washington state, USA.
Famous examples of composite cones are Mayon Volcano, Philippines, Mount Fuji in Japan, and Mount
Rainier, Washington, U.S.A. Some composite volcanoes attain two to three thousand meters in height above their
bases. Most composite volcanoes occur in chains and are separated by several tens of kilometers. There are
numerous composite volcano chains on earth, notably around the Pacific rim, known as the "Ring of Fire".
The area encircling the Pacific Ocean is called the "Ring of Fire," because its edges mark a circle of high
volcanic and seismic activity (earthquakes). Most of the active volcanoes on Earth are located on this
circumference. On the periphery of the Pacific Ocean, the edge of the Pacific Continental Plate is expanding in the
seabed, and is hitting the North American Plate, the Nazca Plate, the Eurasian Plate, and other plates, causing the
margins of the plates to collide, buckle, and compress, causing earthquakes and volcanoes.

2. Shield Volcanoes
A gently-sloping volcano that emits mostly basaltic lava (very fluid lava) that flows in long-lasting,
relatively gentle eruptions - explosions are minimal. Shield volcanoes can be very big. An example is Mt. Kilauea (in
Hawaii, USA).

3. Cinder Cones
A cone-shaped volcano whose steep sides are formed by loose, fragmented cinders that fall to the Earth
close to the vent. The lava flows through a single vent that is usually only up to about 1,000 feet tall. There is
usually a bowl-shaped crater at the top. As the gas-filled lava erupts into the air, the lava fragments into pieces and
forms cinders.
The longer the eruption the higher the cone. Some are no higher than a few meters and others rise to as
high as 610 meters or more, such as Paricutin volcano, Mexico, that was in nearly continuous eruption from 1943
to 1952. Along with pyroclastic activity were lava flows that flowed from its base to destroy the village of Paricutin.
Cinder cones can occur alone or in small to large in groups or fields.

4. Lava Dome
A bulbous (rounded) volcano that forms when very viscous lava barely flows.
A dome has been growing slowly within the crater of Mount St. Helens since the eruption of 1980. Domes
have also filled the crater of Mt. Pelée, Martinique, and many other volcanoes.

5. Rhyolite Caldera Complex

These are the most explosive volcanoes. They do not look like common volcanoes -- after an eruption, the
result is a caldera (crater) caused when the area around the vent collapses. Examples are Yellowstone in Wyoming,
USA and Lake Taupo in New Zealand (which erupted around A.D. 80).

Classification of Volcanoes
1. Active - erupts constantly
The PHIVOLCS listing was the original basis of this list, which has been corrected and updated here as
newer information became available, to now show 26 active volcanoes in the Philippines.

2. Intermittent - erupts less than an active

3. Dormant – inactive
It is difficult to distinguish an extinct volcano from a dormant one. Volcanoes are often considered to be
extinct if there are no written records of its activity. Nevertheless volcanoes may remain dormant for a long period
of time, Yellowstone has a repose/ recharge period of around 700 ka and Toba of around 380 ka. Vesuvius was
described by Roman writers as having been covered with gardens and vineyards before its famous eruption of AD
79, which destroyed the towns of Herculaneum and Pompeii. Before the catastrophic eruption of 1991, Pinatubo
was an inconspicuous volcano, unknown to most people in the surrounding areas. More recently, the long-
dormant Soufrière Hills volcano on the island of Montserrat was thought to be extinct before activity resumed in
1995. Another recent example is Fourpeaked Mountain in Alaska, which, prior to its eruption in September 2006,
had not erupted since before 8000 BC and was long thought to be extinct.

4. Extinct- inactive (probably will not erupt again)

Extinct volcanoes are those that scientists consider unlikely to erupt again, because the volcano no longer
has a lava supply. Examples of extinct volcanoes are many volcanoes on the Hawaiian – Emperor seamount chain
in the Pacific Ocean (extinct because the Hawaii hotspot is centered near the Big Island), Hohentwiel, Shiprock, and
Paricutin (which is monogenetic). Otherwise, whether a is truly extinct is often difficult to determine. Since
"supervolcano" calderas can have eruptive lifespans sometimes measured in millions of years, a caldera that has
not produced an eruption in tens of thousands of years is likely to be considered dormant instead of extinct.

EARTHQUAKE
An earthquake (also known as a quake, tremor or temblor) is the result of a sudden release of energy in
the Earth's crust that creates seismic waves. The seismicity or seismic activity of an area refers to the frequency,
type and size of earthquakes experienced over a period of time. Earthquakes are measured with a seismometer; a
device which also records is known as a seismograph.
In its most generic sense, the word earthquake is used to describe any seismic event — whether a natural
phenomenon or an event caused by humans — that generates seismic waves. Earthquakes are caused mostly by
rupture of geological faults, but also by volcanic activity, landslides, mine blasts, and nuclear experiments. An
earthquake's point of initial rupture is called its focus or hypocenter. The term epicenter refers to the point at
ground level directly above the hypocenter.
Types of earthquakes
There are many different types of earthquakes: tectonic, volcanic, and explosion. The type of earthquake
depends on the region where it occurs and the geological make-up of that region.
The most common are tectonic earthquakes. These occur when rocks in the earth's crust break due to
geological forces created by movement of tectonic plates. Another type, volcanic earthquakes, occur in
conjunction with volcanic activity. Collapse earthquakes are small earthquakes in underground caverns and mines,
and explosion earthquakes result from the explosion of nuclear and chemical devices. We can measure motion
from large tectonic earthquakes using GPS because rocks on either side of a fault are offset during this type of
earthquake.

Seismic Waves
There are three types of waves that are created when stress is released as energy in earthquakes: P, S,
and surface waves.
The P wave, or primary wave, is the fastest of the three waves and the first detected by seismographs.
They are able to move through both liquid and solid rock. P waves, like sound waves, are compressional waves,
which mean that they compress and expand matter as they move through it.
S waves, or secondary waves, are the waves directly following the P waves. As they move, S waves shear,
or cut the rock they travel through sideways at right angles to the direction of motion. S waves cannot travel
through liquid because, while liquid can be compressed, it can't shear. S waves are the more dangerous type of
waves because they are larger than P waves and produce vertical and horizontal motion in the ground surface.
Both P and S waves are called body-waves because they move within the Earth's interior. Their speeds
vary depending on the density and the elastic properties of the material they pass through, and they are amplified
as they reach the surface.
The third type of wave, and the slowest, is the surface wave. These waves move close to or on the outside
surface of the ground. There are two types of surface waves: Love waves, that move like S waves but only
horizontally, and Rayleigh waves, that move both horizontally and vertically in a vertical plane pointed in the
direction of travel.

Measurement of Earthquakes
The first way is to describe the earthquake's intensity. Intensity is the measure, in terms of degrees, of
damage to the surface and the effects on humans. Intensity records only observations of effects on the crust, not
actual ground motion or wave amplitudes which can be recorded by instruments. While intensity helps to
determine how large of an area was effected, it is not an accurate measure of the earthquake for many reasons.
Two such reasons are: only the effect on an area showing the greatest intensity is reported, which can imply a
greater or lesser intensity than what actually occurred, and the way in which seismic waves travel varies as they
pass through different types of rocks, so some areas nearby may feel nothing because they are built on faulted
rock, while other areas quite a distance from the foci will feel the effects because they are built on compact
homogenous rocks.
The second type of measurement is the magnitude of the earthquake. Magnitude does not depend on
population and effects to ground structures, but rather on wave amplitude and distance. Magnitude is determined
using mathematical formulae and information from seismograms. One such magnitude scale is the Richter scale.
This magnitude scale is logarithmic, meaning each step in magnitude is exponentially greater than the last.

What is METEOROLOGY?
Meteorology (from Greek: metéōron, "high in the sky"; and lógos, "knowledge") is the interdisciplinary
scientific study of the atmosphere that focuses on weather processes and forecasting

Earth’s Atmosphere
The Earth's atmosphere is a layer of gases surrounding the planet Earth that is retained by the Earth's
gravity.
It contains roughly (by molar content/volume) 78.08% nitrogen, 20.95% oxygen, 0.93% argon, 0.038% carbon
dioxide, trace amounts of other gases, and a variable amount (average around 1%) of water vapor.
This mixture of gases is commonly known as air.
The atmosphere protects life on Earth by absorbing ultraviolet solar radiation and reducing temperature
extremes between day and night.
Layers of the Atmosphere
According to International Union of Geodesy and Geophysics; the Earth’s atmosphere is divided into four layers:
Troposphere
Stratosphere
Mesosphere
Thermosphere
 In meteorology, the IUGG classification is used as the layers of the atmosphere is divided according to its
thermal characteristics

Troposphere
The troposphere is the lowest layer of Earth's atmosphere.
The troposphere starts at Earth's surface and goes up to a height of 7 to 20 km (4 to 12 miles, or 23,000 to
65,000 feet) above sea level.
Most of the mass (about 75-80%) of the atmosphere is in the troposphere.
Almost all weather occurs within this layer.
Air is warmest at the bottom of the troposphere near ground level. Higher up it gets colder.
In this layer the temperature diminishes in inverse proportion with the height, that is to say, to greater
height a smaller temperature. The minimum temperature at the top of the troposphere is --- 50°C.
Air pressure and the density of the air are also less at high altitudes.

Each border among two atmospheric layers is called pause, and the prefix pertaining to the lower layer
is placed before the word "pause".
By this method, the border among the troposphere and the immediate higher layer (stratosphere) is
called tropopause.

Stratosphere
This is the second layer of atmosphere.
Site of Ozone layer.
Contains very small amounts of water vapor.
Starts at 10km above the Earth and ends at 50km above the Earth.
Temperature increases with altitude or the temperature increases proportionally to the height here; to
greater height, greater the temperature.
At the top of the stratosphere, the temperature almost reaches 25 °C, the cause of this ascent in the
temperature is the ozone layer (ozonosphere).
Ozone absorbs the Ultraviolet radiation that breaks the molecules of Oxygen (O2), generating freed atoms
of Oxygen (O), which are connected again to build Ozone molecules (O3).
In this type of chemical reactions, the transformation of luminous energy into chemical energy generates
heat that provokes a greater molecular movement.

Mesosphere
This is the third layer of the atmosphere which starts at 50km above the Earth’s surface and goes up to
85km high.
Temperature drops when going up the Mesosphere
Mesosphere has the lowest temperature recorded among the layers of the atmosphere (-80 to - 90
degrees Celsius)
Site where meteors burn upon entry to our atmosphere

Thermosphere
According to IUGG, this is the last layer of the atmosphere; above this layer is the beginning of space.
It extends from about 90 km (56 miles) to between 500 and 1,000 km (311 to 621 miles) above our planet.
Auroras occur in this layer
Temperature is so high in this layer.

CLOUD
In meteorology, a cloud is a visible mass of liquid droplets or frozen crystals made of water or various
chemicals suspended in the atmosphere. These suspended particles are also known as aerosols.
Clouds in the troposphere, the atmospheric layer closest to Earth's surface, have Latin names due to the
universal adaptation of Luke Howard's nomenclature. It was introduced in December 1802 and became the basis
of a modern international system that classifies these tropospheric aerosols into several physical forms or
categories, then cross-classifies them into families of low, middle and high according to cloud-base altitude range
above Earth's surface.
Clouds with significant vertical extent are often considered a separate family.

Latin Root Translation

cumulus heap
stratus layer
cirrus curl of hair
nimbus rain
A. Low-level Clouds
 Low clouds are of mostly composed of water droplets since their bases generally lie below 6,500 feet
(2,000 meters). However, when temperatures are cold enough, these clouds may also contain ice particles and
snow.

1. Stratus clouds are uniform grayish clouds that often cover the entire sky. They resemble fog that does
not reach the ground. Usually no precipitation falls from stratus clouds, but sometimes they may drizzle. When a
thick fog "lifts," the resulting clouds are low stratus.

2. Nimbostratus clouds form a dark gray, "wet" looking cloudy layer associated with continuously falling
rain or snow. They often produce precipitation that is usually light to moderate.

3. Stratocumulus clouds are low, puffy and gray. Most form in rows with blue sky visible in between them.
Rain rarely occurs with stratocumulus clouds; however, they can turn into nimbostratus clouds.

B. Mid-Level Clouds
The bases of mid-level clouds typically appear between 6,500 to 20,000 feet (2,000 to 6,000 meters). They
are composed primarily of water droplets; however, they can also be composed of ice crystals when temperatures
are cold enough.

1. Altocumulus clouds are middle level clouds that are made of water droplets and appear as gray, puffy
masses, sometimes rolled out in parallel waves or bands. The appearance of these clouds on a warm, humid
summer morning often means thunderstorms may occur by late afternoon.

2. Altostratus clouds are gray or blue-gray middle level clouds composed of ice crystals and water
droplets. These clouds usually cover the entire sky. In the thinner areas of the cloud, the sun may be dimly visible
as a round disk. Altostratus clouds often form ahead of storms that will produce continuous precipitation.

C. High-Level Clouds
High-level clouds form above 20,000 feet (6,000 meters) and since the temperatures are so cold at such
high elevations, these clouds are primarily composed of ice crystals. High-level clouds are typically thin and white
in appearance, but can appear in a magnificent array of colors when the sun is low on the horizon.

1. Cirrus clouds are thin, wispy clouds blown by high winds into long streamers. They are considered "high
clouds" forming above 6000 m (20,000 ft). Cirrus clouds usually move across the sky from west to east. They
generally mean fair to pleasant weather.
2. Cirrostratus clouds are thin, sheetlike high clouds that often cover the entire sky. They are so thin that
the sun and moon can be seen through them.

3. Cirrocumulus clouds appear as small, rounded white puffs. The small ripples in the cirrocumulus
sometimes resemble the scales of a fish. A sky with cirrocumulus clouds is sometimes referred to as a "mackerel
sky." Cirrocumulus clouds are usually seen in the winter and indicate fair, but cold weather.

D. Clouds with Vertical Development

1. Cumulus clouds are puffy clouds that sometimes look like pieces of floating cotton. The base of each
cloud is often flat and may be only 1000 m (330 ft) above the ground. The top of the cloud has rounded towers.
When the top of the cumulus resembles the head of a cauliflower, it is called cumulus congestus or towering
cumulus. These clouds grow upward, and they can develop into a giant cumulonimbus, which is a thunderstorm
cloud.

2. Cumulonimbus clouds are thunderstorm clouds that form if cumulus congestus clouds continue to grow
vertically. Their dark bases may be no more than 300 m (1000 ft) above the Earth's surface. Their tops may extend
upward to over 12,000 m (39,000 ft). Tremendous amounts of energy are released by the condensation of water
vapor within a cumulonimbus. Lightning, thunder, and even violent tornadoes are associated with the
cumulonimbus.

MONSOONS
Monsoons are strong, often violent winds that change direction with the season. Monsoon winds blow
from cold to warm regions because cold air takes up more space than warm air. Monsoons blow from the land
toward the sea in winter, and from the sea toward land in the summer.
India’s southwestern coast and the coastal areas and islands of Southeast Asia experience heavy rain
throughout the year. Near the equator, this rain results from hot humid air that rises and expands, then cools in
the upper atmosphere and condenses into rain. In the coastal areas farther north of the equator, such as the
southwestern coast of India, the rainy tropical climate is the result of constant moisture-laden winds coming
largely from the sea.

TWO TYPES OF MONSOON IN THE PHILIPPINES

1. The "hanging habagat" is also known as the southwest monsoon. This natural phenomenon gets its
start during the summer months in the northern hemisphere, when the Asiatic continent becomes warmer than
the surrounding seas.

As a result, a low-pressure area develops over the continent. This happen when a large mass of air rises,
causing low pressure in the area the mass left empty and inducing air from over the ocean to flow towards the
continent.
The winds, rushing toward the low-pressure area, carry heat and water vapor which, when passing across
the Philippines, becomes the prevailing winds in the country.

2. The "hanging amihan" also known as the northeast monsoon draws "cold, dry air" from icy Siberia,
China and Japan.

Climate of the Philippines

The Philippines has a tropical maritime climate and is usually hot and humid. There are three seasons:
tag-init or tag-araw, the hot dry season or summer from March to May; tag-ulan, the rainy season from June to
November; and tag-lamig, the cool dry season from December to February. The southwest monsoon (from May to
October) is known as the Habagat, and the dry winds of the northeast monsoon (from November to April), the
Amihan.
Temperatures usually range from 21°C (70°F) to 32°C (90°F) although it can get cooler or hotter depending
on the season. The coolest month is January; the warmest is May.
The average yearly temperature is around 26.6°C (79.88°F). In considering temperature, location in terms
of latitude and longitude is not a significant factor. Whether in the extreme north, south, east, or west of the
country, temperatures at sea level tend to be in the same range. Altitude usually has more of an impact. The
average annual temperature of Baguio at an elevation of 1,500 meters (4,900 feet) above sea level is 18.3°C
(64.9°F), making it a popular destination during hot summers. Likewise, Tagaytay is a favored retreat.
Sitting astride the typhoon belt, most of the islands experience annual torrential rains and thunderstorms
from July to October, with around nineteen typhoons entering the Philippine area of responsibility in a typical year
and eight or nine making landfall. Annual rainfall measures as much as 5,000 millimeters (200 inches) in the
mountainous east coast section but less than 1,000 millimeters (39 inches) in some of the sheltered valleys.

TROPICAL CYCLONES
A tropical cyclone is a storm system characterized by a large low-pressure center and numerous
thunderstorms that produce strong winds and heavy rain. Tropical cyclones feed on heat released when moist air
rises, resulting in condensation of water vapor contained in the moist air.
The term "cyclone" refers to such storms' cyclonic nature, with counterclockwise rotation in the Northern
Hemisphere and clockwise rotation in the Southern Hemisphere. Depending on its location and strength, a tropical
cyclone is referred to by names such as hurricane, typhoon, tropical storm, cyclonic storm, tropical depression, and
simply cyclone.

What’s the difference between a hurricane and a typhoon or tropical cyclone?

When a tropical disturbance organizes to the point where its sustained winds top 34 knots (39 mph), it’s
known as a tropical cyclone. But various parts of the world use a variety of terms once a tropical cyclone packs
winds of at least 65 knots (74 mph).
Around North and Central America, they’re called hurricanes. The god of evil for the Carib people was
named Hurican, according to the authors of Hurricane Strike! That’s the source, with a slight twist in spelling, of the
name used in the Atlantic Ocean, Caribbean Sea, Gulf of Mexico, and North-East Pacific Ocean.
In the North-West Pacific, the same powerful storms are called typhoons. In the South-Eastern Indian and South-
West Pacific Oceans they’re called severe tropical cyclones. In the North Indian Ocean, they’re called severe
cyclonic storms, while in the South-West Indian Ocean, they simply keep the name tropical cyclone.