Biology

Cells
It is the smallest unit of living things matter.

Animal and plant cells

Cell membrane – holds cell together and controls what chemicals enter and leave the body.
Nucleus – controls the cell, this contains genetic info.
Cytoplasm – jelly like mixture where most of the work of the cell takes place.
Chloroplast – contain chlorophyll
Cell wall – strong outer layer to support the cell and give it shape
Vacuole – stores sap.

Specialised cells
Sperm cell – carry genetic information and fertilise the egg.

egg cell – found in ovaries, carry genetic info.

Palisade cell- found on leaves and its job is photosynthesis (plant cell)
Nerve cell – carry electric signals to the brain.
Root hair cell – found in the roots of plants, to absorb water and nutrients.

Classification of organisms
Classifying plants
1. Mosses
 Do not have proper roots and leaves
 Live in damp, shady places
 Use spores for reproduction
 Leaves are very thin and dry out easily
2. Ferns
 Grow in shady places
 Leaves called fronds
 Reproduce using spores that are produced at the backs of the fronds.
3. Conifers
 Reproduce using seeds but seeds are in cones
 Don’t have proper flowers
 Grow into large trees
 Tough narrow leaves called needles
4. Flowering plants
 Proper flowers
 Seeds in fruits

Classifying animals – vertebrates and invertebrates

Vertebrates
1) Fish
 Wet scales
 Aquatic
 Lay jelly coated eggs
 Cold blooded
2) Amphibians
 Thin and moist skin
 Lay jelly coated eggs
 Live both in water and land
  Cold-blooded
 Use lungs to breath while on land and skin in water
3) Reptiles
 Dry scaly skin
 Lay eggs
 Cold blooded
4) Birds
 Body covered with feathers
 Wings for flying
 Lay eggs with a hard shell
 Warm blooded
 Hollow bones to reduce weight
5) Mammals

Photosynthesis
Definition
 Process by which plants absorb carbon dioxide and water and convert them into
glucose using sunlight energy to make food.

Equation for photosynthesis

Carbon dioxide + water → glucose + oxygen
↓ ↓ ↓ ↓

Diffuses into the

leaves through
the stomata

Raw materials- water, carbon dioxide

Products- glucose, oxygen
Conditions- sunlight, chlorophyll
Limiting factors of photosynthesis
a) Temperature- photosynthesis is controlled by enzymes, destroyed at temp above 40°c.
b) Carbon dioxide- photosynthesis increases at first but is then limited by a lack of increase
in temp or light.
c) Light- photosynthesis increases at first but its then limited by a lack of increase in temp
or CO2.

Starch test
 Place the leaf in the boiling water- this destroys the waxy cuticle and opens the cell
membrane
 Place leaf in hot alcohol- dissolves chlorophyll form leaf.
 Dip colourless leaf in water to soften it
 Add iodine solution- if it is brown then –no starch
If it turns black-blue – starch
Transport
Tissue What is moved process
Xylem Water and minerals Transpiration system
phloem Transports food Translocation
Affecting rate of transpiration
- Light intensity increases rate
- Temperature increases
- Air movement increases
- Humidity increases
Why is transpiration important
- Transports mineral ions
- Providing water to leaf cells for photosynthesis
- Keeping leaves cool by evaporation
Minerals
2 important mineral ions –
 Nitrate –making amino acids need to make proteins, deficiency symptom –
stunted growth
 Magnesium- making chlorophyll, deficiency symptom- leaves turn yellow
Food and digestion
Nutrients are necessary for our body: -
a) Carbohydrates
- Starch: - not sweet, test for presence using iodine solution
- Sugar: - sweet
Energy – a carbohydrate molecule
 one sugar molecule
contains long chains of identical small sugar molecules.
↓
Broken down into smaller sugar molecules
↓
Release
↓
energy
b) Fats
- Needed to make cell membranes of cells
- Supply energy however a more concentrated form of energy than carbohydrates
ENERGY= 󠆻
glycerol fatty acids

contain fat molecule

↓
Broken down into fatty acids and gylcerol
↓
Energy storage, keep body warm, make cell membranes

c) Proteins
- Needed for: - growth, repair
- Contains long chains of not identical small molecule
↓
Broken down into 20 different amino acids
↓
Growth and repair
d) Vitamins
Vitamin A- good vision
B- cell
C- wound healing
D- helps to absorb calcium
E- antioxidant/ protects cell and tissues from damage
K- help to stop bleeding
e) Minerals
Calcium- build strong bones and teeth
Iron- important in formation of haemoglobin
Potassium- keeps your muscles and nervous system working properly
Zinc- helps your immune system and helps with cell growth and helps heal wounds.
 f) Dietary fibers
g) Water

Human digestive system

The process
1) Mouth
- Salivary glands produce saliva and mucus to aid swallowing
- Teeth break down food into to smaller pieces
- Tongue for chewing and forms bolus for swallowing
2) Epiglottis
- Closes trachea
3) Oesophagus
- Pushes a bolus to the stomach by peristalsis (movement of muscles)
4) Stomach
- Secretes HCA which kills pathogens, activates pepsin.
- Pepsin, a protease that digest proteins turning them into smaller molecules.
- Churning produces liquid chime form solid food.
- Sphincter muscle allows small amounts of liquid chime at a time into
duodenum.
5) Small intestine
- Villi contain: - a) blood capillaries that absorb glucose and amino acids. b)
lacteals that absorb fatty acids and glycerol.
6) Large intestine
- Water is absorbed into bloodstream
- Faeces compacted in rectum.

Respiration
- Release of energy from food substances in living cells
- Aerobic respiration requires oxygen and produces more energy.
- Word equation glucose + oxygen → carbon dioxide + water + energy
- Anaerobic respiration occurs without oxygen and makes less energy.
- Word equation glucose → lactic acid + energy
Breathing- process of taking in and out air through the lungs.
Gas exchange- intake of oxygen and excretion of carbon dioxide at the lung. Oxygen moves into
the blood and CO2 out.
External intercostal muscles move to pull the ribcage upwards and outwards.
Internal intercostal muscles contract to pull the ribcage closer and downwards.
Percentage of the gas present in
gas Breathed in Breathed out
Carbon dioxide 0.04 4
Oxygen 21 17
Nitrogen 8 8
Water vapour low High

Gas exchange
A gas exchange surface must have: -
- Large surface area
- Supplied with lots of blood vessels
- Moist so gases can dissolve for diffusion
- Very thin so diffusion is easy
Alveolis must have: -
- Thin for rapid diffusion
- Moist
- Surrounded by lots of blood vessels
- Very large surface area.

Movement and respiratory gases

- At the alveolus the oxygen combines with haemoglobin in red blood cells to
form oxyhaemoglobin.
- When oxygenated blood form the lung reaches the body cells,
oxyhaemoglobin breaks down to release oxygen which diffuses into cells.
- Carbon dioxide from the cells diffuses into the capillaries and is taken to the
heart in the deoxygenated blood. This blood is then pumped to lungs for
oxygenation.