Received: 10 June 2022 Accepted: 16 February 2023

DOI: 10.1002/pmh.1581

RESEARCH ARTICLE

The relationship between trait mindfulness and resilience:

A meta-analysis

Juan Zhang 1,2 | Yidi Mao 1,2 | Yihui Wang 1,2 | Yihan Zhang 1,2

1
Faculty of Education, University of
Macau, Macau, China
2
Center for Cognitive and Brain Sciences,
University of Macau, Macau, China
Correspondence
Yidi Mao, University of Macau,
Avenida da Universidade, Taipa, Macau,
China.
Email: yc17113@connect.um.edu.mo
Funding information
University of Macau, Grant/Award
Number: MYRG2022-00055-FED
Abstract
Resilience is a positive psychological resource that promotes health. Trait
mindfulness was found to be related to resilience. However, previous studies
on this relationship have shown contradictory results. The current meta-
analysis explored the relationship between trait mindfulness and resilience
based on a three-level random-effects meta-analysis model. A significant and
positive relationship between trait mindfulness and resilience (r = 0.385;
p < 0.0001) was revealed by analyzing 197 effect sizes from 103 studies. Fur-
thermore, the subsequent moderator analysis found that the facet of mindful-
ness (e.g., awareness, nonjudging) (F(6, 190) = 6.181; p < 0.001), measurement
of mindfulness (e.g., the Mindful Attention Awareness Scale) (F(7, 191) = 4.758;
p < 0.001), aspect of resilience (e.g., family resilience) (F(5, 191) = 3.455;
p < 0.05), measurement of resilience (e.g., the Connor–Davidson Resilience
Scale) (F(11, 185) = 2.256; p < 0.05), and age (F(1, 150) = 4.588; p < 0.05) acted as
significant moderators. Overall, this study confirmed the positive relationship
between trait mindfulness and resilience, suggesting that people with higher
levels of trait mindfulness were more likely to have higher levels of resilience.
The current findings provided insightful information for interventions targeted
at improving resilience.

INTRODUCTION contexts (e.g., family adversity, academic adversity, etc.).

This study aims to investigate the relationship between
resilience and mindfulness, specifically trait mindfulness.
The detailed discussion on the previous research on resil-
ience, trait mindfulness, and the relationship between
the two is presented as follows.
Resilience
Resilience, a vital positive psychological resource, refers
to adjusting or adapting positively to severe stress or
adversity (Anthony, 1987; Luthar et al., 2000). In this
study, the working definition of resilience is the trait
tendency to adapt positively to adversity in different
In the past few years, resilience studies have received
increasing attention from experts in psychology, psycho-
pathology, biology, and even cognitive neuroscience.
According to a meta-analysis based on 60 studies with
68,720 participants among children to older adults,
resilience was shown to be positively correlated
(r = 0.503) with constructive indicators of mental
health (e.g., life satisfaction and positive affect) (Hu
et al., 2015). In addition, resilience was negatively asso-
ciated with depression and anxiety disorders (Chung
et al., 2021; Gloria & Steinhardt, 2016; Hjemdal
et al., 2011). These disorders were proven to have a
highly detrimental effect on patients and even led to a
risk of suicide in severe cases (Hawton et al., 2013; Hill
et al., 2011). Moreover, resilience is confirmed as a

Personal Ment Health. 2023;17:313–327. wileyonlinelibrary.com/journal/pmh © 2023 John Wiley & Sons Ltd 313

314
protective factor that can improve physical health (Lee
et al., 2018). For instance, resilience showed promising
findings in patients with diabetes (Yi et al., 2008).
Therefore, it is crucial to study the factors associated
with resilience.
Within the past few decades, a series of self-report
questionnaires for assessing resilience have begun to
appear. Scales focus on evaluating resilience at the level
of personal characteristics, involving individuals' protec-
tive factors or resources and coping styles. Some also
include items that assess the personal ability to bounce
back, adapt to stressful situations, and thrive in the face
of adversity. Typical measurements of overall resilience
include the Connor–Davidson Resilience Scale
(CD-RISC) (Campbell-Sills & Stein, 2007; Connor &
Davidson, 2003), the Resilience Scale (RS) (Wagnild &
Young, 1993), the Brief Resilience Scale (BRS) (Smith
et al., 2008), and the Dispositional Resilience Scale (DRS)
(Bartone, 2007; Bartone et al., 1989). In addition, a series
of self-reported questionnaires value different aspects of
resilience. For instance, the Ego-Resiliency Scale (ERS)
assesses ego resilience, which is a personal capacity to
adapt to uncertainty (Block & Kremen, 1996). The
Adolescents' Emotional Resilience Questionnaire
(AERQ) measures adolescents' ability to generate positive
emotions and recover quickly from negative emotional
experiences (Zhang & Lu, 2010). The Academic Resil-
ience Scale (ARS) evaluates students' academic resilience,
manifested in adaptive cognitive, affective, and behav-
ioral responses to academic adversity (Cassidy, 2016).
The Family Resiliency Assessment Scale (FRAS) assesses
resilience in the family context, in which individuals may
counter family adversity, and the items include belief
systems, organizational patterns, and problem-solving
(Sixbey, 2005).
Trait mindfulness
Synthesizing previous studies, we found that trait
mindfulness had been extensively studied and might be
related to resilience. Mindfulness can be considered a
trait or a state (Brown & Ryan, 2003). Trait mindfulness
is an inherent capability that refers to paying attention
to internal and external experiences in the current
moment in a nonjudgmental, nonreactive, and receptive
way (Baer et al., 2006; Brown & Ryan, 2003), which
varies across individuals (Brown & Ryan, 2003). State
mindfulness refers to the extent to which a person
experiences mindfulness at a particular given moment
(Brown & Ryan, 2003). It has been established that
mindfulness begins as an intermittent natural state and
an educable skill and can be developed into an enduring
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ZHANG ET AL.
mental trait through practice by repeatedly invoking a
mindful state (Goleman & Davidson, 2017). That is, as
the state mindfulness becomes stable and becomes a
trait, it is also regarded as a personality representation
that emphasizes individuals' ability to remain aware and
attentive to the experience of the present moment
(Brown & Ryan, 2003). Therefore, in this study, we focus
on trait mindfulness. Trait mindfulness has identified
some intercorrelated facets (Baer et al., 2006). For
instance, nonjudging refers to a non-evaluative attitude
toward the inner experience of thoughts and feelings
(Baer et al., 2008); nonreacting tends to allow thoughts
and feelings of inner experience to come and go without
being caught up or carried away by them, avoiding
impulsive reactions to the inner experience (Baer
et al., 2006, 2008).
Trait mindfulness is usually measured by self-report
unidimensional and multidimensional questionnaires.
For unidimensional measurement, the Mindful
Attention Awareness Scale (MAAS) focuses on
individuals' general tendency to be attentive and aware
of what is happening in the present moment in daily life
(Brown & Ryan, 2003). The Freiburg Mindfulness
Inventory (FMI) measures mindfulness from a wide
range of conceptualizations, including nonjudgmental
present moment observation and openness to experience
(Walach et al., 2006). The Cognitive and Affective Mind-
fulness Scale-Revised (CAMS-R) assesses mindfulness
from four processes (awareness, attention, focus on the
present, acceptance/nonjudgment) concerning thoughts
and feelings in general daily experience (Feldman
et al., 2007). In terms of multidimensional measure-
ments, the Five Facet Mindfulness Questionnaire
(FFMQ) considers mindfulness as five different facets,
which include acting with awareness, describing, observ-
ing, nonjudgment, and nonreactivity (Baer et al., 2006),
helping to gain more comprehensive evaluations of
mindfulness. Some of the measurements mentioned
above place a significant focus on a certain aspect of
mindfulness, such as awareness (e.g., the MAAS)
(Brown & Ryan, 2003) or nonjudgmental observation
and openness to experience (e.g., the FMI) (Walach
et al., 2006). Other measurements (e.g., the FFMQ)
focus on the multidimensional facets of mindfulness
(Baer et al., 2006).
Trait mindfulness and resilience
Several studies have confirmed a relationship between
trait mindfulness and resilience. The mindfulness reper-
ceiving model is proposed by Shapiro et al. (2006) based
on previous work on the constructs and models of

THE RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN TRAIT MINDFULNESS AND RESILIENCE: A META-ANALYSIS
mindfulness, and the following presentation might be
helpful in explaining this relationship. This model
argues that through mindfulness, individuals can disi-
dentify themselves from the content of consciousness
(i.e., one's thoughts) and view their moment-by-moment
experiences more clearly and objectively (Shapiro
et al., 2006). This process is called reperceiving, which
involves a significant shift in perspective. Rather than
being immersed in the story, individuals can stand back
and simply witness it (Shapiro et al., 2006). Specifically,
reperceiving allows people to step back from negative
emotions and see them as simply an emotional state
that will pass away in time (Shapiro et al., 2006). This
process makes people have an increased tolerance for
unpleasant internal states (Shapiro et al., 2006), which
may increase the tolerance of stressful situations or
adversity and then promote their levels of resilience
(Leontopoulou, 2006).
Research on the relationship between trait mindful-
ness and resilience has increased recently. Some stud-
ies confirmed this relationship (Bajaj & Pande, 2016;
Freligh & Debb, 2019; Harris, 2019; Malinowski &
Lim, 2015; McArthur et al., 2017), but others found no
correlation (Huang et al., 2019; Kemper et al., 2016;
Nila et al., 2016). Liu et al. (2022) found a positive
correlation (r = 0.465) between trait mindfulness and
resilience using a meta-analysis based on 20 studies
with 7,988 participants. However, this study only
included university students. Thus, a meta-analytic
review of literature that includes different samples is
necessary to deepen our more comprehensive under-
standing of the relationship between trait mindfulness
and resilience.
Potential moderators
To better clarify the previous inconsistent findings on
the relationship between trait mindfulness and resilience,
the following potential moderators should be considered
into analysis.
Gender
Males and females experience mental health problems
differently (Conversano et al., 2020). Compared with
males, several studies showed that females sensed nega-
tive emotions more often (Carmassi et al., 2018; Hagborg
et al., 2017), which led to their suffering at a higher risk
of mental issues (such as depression and anxiety) (Ren
et al., 2021; Soysa & Wilcomb, 2015). This may be
because males exhibit higher levels of resilience in coping
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315
with adversity than females (Sabir et al., 2018). Therefore,
given the variations in vulnerability to emotional prob-
lems and the ability to deal with difficulties between
males and females, examining whether gender alters the
relationship between trait mindfulness and resilience is
necessary.
Age
People of various ages own different stress experiences
differently (Cohen, 1988; Hamarat et al., 2001), which
may lead to varying levels of resilience. Li et al. (2022)
investigated mental health status of 71,929 children
and adolescents aged 6–16 years in five provinces of
China and concluded that the prevalence of emotional
and behavioral problems was 17.5%. Stress in the early
years may increase the risk of behavioral and
emotional problems (Schore, 1997), resulting from
deprivation of resilience (Arslan, 2016; Haddadi &
Besharat, 2010). For example, compared with children
and adolescents, adults (between 50 and 85 years old)
encounter more stress (such as divorce and poor
health) and may be more likely to regulate it
with trait mindfulness they possess (de Frias &
Whyne, 2015). Similarly, Gooding et al. (2012) showed
that older adults (> 64 years old) were more resilient
than the young (between 18 and 25 years old) in the
UK, especially in emotional regulation abilities and
problem-solving skills. Therefore, it is reasonable to
assume that age may play an essential role in explain-
ing the relationship between trait mindfulness and
resilience, since individuals at divergent age levels are
initially distinguished in capabilities of dealing with
adversities.
Facet of mindfulness
Based on the dimensions of mindfulness scales
mentioned above, in our research, we classified the
facet of mindfulness into general mindfulness, aware-
ness, describing, observing, nonjudging, and nonreact-
ing. Several studies have produced mixed results on the
association between resilience and facets of trait mind-
fulness (Dong et al., 2021; Freligh & Debb, 2019). For
example, previous studies found a positive relationship
between awareness, describing, observing, nonjudging,
nonreacting, and resilience (Feliu-Soler et al., 2016;
Harris, 2019; Malinowski & Lim, 2015). However,
no correlation was found between awareness,
describing, observing, nonjudging, and resilience
in studies investigating young and middle-aged samples

316
(Freligh & Debb, 2019; Jabbari et al., 2016; McArthur
et al., 2017; Nila et al., 2016; Wang et al., 2016). In
some studies, awareness, describing, and nonjudging
were negatively associated with resilience (Dong
et al., 2021; Pincock & Terrill, 2020). Therefore, the
facet of mindfulness is included as a possible moderator
for our meta-analysis.
Aspect of resilience
The inconsistent findings on the relationship between
trait mindfulness and resilience may also be caused
by the fact that some aspects of resilience (such as ego
resilience, emotional resilience, academic resilience, and
family resilience) are more closely associated with trait
mindfulness than others. For instance, studies showed a
positive association between trait mindfulness and ego
resilience in samples of Chinese undergraduates (mean
age = 18.91) and Oceania adults (mean age = 27.36)
(Horan, 2017; Liang et al., 2022). Wang et al. (2016)
found that emotional resilience was significantly and pos-
itively associated with different facets of mindfulness,
such as awareness, describing, and nonreacting among
404 university students in China. In addition, three other
studies showed a positive correlation between trait mind-
fulness and academic resilience, and family resilience
(Jabbari et al., 2016; Mitchell, 2020; Trujillo, 2021). How-
ever, in other studies, emotional resilience and family
resilience were not related to trait mindfulness
(i.e., observing and nonjudging) (Jabbari et al., 2016;
Wang et al., 2016). A study even showed a negative rela-
tionship between trait mindfulness and family resilience
in 260 parents of exceptional students (Jabbari
et al., 2016). Therefore, the aspect of resilience may mod-
erate the relationship between trait mindfulness and
resilience.
The present study
To the best of our knowledge, no previous meta-analysis
has explored the synthesized relationship between trait
mindfulness and resilience. Furthermore, previous
research findings on the relationship between trait mind-
fulness and resilience remain inconclusive.
Filled with the above research gap, this study aimed
to investigate the relationship between trait mindfulness
and resilience based on existing research data and
explore the possible factors that may affect this relation-
ship. To fulfill the research aims, first, the current
meta-analysis utilized a three-level random-effects
model, which is suitable for obtaining a more accurate
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ZHANG ET AL.
overall result when facing on studies that contains
multiple effect sizes (Van den Noortgate et al., 2013).
Second, we utilized a moderator analysis approach in
the present study to account for the inconsistent
findings between trait mindfulness and resilience in
prior studies.
Based on the literature review and the relatively
consistent findings regarding the relationship between
trait mindfulness and resilience, we hypothesized a
positive correlation between trait mindfulness and
resilience. However, due to the mixed results of previ-
ous studies, we cannot hypothesize specifically about
the effect of moderators on trait mindfulness and
resilience.
METHOD
Literature search and study selection
Five databases, including Web of Science, Scopus, Pro-
Quest Dissertations, PsycINFO, PubMed, and ERIC
(Educational Resources Information Centre), were used
for the initial search of articles on December 15, 2021.
The keywords selected for searching articles related to
trait mindfulness and resilience are (“mindfulness” OR
“dispositional mindfulness” OR “trait mindfulness” OR
“mindfulness traits” OR “mindful”) AND (“psychological
resilience” OR “resilien*”). In addition, to avoid the pos-
sibility of any omission of the target literature, the
authors checked the reference lists of the articles identi-
fied for inclusion in the final analysis and conducted
additional searches for the above keywords using a
search engine with more extensive content, such as
Google Scholar. No additional restrictions were placed on
the date of publication when searching the literature as
the publications relevant to the current study were of
recent date.
The initial search generated a total of 4,064 items.
The following selection criteria were created to further
restrict the target literature:
a. complete English version of the manuscript available;
b. accessible studies published in journals or
dissertations;
c. correlation (r) between actual trait or dispositional
mindfulness and resilience, not the changes of the
above two variables were reported. Or, at the very
least, data that can be converted into a correlation
(r) provided.
Only articles that meet these three criteria were
selected for final analysis.

THE RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN TRAIT MINDFULNESS AND RESILIENCE: A META-ANALYSIS
The whole selection process meets the Preferred
Reporting Items for Systematic Reviews and Meta-
Analyses requirements (PRISMA) (Moher et al., 2011).
Coding of study features
To fully utilize the data from all articles for analysis, the
coding scheme was formulated as follows: (1) name of
the first author; (2) publication year; (3) publication type
(journal or dissertation); (4) region (North America,
Europe, Oceania, Africa, or Asia); (5) sample size;
(6) mean age of participants; (7) percentage of partici-
pants identifying as males; (8) measurement of mindful-
ness (MAAS, FFMQ/Five-Aspect Mindfulness
Questionnaire (FAMQ), FMI, Child and Adolescent
Mindfulness Measure (CAMM), CAMS-R, sub-
dimensions of Self-Compassion Scale (SCS), Comprehen-
sive Inventory of Mindfulness Experience (CHIME), or
others); (9) facet of mindfulness (general, awareness,
describing, observing, nonjudging, nonreacting, or
others); (10) measurement of resilience (CD-RISC, BRS,
RS, ERS, Child and Youth Resilience Measure (CYRM),
Psychological Capital Questionnaire (PCQ), John Henry-
ism Scale (JHS), AERQ, Dispositional Resilience Scale-15
(DRS-15), Academic Resilience Scale-30 (ARS-30), FRAS,
or others); (11) aspect of resilience (general, ego, emo-
tional, academic, family, or others); (12) career (mixed,
students, company employees, educators, military/police/
security guards/veteran, clinical, patients, caregivers,
prisoners, or others); and (13) correlations (r) between
trait mindfulness and resilience.
Based on the previously published meta-analysis, this
study followed the below steps in coding the screened
articles (Zhang et al., 2022). First, two trained coders
independently coded three randomly selected articles
from all articles to gain an agreement on the coding cri-
teria and to build inter-coder reliability. After reaching
a consensus on the coding criteria for the articles, the
two coders worked independently on the remaining
100 articles to ensure a final agreement rate of 95%.
Finally, the remaining inconsistent results were discussed
and modified by the two coders to obtain the coding
results.
Quality appraisal
To ascertain that the literature included in the analysis
had good quality, two authors of this study cross-checked
the articles by adopting the quality of ratings developed
by prior studies (He et al., 2019, 2020). Six items were
included in the customized assessment tool: the sampling
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317
process, the study response rate, the availability of first-
hand data, the validity and reliability of the trait mindful-
ness and resilience measurements, and the result of the
link between trait mindfulness and resilience. In the
marking criteria of the quality of ratings, one mark is
given to those essays that meet the requirements and zero
marks to those that do not. The final mark for each essay
is obtained by dividing the total mark for each essay by
six. Two authors performed a blind review of all papers
in this study, comparing the results, reviewing the results
for inconsistencies, and arriving at a final score that rep-
resents the quality of each article.
Analysis plan
We utilized the metafor package for R 4.0.0 (Team, 2020)
for all data analysis (Viechtbauer, 2010). As estimation
bias may occur due to the variance of the closely depen-
dent conditions, the original correlations were converted
to Fisher's Zr and used in the subsequent analysis proce-
dure. Fisher's Zrs were then reverse converted into corre-
lation coefficients when the results were displayed.
For outlier analysis, the altimetric package featuring
“meta-outliers” was used (Lin & Chu, 2018). A study is
considered an outlier if it has a standard residual of more
than 3 (Viechtbauer & Cheung, 2010).
Heterogeneity was analyzed by the Cochrane Q statis-
tical test, which is a frequently used indicator of unex-
plained heterogeneity (Higgins et al., 2003). Begg's rank
correlation test (Egger et al., 1997) and the funnel plot's
symmetry (Duval & Tweedie, 2000) were adopted to eval-
uate publication bias.
To avoid the interaction of different effect sizes of the
same study, a three-level random-effects meta-analysis
model was used to decompose the different sources of
variation, which explains the relationship between vari-
ables by analyzing a sample of subjects within an experi-
ment (level 1), effect sizes of the studies (level 2), and
effect size variation between studies (level 3) (Van den
Noortgate et al., 2013).
RESULTS
Description of studies selected
A flow chart illustrating the study selection process is
showed in Figure 1. In total, 4,064 studies were included
in the initial search. After removing duplicates, 1,933
items remained. After reading the abstracts and scanning
the body of the articles, only 451 articles were found to
meet the specification and were retained. Finally, after a
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318 ZHANG ET AL.

FIGURE 1 Selection process

flowchart.

careful review of the full text, 103 papers were included

in the current meta-analysis (Appendix S2, see the sup-
porting information).
Across all studies, there were 110 independent sample
sizes and 199 effect sizes. Altogether, 35,578 samples
were involved. In the experiments that provided the pro-
portion of males, the percentage of male samples ranged
from 0% to 100%. The mean age of the sample ranged
between 10.82 and 64.02. Of the total effect sizes, 135 were
from the West, 58 were from the East, and 6 were from
Africa. In addition, there were 182 effect sizes reported
on the existence of a relationship between trait mindful-
ness and resilience (91.46% of the total effect sizes).

Quality assessment

As Appendix S1 (see the supporting information)

showed, an evaluation of the sample of selected articles,
F I G U R E 2 Baujat plot. Note. Each number represents one
methodology of the studies and data processing was car-
effect size included in this research.
ried out. The assessment scores of the included studies
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319

F I G U R E 3 Forest plot for all samples. Notes. The horizontal lines show 95% confidence interval; the diamond represents the point
THE RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN TRAIT MINDFULNESS AND RESILIENCE: A META-ANALYSIS

estimate and confidence interval of the pooled effect size.

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320 ZHANG ET AL.

ranged from 67% to 100%, with a mean percentage score
of 78.11%, indicating good methodological quality.
Outlier detection
Two effect sizes were identified as the outliers, which has
been shown in Figure 2. Two effect sizes, naming number
75 and 134, were excluded in the final analysis of
the data.
Overall analysis
(r = 0.349; 95% CI: 0.567, 0.131; p = 0.002) were
revealed to significantly affect the connection between
trait mindfulness and resilience. Fourth, regarding mea-
surement of resilience, the CD-RISC (r = 0.454; 95% CI:
0.406, 0.502; p < 0.001), the AERQ (r = 0.179; 95% CI:
0.351, 0.007; p = 0.042), and the FRAS (r = 0.375;
95% CI: 0.596, 0.154; p < 0.001) had a significant
impact on the relationship between trait mindfulness and
resilience. Fifth, it was also yielded that the older the sub-
jects were, the stronger the relationship between their
resilience and trait mindfulness (r = 0.313; 95% CI: 0.205,
0.421; p < 0.001).

The values of the 197 effect coefficients examining the
association between trait mindfulness and resilience in
103 studies ranged from 0.45 to 0.753. The overall cor-
relation was 0.385 (95% CI: 0.3590, 0.4114; p < 0.001).
Substantial variation across effect sizes
(Q [df = 196] = 1243.6429, p < 0.0001) suggested the need
for additional moderator analysis. Figure 3 showed the
Forest plot for all samples.
Publication bias
The Rank Correlation Test for Funnel Plot Asymmetry
demonstrated that no publication bias existed for
research testing the relationship between trait mindful-
ness and resilience (Kendall's tau = 0.0798, p = 0.0992)
(Figure 4).

DISCUSSION
Moderator analysis
This present study included two research aims. The first
Table S1 (see the supporting information) showed the was to explore whether trait mindfulness was associated
moderator analysis results. There were five statistically with resilience by synthesizing previous studies. The sec-
significant factors: facet of mindfulness with ond was deepening the understanding of the underlying
F(6, 190) = 6.181 ( p < 0.001), measurement of mindfulness mechanism between trait mindfulness and resilience. For
with F(7, 191) = 4.758 ( p < 0.001), aspect of resilience with
F(5, 191) = 3.455 ( p < 0.05), measurement of resilience
with F(11, 185) = 2.256 (p < 0.05), and mean age with
F(1, 150) = 4.588 (p < 0.05). The rest of the moderators
were nonsignificant.
The internal results of each moderator are as follows.
First, for facet of mindfulness, general (r = 0.453; 95% CI:
0.414, 0.491; p < .001), awareness (r = 0.119; 95% CI:
0.215, 0.023; p = 0.016), describing (r = 0.121; 95%
CI: 0.225, 0.016; p = 0.024), observing (r = 0.247;
95% CI: 0.356, 0.137; p < 0.001), and nonjudging
(r = 0.215; 95% CI: 0.311, 0.118; p < 0.001) were
shown to significantly alter the association between trait
mindfulness and resilience compared with other catego-
ries belong to this moderator. Second, as for measure-
ment of mindfulness, the MAAS (r = 0.366; 95% CI:
0.313, 0.419; p < 0.001), the FMI (r = 0.258; 95% CI:
0.112, 0.404; p < 0.001), the CAMS-R (r = 0.262; 95% CI:
0.124, 0.399; p < 0.001), and others (r = 0.256; 95% CI:
0.082, 0.430; p = 0.004) were shown to significantly vary
the association between trait mindfulness and resilience.
Third, considering aspect of resilience, general F I G U R E 4 Funnel plot. Note. Black circles are the studies
(r = 0.428; 95% CI: 0.393, 0.463; p < 0.001) and family included in the meta-analysis.

THE RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN TRAIT MINDFULNESS AND RESILIENCE: A META-ANALYSIS
the first research aim, we utilized a three-level meta-
analysis model to investigate the relationship between
trait mindfulness and resilience. The results indicated
that trait mindfulness was significantly and positively
correlated to resilience, which was consistent with most
of previous findings (Adarves-Yorno et al., 2020; Calvo
et al., 2020; Cano et al., 2020; Chen, Wang, et al., 2021;
Musil et al., 2021).
Overall effect
A possible explanation for the significant and positive
relationship between trait mindfulness and resilience
might be that individuals with higher levels of trait mind-
fulness are able to take a more detached view of adverse
conditions, which is beneficial for enhancing resilience.
According to the mindfulness reperceiving model, highly
mindful individuals easily step back from negative emo-
tions (Shapiro et al., 2006). Subsequently, they may reper-
ceive the present moment, which enables them to view
the current emotional state objectively as witnesses
(Shapiro et al., 2006). Hence, when facing hardships,
individuals equipped with higher levels of trait mindful-
ness are less likely to be stuck into passive emotions,
which is helpful for building resilience (Shapiro
et al., 2006).
Moderator analysis
For the second research aim, we conducted a moderator
analysis to deeply understand what factors
might influence the link between trait mindfulness and
resilience. Total five moderators (i.e., facet of mindful-
ness, measurement of mindfulness, aspect of resilience,
measurement of resilience, and mean age) showed signif-
icant moderating effects. Possible explanations for these
moderators are illustrated in sequence as follows.
First, among the facets of mindfulness adopted in this
study, general mindfulness, observing, describing, aware-
ness, and nonjudging were revealed to significantly alter
the relationship between trait mindfulness and resilience.
General mindfulness is considered an inclusive facet that
could reflect the overall level of trait mindfulness. It is
reasonable to infer that an enhanced correlation between
trait mindfulness and resilience is likely to occur in those
who demonstrate a higher level of general mindfulness
(Pérez-Aranda et al., 2021). As for observing, describing,
and awareness, these three facets of mindfulness could
promote reperceiving and thus improved resilience.
Observing and describing internal experiences make indi-
viduals intentionally aware of the present consciousness's
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321
content (Lilja et al., 2013). Those who are clearly sense
their consciousness's content are no longer entirely
embedded in the content, contributing to reperceiving
the present state (Shapiro et al., 2006). Therefore, with
the support of observing, describing, and awareness, indi-
viduals with higher levels of trait mindfulness
are capable of showing better-behaved resilience. Con-
cerning nonjudging, it manifests as an open attitude to
inner experience (Ma & Siu, 2020; Xu et al., 2017). There-
fore, when encountering difficulties, nonjudging assists
mindful individuals in avoiding negative emotions
caused by overblaming themselves (Jin & Miao, 2021)
and then escaping dilemmas (Jin & Miao, 2021; Song &
Bae, 2022).
Second, three measurements of mindfulness, includ-
ing the MAAS, the CAMS-R, and the FMI, showed
remarkable moderating effects on the association
between trait mindfulness and resilience in comparison
to the rest scales. Based on existing research, these three
scales were widely utilized and demonstrated good valid-
ity and reliability in various samples (Asthana, 2021;
Neufeld et al., 2020; Olson & Kemper, 2014; Rees
et al., 2016). Thus, measuring trait mindfulness by the
MAAS, the FMI, and the CAMS-R could reflect the gen-
eral level of mindfulness in the population, which may
explain why they were better able to reveal the
significant link between trait mindfulness and resilience.
Third, amidst various aspects of resilience adopted in
moderating analysis, general resilience and family resil-
ience could adjust the correlation between trait mindful-
ness and resilience. General resilience in this research
represents a stable capacity to thrive in adversities
(Connor & Davidson, 2003; Seiler & Jenewein, 2019).
Compared with resilience activated under specific situa-
tions (e.g., academic resilience) (Cassidy, 2016), general
resilience could be awakened no matter what difficulties
individuals encounter or what environment individuals
situate in. As a result, individuals with high levels of
overall resilience benefit from the nourishing effect of
resilience on mindfulness regardless of circumstances,
and therefore the relationship between trait mindfulness
and resilience is more pronounced in them (Wang &
Kong, 2020). As for family resilience, it is defined as the
stimulated self-repair ability of family members when
they confront a certain crunch (Patterson, 2002;
Walsh, 1996). Two perspectives could explain its moder-
ating effect on the association between trait mindfulness
and resilience. On the one hand, the strong will of family
members formed after suffering traumas underpins high
levels of family resilience. Family traumas may be caused
by force majeure factors, such as exceptional children
and cancer couples (Chen, Xie, & Huang, 2021; Jabbari
et al., 2016). Family members could only tackle those

322
difficulties but not escape, which makes them develop
strong willpower. Such willpower could act as a protec-
tive barrier for shaking off overwhelmed negative mind-
sets (Veilleux et al., 2021), allowing family members to
immerse in mindful states and elevate resilience. On the
other hand, family cohesion may be a power source for
high-level resilience. When confronting conjunctures,
obtaining support from relatives makes family members
more likely to cope with problems with optimism and
strength so that they can get better resilience than the
average person (Li et al., 2018; Pagorek-Eshel &
Finklestein, 2019).
Fourth, the findings revealed that three measure-
ments of resilience (i.e., the CD-RISC, the FRAS, and the
AERQ) could modulate the association between trait
mindfulness and resilience. All three scales were widely
implemented and exhibited good validity and reliability
in diverse samples (Feliu-Soler et al., 2016; Jabbari
et al., 2016; Wang et al., 2016). Therefore, resilience mea-
sured by three scales mentioned earlier could represent
its general level in the crowd. In this way, it may explain
why the CD-RISC, the FRAS, and the AERQ moderated
the link between trait mindfulness and resilience.
Fifth, we found a more robust connection between
trait mindfulness and resilience as age increased. This
result may be explained from two aspects. One possible
reason is that advanced cognition conduces to the incre-
mental resilience of mindful individuals. Based on the
previous findings, cognitive functions progressively
develop with the gradually matured prefrontal cortex
from infancy to adulthood (Calabro et al., 2020;
Shimamura, 2000). Adults with well-functioned cognition
tend to shift angles of view toward positive orientations
when dealing with problems, which brings about awak-
ened resilience (Cohn et al., 2009). The other reason may
be that elders with rich life experience prefer to accept
adversities and resolve difficulties with positive mindsets
conducive to extricating from plights (Kessler &
Staudinger, 2009).
To summarize what was discussed above, this study
utilized a three-level meta-analysis model to investigate
the relationship between trait mindfulness and resilience.
The findings showed that high-level trait mindfulness
predicted strong resilience, which could be explained by
the fact that individuals in the state of mindfulness were
prone to reperceiving current situations, which triggers
resilience. Furthermore, several potential moderators
were analyzed to explore the underlying mechanism
between trait mindfulness and resilience. Five modera-
tors significantly affected the correlation between trait
mindfulness and resilience, including the facet of mind-
fulness, measurement of mindfulness, aspect of resil-
ience, measurement of resilience, and mean age. The
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ZHANG ET AL.
comprehensive analysis in the present study confirmed
the positive and significant correlation between trait
mindfulness and resilience, which provided solid theoret-
ical underpinnings for an in-depth understanding of how
trait mindfulness was linked to resilience.
LIMITATIONS A ND FUTURE
RESEAR CH DIR ECTIONS
Some limitations should be considered when explaining
the current findings. The Language was set to English
when filtering the targeted studies, and some gray
literature (e.g., ongoing studies) would not appear in
the general search process. These may result in some lit-
erature being lost in our research analysis. Therefore,
future meta-analyses should include enriched studies to
provide a more comprehensive analysis of relevant
issues.
CONCLUSION AND I MPLICATIONS
Our meta-analysis confirmed a significant and positive
correlation between trait mindfulness and resilience. Fur-
thermore, the facet of mindfulness, measurement of
mindfulness, aspect of resilience, measurement of resil-
ience, and age were demonstrated as the moderators that
might explain the inconsistent results between trait
mindfulness and resilience.
The findings from our meta-analysis have several
practical implications. According to the positive correla-
tion between trait mindfulness and resilience yielded in
our study, individuals may consider improving resilience
by increasing their levels of trait mindfulness. To be more
specific, mindfulness interventions (e.g., mindfulness-
based therapy, MBT; mindfulness-based stress reduction,
MBSR; mindfulness-based intervention, MBI) have
been shown to effectively improve physical and mental
health (Irving et al., 2009; Janssen et al., 2018; Khoury
et al., 2013), and thereby may funtion well in increasing
levels of resilience (Chin et al., 2019; Galante
et al., 2018). Therefore, future research on improving
resilience could consider using interventions to make it
more accessible for people to maintain a mindfulness
state, enhance trait mindfulness and coping strategies,
and strengthen their resilience.
AUTHOR CONTRIBUTIONS
YM and JZ contributed to the research design. YM, YW,
and YZ collected relevant articles, YM and YZ completed
the coding. YW analyzed the data. YM drafted the intro-
duction, YW drafted the method and results, and YZ

THE RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN TRAIT MINDFULNESS AND RESILIENCE: A META-ANALYSIS
drafted the discussion. All authors carefully revised the
manuscript and read and approved the final version of
the manuscript.
CONFLICT OF INTEREST STATEMENT
The authors declare that there are no competing
interests.
DATA AVAILABILITY STATEMENT
The raw data for this article can be found online (https://
doi.org/10.6084/m9.figshare.22179643).
E TH IC S ST A T EME N T
Ethics statement is not required for conducting meta-
analysis because the data are secondary.
ORCID
Yidi Mao https://orcid.org/0000-0002-7020-483X
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