Noncontacting Strain Measurements at High
Temperatures by the Digital Laser Speckle Technique
by M. Anwander, B. G. Zagar, B. Weiss and H. Weiss
ABSTRACT--This paper presents a newly developed laser-
based noncontacting strain sensor suitable for temperatures
up to t200~ which was adapted to a comrnercial tensile
testing machine equipped with an electrical furnace. The
principle of the strain sensor is based on tracking laser speck-
les through a digital correlation technique. Furthermore, the
description of the signal processing and the optical arrange-
ment is presented. Based on the experimental data, it can
be shown that this simple, laser-based strain sensor can be
used successfully for the determination of mechanical and
thermal strains up to temperatures of about 1200~ Using a
special data-processing procedure, it was feasible to minimize
decorrelation effects caused by changes in the specimen sur-
face due to, for example, slipband and microcrack formation,
surface oxidation and phase transformation and, thus, mea-
sure large mechanical strains. The strain resolution for the
selected setup was about 20 microstrains depending on the
testing parameters.
KEY WORDS--Strain measurement, digital speckle correla-
tion technique, thermal strain, large mechanical strain, high
test temperature
In the field of mechanical testing of materials at elevated
temperatures, it is for various reasons desirable to determine
mechanical and thermal strain values with noncontacting op-
tical methods. Both standard clip gages and strain gages are
very limited in their operational temperature range, and even
if applicable, they may cause local damage of the specimen
surface or cause chemical surface reactions.
Most of the published optical systems aim for the deter-
mination of strain fields. A survey of the most commonly
used optical methods is given in Refs. 1-3 presenting their
applicability, resolution and limitations.
The best documented methods, which are used mostly for
room temperature tests, are the holographic techniques,4 laser
speckle interferometry, digital speckle shearography,5 moir6
methods,6'7 speckle correlation techniquesl'8 and laser inter-
M. Anwander (SEM Member) is a post doc. at the Inst. of Material Physics,
University of Vienna, A-f090 Austria. B. G. Zagar is Associate Profes-
sor in the Department of Electrical Measurement and Measurement Signal
Processing, Technical University Graz, A~OIO Graz, Austria. B. Weiss is
Professor at the Institute of Material Physics, University of Vienna, A-1090
Austria. H. Weiss is Full Professor in the Department of Electrical Mea-
surement and Measurement Signal Processing, Technical University Graz,
A-8010 Graz, Austria.
Original manuscript submitted: September 10, 1998.
Final manuscript received: September 13, 1999.
98 w Vot. 40, No. 1, March 2000
ferometer systems 9,10 In particular, for high-temperature ap-
plications the following methods are most often described in
the literature: the computer vision technique, electronic laser
speckle interferometry (ESPI) and the digital laser speckle
correlation technique.
Lr 11 used ESPI to measure in-plane deformation
fields up to about 1500~ reporting problems with turbu-
lence, changes in the microstructure of the specimen sur-
face, background radiation and mechanical stability. The
thermal strain fields of metal ceramic compounds were de-
termined using digital speckle pattern interferometry up to
about 300~ In the framework of the joined European ac-
tion (COST Action 510), t2 both an ESPI system and a laser
speckle correlation-based system (to be described in this pa-
per) are being developed for applications in mechanical test-
ing at very high temperatures. Preliminary experimental re-
sults are reported in Refs. 13 and 14.
Speckle interferometric systems experience problems due
to the mechanical stability, in-plane and out-of-plane move-
ments, in practical realization of the determination of strain.
The computer vision technique introduced in Refs. 1, 15 and
24 to measure full-field in-plane surface deformation at tem-
peratures up to 650~ based on the digital image correlation
technique seems to be an attractive method. However, as re-
ported by the authors, this technique is limited until now to
temperatures causing little self-radiation, since it uses white-
light images. In addition, precaution has to be taken to use
a furnace window of high quality to prevent image distor-
tion, and the entire measuring system has to be placed on a
vibration-isolated optical table. The mechanical strain val-
ues reported in Ref. 15 were determined in the elastic strain
regime only. Coburn and Slevin 16 reported an automated
digital speckle system for the use of nondestructive testing
of ceramic specimens up to 600~ Their system is based
on the nonrecoverable loss of correlation, which they relate
to irreversible changes of the ceramic surfaces. A recently
introduced noncontacting Doppler laser extensometer 17 ap-
plying spatial and temporal heterodyning by the use of a com-
mercially available two-frequency laser is able to determine
stress-strain curves of stainless steel specimens in the tem-
perature range of -40~ to 400~ The advantages reported
are the determination of the mechanical response of materi-
als at high strain rates; however, difficulties may arise due
to the low laser intensity, especially with higher specimen
temperatures and materials with impaired reflectivities.
Only a very limited amount of the described noncontact-
ing optical techniques to determine strain refer to a practical
realization of adapting such a system to a commercial ten-
sile testing machine. Due to this fact, it was the main goal
of this investigation to develop a laser-based noncontacting
strain sensor with the following properties: insensitive to
in-plane and out-of-plane movement of the mechanical test
system, with a high mechanical stability and easily adaptable
to testing machines. This sensor should essentially replace
the surface displacement conveying levers of clip gages by
laser optical means and should be operating up to 1200~
The principle of the system is based on tracking laser speckles
through a digital correlation technique, with special emphasis
being placed on overcoming the well-known decorrelation
effects.
The paper is structured as follows. First, properties of
laser speckles are detailed, followed by a short description
of the signal processing and the description of the optical ar-
rangement adapted to mechanical testing machines. Based on
the experience obtained from measurements about the defor-
mation characteristics of various materials, the applicability
and limitations of such a laser-based strain sensor will be
presented,
Basic Principles
Laser Speckles
Laser speckles are a phenomenon that is experienced if an
optically rough surface is illuminated by a highly coherent
laser source. They are formed by the interference ofdephased
but coherent wavelets emanating from different microscopic
elements of the specimen surface and have a random-looking
pattern, an example of which is shown in Fig. 1. Usually,
objective and subjective speckles can be distinguished. Ob-
jective speckles form in a free-space geometry and can be
projected onto a screen, whereas subjective speckles form in
the image plane of an optical system. 18
Two important properties of laser speckles need to be men-
tioned, both of which are dependent on the statistics of the
surface, namely, its roughness and its reflectance properties.
However, they also very much depend on the features of the
optics used to image speckle patterns.
Referring to Fig. 2, the typical size Po of objective speck-
les forming at a distance d from the scattering surface for
free-space geometry can be shown to depend on the size D
of the illuminated spot, the distance d to the screen and the
wavelength k ~s as given in eq (1):
Xd
Oo -~ - - . (1)
D
The typical size of subjective speckles Ps (in an imaging
geometry) can be calculated similarly if the limiting aperture
size Dlens is used instead of the spot size D in eq (1).
Fig. 1--Typical speckle image as recorded by an area scan
camera placed 135 mm apart from a rough aluminum speci-
men (the average speckle diameter is ~ 601~m)
Fig. 2--Defining the formation of objective and subjective
speckles
The power spectral density and the maximum spatial band-
width of the speckle intensity distribution in an imaging ge-
ometry is also important. It can be shown to consist of a
Dirac function (representing the mean intensity) plus the an-
tocorrelation function of the intensity distribution over the
lens pupil. 18 This property allows one to influence the spa-
tial bandwidth simply by adjusting the pupil function using
appropriate aperture stops.
Standard cross-correlation methods (see also Ref. 1) are
used to determine translations of speckle fields over time, and
it becomes clear that higher spatial bandwidth gives narrower
cross-correlation estimates, resulting in more accurate lag
parameters.
Signal Processing
In this section, the processing of speckle patterns neces-
sary to obtain surface displacement vectors is described.
As is known, besides pure mechanical stress, rigid body
motion in three-dimensional, as well as tilt and rotation of
the specimen being tested, will occur in most commercial
mechanical testing systems. The image processing therefore
either needs to determine displacement components both in
the straining direction and perpendicular to the straining di-
rection or has to be performed in a way that ensures that the
sensitivity to the unwanted components is close to zero.
Yamaguchi8 has shown that by tracking speckle patterns
emanating from surface elements illuminated by laser light,
the surface element displacement can be calculated. It can
also be shown that tilt and rotation of these surface elements
occurring during and in addition to surface translation will
negatively affect the accuracy of the tracking unless so-called
focused speckles (subjective speckles) are used.
The principle setup for the determination of two-
dimensional surface element displacements (before and after
straining) by tracking speckles associated with them is shown
in Fig. 3.
The two-dimensional displacement vector 3surf is derived
from the location of the maximum of a digitally calculated
cross-correlation estimate as given in eq (2). 14 We define two
consecutive images I1(m, n) and I~(m, n) that represent the
digitized laser speckle images formed in the image plane of
the imaging optic (in Fig. 3) and recorded before and af-
ter an incremental surface displacement, respectively, using
a geometrically stable charge-coupled device (CCD) imag-
ing sensor with m and n being the coordinates of the light
ExperimentalMechanics 9 99
 Fourier transform algorithm j9 is of O(N 2 In N) (provided
that M is set equal to N and both are powers of two). Fur-
thermore, the cross-covariance estimate as given in eq (2) is
calculated from only a single realization of the random pro-
cess generating speckles. To improve the accuracy of the
displacement vector ~surf, several estimates have to be calcu-
lated and averaged over time, thereby further decreasing the
performance.
In a practical realization, two 64 • 64 pixel subimages are
correlated to give one displacement vector requiring approx-
imately 1 s of computation time per pair of images. A novel
method of greatly improving system performance by employ-
ing optical computing techniques is currently under investi-
gation, and preliminary results were published recently,z~

Experimental Procedures
The optical arrangement to determine strain within a spec-
Fig. 3--Tracking surface element displacement by determin- imen is depicted in Fig. 4. As was described in the preceding
ing translations of laser speckles sections, the tracking of focused subjective speckles emanat-
ing from surface elements can be employed to optically re-
place levers of clip gages. To measure engineering strain ~ of
sensitive elements (pixels) of the camera, 0 < m < M and the specimen, two more or less distant surface elements are
0 < n < N. These images are recorded, stored and then repeatedly tracked. By determining the cumulated surface
cross correlated using the spatially limited cross-covariance element displacement Asurf from the incremental displace-
estimate X(i, k) as given by ments between consecutive images Asurf using eq (5),
N-k-1 M-i-1
X(i,k)= { ~ ~ [I'(m,n)-(I'(m,n))] Asurf E ~surf, (5)
overall repetitions
n=k m=i
taking their difference, Al, and dividing by a selectable but
D
[I"(m. -- i, n -- k) - (I"(m - i, n -- k))]} constant distance 10, any strain value (both mechanical and
thermal) can be determined as
1
(M- l i I)(N- I k I)' (2) Al [AsurflI -- AsurfI]
= -- = (6)
10 10
where
i, k = space-lag argument To determine this strain value, the following technical ar-
M, N = total number of picture elements of the camera rangement consisting of an illuminating system and two dis-
in the m- and n-directions, respectively placement recording systems are used (see Fig. 4). The illu-
I r (n, m) = recorded image before surface displacement minating light source consists of either a 5 mW He-Ne laser
I~1(n,m) = recorded image after surface displacement (k = 633 nm) attached to a beam expander illuminating a
( . . . ) = mean value. circular area of approximately 25 mm in diameter with a
sufficient intensity to properly expose the CCD cameras or
The location of the maximum of X (i, k) defines the vector two collimated laser diode beams, each having a diameter of
~image as given in eq (3) and depicted in Fig. 3: 3 ram, whose output power can be selected between 5 mW

~irnage = arg max

/ viJc
[X(i, k)] /E =
An
which is proportional to the incremental surface element dis-
placement 5surf that can then be calculated by taking the op-
tical magnification V of the imaging system and geometrical
properties of the camera used into account:
~surf = "~" L A n P n J'
where
V = optical magnification (= image size/object size)
P,n = pixel pitch in coordinate m; here typically ~ 8.6 Ixm
Pn = pixel pitch in coordinate n; here typically ~ 8.3 Ixm
3surf = incremental surface displacement estimate.
It is easily seen that the numerical complexity of eq (2) even
if it is calculated using the numerically very efficient fast
'
(3)
and a maximum of 15 mW at k = 668 nm wavelength. The
latter illuminating system is especially well suited for high-
temperature testing of materials, since illuminating power
density at the specimen surface due to the laser light can
outweigh the thermal radiation of the specimen. The proper
exposure of the camera can then be controlled by a selectable
electronic shutter or by introducing filters into the optical
path.
The displacement recording system consists of two imag-
(4) ing systems with focal length f = 50 mm adjusted with
respect to the specimen and focused to yield an optical mag-
nification V ~ 3 and a standard 2/3 in. CCD camera feeding
their signals into a PC-based frame grabber where the sig-
nal processing as described is performed. The base length
l0 as given by the separation of the optical axes was selected
to be in good accordance with the base length of a standard
clip gage of ,~ 22 mm. For this setup, the resolution of the
displacement is physically limited by the wavelength used,

100 9 VoI. 40, No. 1, March 2000

 F
A rf I CCD sensor I
ns I 9,'--71 ~ Zasurfl
-do ~1~ di ~ CCD sensor II
F
Fig. 4---A prototype laser speckle cross-correlation-based
strain sensor using an optical magnification V = do/di to
enhance resolution
k, the aperture of the imaging lenses, Dlens and the pixel
pitch of the CCD camera. According to eq (1) for an aper-
ture Dlens of 5 ram, the average speckle diameter is about
8.3 Ixm, which is in good agreement with the camera's pixel
pitch of ~ 8.5 l~m. As already discussed, the displacement-
measuring procedure consists of a continuous comparison of
two speckle images at different times. One of the images is a
scaled, displaced and possibly distorted version of the other.
The distortion can be caused by any type of surface changes
(plastic deformation, oxidation effects, phase transformation
and turbulence, etc.) and will negatively affect the quality
of the correlation function. To overcome such decorrelation
effects, a repetitive reinitialization of the image acquisition
system is performed and speckle images are stored succes-
sively for later processing. Different time steps for image
acquisitions were selected based on experience with various
materials, temperatures and deformation parameters. Details
of the applied method are described in the next chapter (see
Figs. 6-10). The maximum measurement rate for this system
is one per second.
In the off-line signal processing, the correlation function
for pairs of consecutive images is calculated and the displace-
ment vectors determined according to eq (6). Adding up in-
dividual displacement differences (between the two record-
ing units) resulted in the total displacement difference, which
was converted to strain by dividing by l0 [eq (6)]. The optical
system was mounted to a base that was attached to a commer-
cial, mechanically driven tensile testing machine (Shimadzu
AG) with a load capacity of 50 kN. A water-cooled chamber
in combination with an electrical furnace that covers 2/3 of
the circumference of the specimen was designed. This setup
allows one to reach specimen temperatures of about 1200~
in air. An overview of the optical system furnace and testing
machine is given in Fig. 5.
A quartz glass window with a diameter of ~ 50 mm was
inserted into the water-cooled chamber, which faces the op-
tical strain gage. To obtain stress-strain curves, standard
dumbbell-shaped specimens with a gage length of about 30
mm and cross sections of about 17 mm 2 were used. For
the high-temperature measurements, these specimens were
mounted into special grips consisting of a high temperature
resistant Ni-base superalloy. TM To achieve proper alignment
of the specimen axis parallel to the loading direction, a com-
mercial positioning unit was used (of the type MTS 609.10S).
Fig. 5--Overview of the experimental setup (optical
arrangement-furnace and testing machine)
Results and Discussion
To test the applicability, the mechanical stability, the reso-
lution and the limitations of the optical strain sensor, a series
of tensile tests with various materials at room temperature
and at high temperatures were performed.
Stress-strain Curves Determined at Room Temperature
Standard stress-strain curves were determined at room
temperature from technical aluminum alloys and pure metals
(Mo) using the optical strain sensor and conventional strain
measurement systems. The loading rate used was about 100
N/s. The stress-strain curves at room temperature of two A1
alloys are presented in Fig. 6. As indicated in the figure, the
strain was determined simultaneously with the optical sys-
tem and with strain gages (type HBM LY 11/120/3) and a
commercial clip gage with a base length of 10 mm. As can
be deduced from the data, good agreement between the vari-
ous strain measurement techniques is evident. To overcome
decorrelation effects, the strain is determined in the follow-
ing way: the speckle images are recorded after each loading
step (0, 1, 2 . . . . ) and the correlation procedure is performed
between image 0 and 1, 1 and 2, and so on. The load steps
are indicated in Fig. 6 and all following figures. The steps
are small in the plastic regime and larger in the elastic region
of the stress-strain curve. Data analysis indicated an uncer-
tainty of the strain of about 50 microstrain and a quantization
error of 20 microstrain.
It is well known that plastic deformation deteriorates the
specimen surface, causing decorrelation, which limits the
applicability of optical devices. To study the effect of a
higher amount of plastic deformation, the experiments were
performed on recrystallized Mo with a slow strain rate of
4.5 • 10-4/S. 14'21 The results are presented in Fig. 7(a). The
elastic part of the stress-strain curve is presented in the inset
of Fig. 7(a). The Young's modulus obtained was 300 • 20
GPa. This value and the obtained stress-strain curve indi-
cate good agreement with literature. 25 The stress-strain curve
shows good agreement when obtained from crosshead move-
ment. Using the optical strain gage, it was also feasible
to distinguish between the upper yield point and the lower
Experimental Mechanics 9 101
Fig. 6--Stress-strain curves of two AI alloys obtained with the laser speckle correlation system and conventional methods
at RT of AI 2024-'13 (composition: 4.5 wt. percent Cu, 1.5 percent Mg and 0.6 percent Mn, heat-treated) and of AIZn3Mg
(heat-treated)
yield point, which is typical for such body-centered cubic
materialsY The high engineering strain of about 30 percent
was attributed partly to grainboundary cracking as deduced
from the scanning electron micrograph [see Fig. 7(b)]. It may
be deduced that the decorrelation effects due to even drastic
surface changes can be overcome by the proposed recurring
reinitialization of the signal-processing unit (using numerous
small load steps).
Deformation Behavior at Elevated Temperatures
To test the optical setup at high temperatures, we studied
the thermal expansion of test specimens that were supported
within the furnace by gripping the specimen in the lower grip-
ping system only. As may be deduced from Fig. 8, the thermal
strain of an annealed Pt specimen measured with the optical
method is plotted as function of temperature. The speci-
mens tested were small rods 3 mm in diameter and 40 mm
in length. The temperature of the specimen was measured
using small thermocouples attached to the specimen. The
temperature deviations in the region where the strain mea-
surements were performed were about +2~ depending on
the required maximum temperature. The measurements were
performed several times up to 700~ and indicated an excel-
lent reproducibility. Also included in this figure are strain
data of Pt derived from literature. 2e Figure 8 also presents
thermal strain data of an Fe-based oxid dispersion strength-
ened alloy (type ODS PM 2000) manufactured by powder
metallurgical techniques, 21 tested up to 1000~ The speci-
mens were plates with a thickness of 2 mm and a width of
10 mm. Although the specimens, due to heating, exhibited
changes in the surface structure caused by the formation of
an oxid film, the reproducibility is excellent. The calculated
thermal expansion coefficient of about 12-16 x 10-6/~ in
the temperature region im,estigated showed good agreement
with literature data. 21
Comparing the applicability of optical systems 15 to deter-
mine thermal strain shows the advantages of the introduced
laser sensor: due to the fact of using two spots in a selected
102 9 VoL 40, No. 1, March2000
distance, the system is insensitive to mechanical instabili-
ties, air turbulence and so on. The method introduced in
Ref. 15 in its present form is limited to temperatures causing
little self-radiation (< 650~ The ESPI techniques intro-
duced by Aswendt 13 are sensitive to mechanical instabilities
of the sample. The system introduced by Chiang 23 used laser
speckles in combination with a pulsed laser to minimize the
effect of thermal air turbulence. This testing device allowed
one to measure transient thermal strain fields; however, the
author reported data up to temperatures of 400~ only.
To study the stress-strain response of materials in the high-
temperature range, we performed two types of tests. In Fig. 9,
the stress-strain response of an ODS PM 2000 alloy is mea-
sured at 1000~ with the optical system. Special gripping
systems (Nimonic 90) were used. A comparison of the mea-
sured data with data from the literature shows deviations in
the strain values on the order of several percentage points,
which indicates good agreement if taking into account the
accuracy of the different strain sensors (high-temperature clip
gage) and the difficulties encountered with high temperature
testing facilities.
To test the stress-strain response of ceramic specimens of
the type SiC/SiC 21 up to 1200~ the specimens were tested
in compression using a specially designed compression de-
vice. To align the testing rig, a spherical cap made of SiC was
used in the hot section, as proposed by the relevant testing
standards. The specimens tested were 35 mm in height, with
a cross section of 10 x 10 mm. The results are presented
in Fig. 10. Compression testing was started with a preload
of 500 N for prealignment. Then, the samples were grad-
ually loaded to a maximum load of 5000 N and gradually
unloaded. Two cycles were performed for each tempera-
ture. For the temperature of 1100~ only elastic behavior
was observed, with a variation in strain of about 10 percent.
For the temperature of 1200~ we observed deviation from
linearity, indicating remaining plastic strain. To reduce the
influence of thermal radiation on the speckle image signal, a
polarizing filter and an interference filter were inserted into
the optical path of the sensor. A comparison of these results
 600
500
400
300
.=.
o~
200
100
0 10
strain in %
Fig. 7--a) Stress-strain curve of recrystallized Mo obtained at room temperature with the laser speckle correlation (LSC)
system, 14 (b) scanning electron micrograph of the deformed Mo specimen after 30 percent uniaxial deformation
with those presented in Refs. 13 and 21 determined with a
high-temperature clip gage showed good agreement.
Conclusions
This paper describes a simple optical strain gage based
on the digital laser speckle correlation technique. This sys-
tem using subjective speckle patterns is easily adaptable to
commercial tensile testing machines equipped with a suitable
electrical furnace. The laser-based noncontacting strain sen-
sor can replace commercial clip gages and is suitable for de-
termining stress-strain behavior of various metals, alloys and
ceramic materials up to high temperatures. Due to the special
data-processing procedure, the decorrelation effects caused
by any type of surface change are minimized. The special
design of the detection system using two laser diodes and two
lenses in a chosen distance of 20 mm results in a strain resolu-
~r H
I
20 30 40
tion of 20 microstrains. The laser-based strain sensor is being
designed with low laser intensities (< 15 mW), which may
be of importance if such systems are used in industrial envi-
ronment; thus, special safety requirements are not necessary.
At present, the strain measurements can be performed with a
rate of about 1 Hz. An improvement in the measurement rate
to 100 Hz using a special optical design and line scan cam-
eras seems possible and will be published shortly. Based on
the obtained experimental data, it may be concluded that this
optical system is suitable to determine thermal and mechani-
cal strains up to high temperatures (1200~ Compared with
various other optical systems introduced in the literature, var-
ious specimen geometries can be used and no special surface
preparation is required. Due to its insensitivity to mechani-
cal vibrations, turbulence and so on, the laser-based optical
strain sensor seems suitable for technical applications.
Experimental Mechanics 9 103
 0,016
error of measurem~
measurement
=o 0,012
ODS eM2o0o \
0~ measurement 2

0,008 d
0,004 7 . 0 ~ ~ literaturedata

0,000
0 400 800 1200
temperaturein ~
Fig. 8--Thermal strain data of a Pt standard specimen and thermal strain data of an oxid dispersion strengthened Fe-based
alloy (ODS PM 2000) as a function of temperature compared with literature data22 (specimen geometry: rod specimens with a
radius of 3 mm and a length of 40 mm)

200 0,00

T=1173 K ODS
T=ll00~ ^ ...~/1 o
E=138 +7 GPa \ o

t~
n
150
\. 9 IIIl
.=_,
-0,05 -

0 0
O

0
_ ~

c- r~
0
100 T=1273 K -0,10 8
E=126+6 GPa H error o f
I measurement
T=1200~
= error of -0,15
50 '. I---I measurement SiC/SiC

Am9

f -0,20
0,000 0,001 0,002
strain
Fig. 9--Stress-strain data of an oxid dispersion strengthened
Fe-based alloy (ODS PM 2000) as function of temperature
(the measurements were started using a preload of 20 MPa)
Acknowledgments
The authors wish to thank the Austrian Ministry of
Science and Transport for financial support (as part of
the COST-Action 510) and the Austrian National Science
Foundation. We thank Prof. R. Stickler for support and
comments.
! I
-6000 -4000 -2000 0
load in N
Fig. 10--Compression data under cyclic loading of a ceramic
sample of the type SiC/SiC at test temperatures of 1100~
and 1200~ 21
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104 9 VoI. 40, No. 1, March 2000

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