Thermodynamics

October 2009
AIMS Thermodynamics

•To revise the thermodynamic properties of fluids

•To
To revise the concept of temperature and thermal balance
•To find out about different types of temperature-measuring
p
thermometers and the various temperature scales
•To find out the basic thermodynamic processes
•To revise the concept of sepecific heat
•To revise the concept of the heat capacity of a substance
•To find out about the principle of calorimetry
•To revise the first law of thermodynamics
•To understand the concept of enthalpy
AIMS Thermodynamics

•To revise the second law of thermodynamics

•To understand the concept of entropy
•To find out the heat transfer mechanisms and the factors which
most affect them
•To find out about the Carnot thermodynamic cycle
•To find out the technical impossibilities of putting it into practice
•To find out about the Rankine cycle
•To find out about the Brayton cycle
DEFINITIONS Thermodynamics

9The branch of physics

y that studies energy
gy systems,
y
transformations and transfers from a macroscopic viewpoint.

9Expresses
Expresses the two forms of energy in which a body can give
up or absorb energy: HEAT and MECHANICAL WORK.

9All energy transformations are governed by the LAWS OF

THERMODYNAMICS.
DEFINITIONS Thermodynamics

THERMODYNAMIC SYSTEM

This is a space or a body of fluid, delimited by real or imaginery

borders which contain it.

The system is delimited in order to study its energy transformations

and its interaction with the external medium
medium.
DEFINITIONS Thermodynamics

THERMODYNAMIC PROPERTIES

•BASICS:
BASICS these
th are th
the properties
ti which
hi h d
determine
t i ththe
thermodynamic state of a body, so that a variation in one of them
results in a variation in the state of the body :

- Pressure
- Temperature
p
- Specific volume
They are not interdependent. If two of them are fixed, the third is determined by the
state equation: F(p,v,T)=0

•OTHER: Internal energy, enthalpy, entropy, etc.

DEFINITIONS Thermodynamics

TEMPERATURE

This is a property which determines whether or not a body or

system is in thermal balance which others.

THERMAL BALANCE:
BALANCE any state t t off a system
t iin which
hi h th
the variables
i bl
describing it remain constant, unless the external conditions are
altered, is said to be in thermal balance.

TWO SYSTEMS ARE IN THERMAL BALANCE WHEN

THEY HAVE THE SAME TEMPERATURE .
DEFINITIONS Thermodynamics

THERMOMETERS. TEMPERATURE SCALES:

The job of a thermometer is to measure a property which varies

according to temperature, and assign it a value.
These values form a temperature scale.

Thermometers: Scales:

- Liquid in glass - Celsius ºC

- Metal wire - Fahrenheit ºF
- Thermocouplep - Kelvin K
- Gas
DEFINITIONS Thermodynamics

K ºC ºF
Boiling point 373.15 100.00 212.00
of water
273 16
273.16
Triple point of water 0.01

273.15 0.00 32.00

Melting
gppoint of
water

Absolute zero -273.15

0.00
DEFINITIONS Thermodynamics

BASIC THERMODYNAMIC PROCESSES

Processes during which a thermodynamic property remains

constant:

ISOBARIC process p=constant

t t
ISOCHORIC process v=constant
ISOTHERMAL process T=constant
ISENTHALPIC process h=constant
ISENTROPIC process s=constant
ADIABATIC p
process dQ=0, pprocess involving g no
transfer of heat to or from
outside the system.
DEFINITIONS Thermodynamics

SPECIFIC HEAT OF A SUBSTANCE (ce)

This is the amount of heat which must be supplied per unit of mass
t increase
to i its
it temperature
t t by
b 1ºC.
1ºC

Specific heat is measured in:

• cal/gºC in the CGS system
• J/KgK in the International System of Units
DEFINITIONS Thermodynamics

HEAT CAPACITY

This is the amount of heat required by a body to raise its

temperature by 1ºC.

NOTE: specific heats depend on processes. The most

widely used are: constant at P and V**.

For gases: Cv depends only on T.

Cp depends only on T and > Cv.
Cp - Cv is constant
Cp/Cv=γ (depends only on T and > 1).
DEFINITIONS Thermodynamics

HEAT GAINED OR LOST BY A BODY (THERMAL ENERGY)

The energy exchanged by a body in a process during which its state has
not changed is:
ΔQ = c m ΔT

PRINCIPLE OF CALORIMETRY
When two bodies have contact with each other in such a way that the
system
y theyy form is isolated from its surroundings,
g the amount of energy
gy
lost by one of them is equal to the amount of energy gained by the other.
Energy ΔQlost = Energy ΔQgained
Q1=-Q2
Q1 = m1 c1 (Tf-T1)
Q2 = m2 c2 (Tf-T2)
.
DEFINITIONS Thermodynamics

FIRST LAW OF THERMODYNAMICS

This establishes a QUANTITATIVE relationship between heat and

work.
It is
i an extension
t i off the
th Principle
P i i l off th
the C
Conservation
ti off E
Energy: iin
any completely isolated system, the sum of all forms of energy
remains constant.

Final energy stored=initial energy stored+energy which enters-

energy
gy which leaves
U2 - U1 = Q + W
ΔU = Q + W
DEFINITIONS Thermodynamics

ENTHALPY

A variable which expresses the amount of energy exchanged with

the surroundings when external variables change. It is expressed in
KJ or K
Kcal.
l

In specific values, it is expressed in KJ/kg or Kcal/kg.

h = u + pv
DEFINITIONS Thermodynamics

SECOND LAW OF THERMODYNAMICS

This establishes a QUALITATIVE relationship between heat and

work.
Whil workk can be
While b converted
t d integrally
i t ll iinto
t hheat,
t hheatt cannott b
be
converted integraly into work; for this transformation, a temperature
difference between two fluids is necessary.

“No system exists whose only effect when carrying out a

cyclical
y process is to extract heat from one system
y and carry
y
out the same amount of work on another.”
DEFINITIONS Thermodynamics

ENTROPY

When a closed system undergoes a closed cyclical process with

heat sources, the value of the quotient between heat and
temperature throughout the cycle is greater than or equal to zero.

It is expressed in KJ/K or Kcal/K.

In specific values, it is expressed in KJ/kgK or Kcal/kgK.

dQ / T ≥0 dS = dQ / T
DEFINITIONS Thermodynamics

HEAT TRANSFER

There are three heat transfer mechanisms:

√CONDUCTION

√CONVECTION

√RADIATION
DEFINITIONS Thermodynamics

CONDUCTION

Heat transfer through a barrier

Th amountt off heat

The h t exchanged
h d depends
d d on:

•SURFACE AREA OF EXCHANGE: S

•TEMPERATURE DIFFERENCE: T1 - T2
•THICKNESS OF BARRIER: L
•NATURE OF MATERIAL: λ

Q = λ S/L ((T1-T2)
DEFINITIONS Thermodynamics

CONVECTION

Heatt transfer
H t f between
b t a fluid
fl id in
i motion
ti att temperature
t t T1 and
da
body or barrier at temperature T2
Q = α S (T1-T2)
The convection coefficient α depends on:
• NATURE OF THE FLUID ((higherg volumetric mass means
higher α)
• AVERAGE VELOCITY OF THE FLUID (greater velocity
means higher α)
• SHAPE OF EXCHANGE SURFACE
• TURBUOENCE OF THE FLUID (greater turbulance means
higher α)
DEFINITIONS Thermodynamics

RADIATION

E i i and
Emission d receipt
i t off h
heatt radiation
di ti b between
t ttwo b
bodies.
di

•Emission, E = ξ· S· T4 ξ: radiation coefficient of body

S: surface area of body
T: absolute temperature of body

•Receipt, depends on surface area availabel to radiation

distance from emitter
nature of receiving surface
DEFINITIONS Thermodynamics

CHANGES OF STATE

The possible states of a substance are called PHASES.

CHANGE OF STATE: when the conditions (P, V, T) of a

substance vary, and the substance passes from one state of
equilibrium to another
Deposition

Solidification Condensation

SOLID LIQUID GAS

Melting Vaporisation

Sublimation
CYCLES Thermodynamics

STEAM CYCLES

•CARNOT CYCLE

•RANKINE CYCLE (steam turbine cycle)

GAS CYCLES

•OTTO CYCLE

•DIESEL CYCLE

•BRAYTON OR JOULE CYCLE (gas turbine cycle)

CYCLES Thermodynamics

CARNOT CYCLE

A process in which heat is extracted from a hot fluid

fluid, part of it enters
a cold fluid and the rest is used for work:

. ISOTHERMAL HEATING
. ADIABATIC EXPANSION
. ISOTHERMAL CONDENSATION
. ADIABATIC COMPRESSION

Technical impossibility
p y of p
putting
g the Carnot cycle
y into p
practice.
CYCLES Thermodynamics

CARNOT CYCLE

η = 1 - Tf / Tc
CYCLES Thermodynamics

IDEAL CLAUSIUS-RANKINE CYCLE

This is the cycle used in steam turbines

turbines.

•ISENTROPIC COMPRESSION
•ISOBARIC
ISOBARIC HEATING
•ISENTROPIC EXPANSION
•ISOBARIC CONDENSATION

In the real cycle, the processes are not isentropic.

CYCLES Thermodynamics

IDEAL CLAUSIUS-RANKINE CYCLE

CYCLES Thermodynamics

IDEAL BRAYTON OR JOULE CYCLE

This is the cycle used in gas turbines
turbines.
•ISENTROPIC COMPRESSION
•ISOBARIC
ISOBARIC HEATING
•ISENTROPIC EXPANSION
•ISOBARIC COOLING
In the real cycle, the processes are not isentropic.
CYCLES Thermodynamics

IDEAL BRAYTON OR JOULE CYCLE

η = 1 - 1/Xm
X: compression ratio
m: (γ-1)/γ
CYCLES Thermodynamics

IDEAL BRAYTON OR JOULE CYCLE

⎛ ⎞
T1 ⎟ T1 ⎛⎜ γ ⎞⎟
γ−
−11
⎜
ηT T3 ⎜1 − γ −1 ⎟ − X
⎜ ⎜ ⎟
γ ⎟
ηC ⎝ ⎠
ηTG = ⎝ X ⎠
T1 ⎛⎜ γ ⎞⎟
γ −1

T3 − T1 − X
ηC ⎜⎝ ⎟
⎠
CYCLES Thermodynamics

REAL BRAYTONCYCLE – Performance Curve

CYCLES Thermodynamics

COMBINED CYCLES
RANKINE CYCLE + BRAYTON CYCLE
CYCLES Thermodynamics

COMBINED CYCLES
RANKINE CYCLE + BRAYTON CYCLE

PCI*QCOMB
CHIMNEY
ηTG* PCI*QCOMB GAS TURBINE LOSSES

WTG (1-ηTG)* PCI*QCOMB

HRSG (1-ηHRSG)* (1-ηTG)* PCI*QCOMB

WTV
ηHRSG* (1-η
(1 TG)* PCI*QCOMB

ηHRSG* (1-ηTG)*PCI*QCOMB*ηTV STEAM TURBINE CONDENSER

LOSSES

ηHRSG* (1-ηTG)* PCI*QCOMB*(1-ηTV)

CYCLES Thermodynamics

COMBINED CYCLES
RANKINE CYCLE + BRAYTON CYCLE

ηcc = ηTG + ηTV * ηHRSG * ((1-η

ηTG)