possible to support approximately 1,000 times as

ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCE many people per unit area as was possible 10,000
years ago knowing your ecological footprint is
essential.
Human Population
ECOLOGICAL FOOTPRINT
the impact of human activities measured in terms
3.1. PERSPECTIVES ON POPULATION GROWTH of the area of biologically productive land and
As you will see later in this chapter, there is water required to produce the goods consumed and
some evidence that population growth already is to assimilate the wastes generated.
slowing, but whether we will reach equilibrium
soon enough and at a size that can be sustained Footprint = DEMAND
over the long term remains a difficult but vital the land and water area we use and NEEDED TO
question.
PRODUCE THE RESOURCES to absorb our wastes
DOES ENVIRONMENT OR CULTURE CONTROL HUMAN Biocapacity = SUPPLY
POPULATION GROWTH? the amount of biologically productive resources
Since the time of the Industrial Revolution, when we use and AREA THAT IS AVAILABLE TO PROVIDE THE
the world population began growing rapidly, to absorb our waste
individuals have argued about the causes and
consequences of population growth. In 1798, PAST AND CURRENT POPULATION GROWTH ARE VERY
Thomas Malthus (1766–1834) wrote An Essay on the DIFFERENT
Principle of Population, changing the way
European leaders thought about population growth. WHY and HOW?
Eventually, he argued, human populations would • Birth rate is relatively higher that mortality
outstrip their food supply and collapse into rate wherein nearly 5 children is being added
starvation, crime, and misery. He converted most every second and on same period 1 person or 2
economists of the day from believing that high dies. By that, the variation between births and
fertility increased industrial output and deaths signifies a net gain of approximately 2.5
national wealth to believing that per capita additional humans per second (on average) in the
output fell with rapidly rising population. world’s population. We add around 75 million
more people to the globe at a rate of 1.1 percent
In Malthusian terms, growing human populations per year.
are limited only by disease or famine, or social
constraints that compel people to reduce birth THE WORLD’S LARGEST COUNTRIES
rates—late marriage, insufficient resources, Some countries in
celibacy, and “moral restraint.” However, the the developing
economist Karl Marx (1818–1883) presented an world are growing
opposing view that population growth results from so fast that they
poverty, resource depletion, pollution, and other will reach immense
social ills. Slowing population growth, claimed population sizes
Marx, requires that people be treated justly, and by the middle of
that exploitation and oppression be eliminated the twenty-first
from social arrangements. century. SOURCE:
Data from the U.S.
Both Marx and Malthus developed their theories Census Bureau,
about human population growth when the world, 2012 China was the most populous country
technology, and society were understood much throughout the twentieth century; India is
differently than they are today. Some believe expected to pass China in the twenty-first
that we are approaching, or may have surpassed, century. Nigeria, which had only 33 million
the earth’s carrying capacity. residents in 1950, is forecast to have 299
million in 2050.
Joel Cohen, a mathematical biologist at
Rockefeller University, reviewed published 3.2 FACTORS in determining HUMAN POPULATION
estimates of the maximum human population size GROWTH
the planet can sustain. The estimates, spanning
300 years of thinking, converged on a median Fertility varies among cultures and at different
value of 10–12 billion. We are more than 7 times
billion strong today, and still growing, an Fecundity is the physical ability to reproduce,
alarming prospect for some. Cornell University whereas fertility is the actual production of
entomologist David Pimentel, for example, has offspring. Those without children may be fecund
said, “By 2100, if current trends continue, but not fertile. The most accessible demographic
twelve billion miserable humans will suffer a statistic of fertility is usually the crude birth
difficult life on Earth.” In this view, birth rate, the number of births in a year per thousand
control should be our top priority. persons. It is statistically “crude” in the
sense that it is not adjusted for population
TECHNOLOGY INCREASES CARRYING CAPACITY FOR HUMANS characteristics, such as the number of women of
Optimists argue that Malthus was wrong in his reproductive age.
predictions of famine and disaster 200 years ago ✔Zero population growth (ZPG) occurs when births
because he failed to account for scientific and plus immigration in a population just equal
technical progress. ✔food supplies have deaths plus emigration.
increased faster than population growth since ✔The total fertility rate is the number of
Malthus’s time ✔progress in agricultural children born to an average woman in a population
productivity, engineering, information during her entire reproductive life.
technology, commerce, medicine, sanitation, and ✔In most tribal or traditional societies, food
other achievements of modern life have made it shortages, health problems, and cultural
practices limit total fertility to about 6 or 7
children per woman, even without modern methods
of birth control.
✔As in Brazil, fertility rates have declined
dramatically in every region of the world except
Africa over the past 50 years.
✔The average family in Mexico in 1975, for
instance, had 7 children. By 2010, however, the
average Mexican woman had only 2.3 children.
Similarly, in Iran, total fertility fell from 6.5
in 1975 to 2.04 in 2010.
✔China’s one-child-per-family policy decreased
the fertility rate from 6 in 1970 to 1.7 in 2010.
3.2.3. POPULATION GROWTH COULD BRING BENEFITS
Julian Simon
• People are the “ULTIMATE RESOURCE”
• no evidence shows that pollution, crime,
unemployment, crowding, the loss of species, or
any other resource limitations will worsen with
population growth
Ester Boserup
• An increase in population would stimulate
technologies to increase food production
• Necessity is the mother of invention.
3.3.3. MORTALITY OFFSETS BIRTHS
In demographics, crude death rates (or crude
mortality rates) are expressed in terms of the
number of deaths per thousand persons in any
given year.
✔Countries in Africa where health care and
sanitation are limited may have mortality rates
of 20 or more per 1,000 people.
✔Wealthier countries generally have mortality
rates around 10 per 1,000.
✔Rapidly growing, developing countries, such as
Brazil, often have lower crude death rates (6 per
1,000 currently) than do the more- developed,
slowly growing countries, such as Denmark (12 per
1,000), even though their life expectancies are
considerably lower
3.3.4. LIFE EXPECTANCY IS RISING WORLDWIDE
Life expectancy is the average age that a newborn
infant can be expected to attain in any given
society. Life span is the oldest age to which a
species is known to survive.
✔The oldest age that can be certified by written
records was that of Jeanne Louise Calment of
Arles, France, who was 122 years old at her death
in 1997.
✔For most of human history, life expectancy in
most societies probably was 35 to 40 years. Life
expectancy is another way of expressing the
average age at death
✔The average life expectancy rose from about 40
to 67.2 years over the past 100 years.
LIFE EXPECTANCY AT BIRTH FOR SELECTED COUNTRIES
IN 1900 AND 2012
✔The twentieth
century saw a global
transformation in
human health
unmatched in
history.
✔The greatest
progress was in
developing
countries.
✔Longer lives were due primarily to better
nutrition, improved sanitation, clean water, and
education, rather than to miracle drugs or
hightech medicine.
FERTILITY IS INFLUENCED BY CULTURE
A number of social and economic pressures affect
decisions about family size, which in turn
affects the population at large. In this section,
we will examine both the positive and negative
pressures on reproduction.
3.4.1. PEOPLE WANT CHILDREN FOR MANY REASONS
Factors that increase people’s desires to have
babies are called pronatalist pressures. Raising
family may be the most enjoyable and rewarding
part of many people’s lives. Children can be a
source of pleasure, pride, and comfort. They may
be the only source of support for elderly parents
in countries without a social security system.
✔Children are valuable to the family not only
for future income but even more as a source of
current income and help with household chores
Factors that increase people’s desires to have
babies are called pronatalist pressures. Raising
family may be the most enjoyable and rewarding
part of many people’s lives. Children can be a
source of pleasure, pride, and comfort. They may
be the only source of support for elderly parents
in countries without a social security system.
✔Society has a need to replace members who die
or become incapacitated.
✔Some societies look upon families with few or
no children with pity or contempt, and for them
the idea of deliberately controlling fertility
may be shocking, even taboo.
✔Male pride often is linked to having as many
children as possible
3.4.2. EDUCATION AND INCOME AFFECT THE DESIRE FOR
CHILDREN
Higher education and personal freedom for women
often result in decisions to limit childbearing.
A desire to spend time and money on other goods
and activities offsets the desire to have
children.
✔Education and socioeconomic status are usually
inversely related to fertility in richer
countries.
✔In some developing countries, however,
fertility initially increases as educational
levels and socioeconomic status rise.
✔The Great Depression in the 1930s made it
economically difficult for families to have
children, and birth rates were low.
✔The birth rate increased at the beginning of
World War II (as it often does in wartime)
3.5. A DEMOGRAPHIC TRANSITION CAN LEAD TO STABLE
POPULATION SIZE
In 1945, demographer Frank Notestein pointed out
that a typical pattern of falling death rates and
birth rates due to improved living conditions
usually accompanies economic development. He
called this pattern the demographic transition
from high birth and death rates to lower birth
and death rates. It shows an idealized model of a
demographic transition. This model is often used
to explain connections between population growth
and economic development.
THE DEMOGRAPHIC TRANSITION MODEL
Theoretical birth, death, and population growth
rates in a demographic transition accompanying
economic and social development. In a
predevelopment society, birth and death rates are
both high, and total population remains
relatively stable. During development, death
rates tend to fall first, followed in a
generation or two by falling birth rates. Total
population grows rapidly until both birth and
death rates stabilize in a fully developed
society.
3.5.2. MANY COUNTRIES ARE IN A DEMOGRAPHIC
TRANSITION
Some countries have had remarkable success in
population control. In Thailand, China, and
Colombia, for instance, total fertility dropped
by more than half in 20 years. Morocco, Jamaica,
Peru, and Mexico all have seen fertility rates
fall by 30 to 40 percent in a single generation.
Surprisingly, one of the most successful family
planning advances in recent years has been in
Iran, a predominantly Muslim country.
The following factors help stabilize populations:
✔Growing prosperity, urbanization, and social
reforms that accompany development reduce the
need and desire for large families in most
countries.
✔Technology is available to bring advances to
the developing world much more rapidly than was
the case a century ago, and the rate of
technology exchange is much faster than it was
when Europe and North America were developing.
✔Less-developed countries have historic patterns
to follow. They can benefit from the mistakes of
more-developed countries and chart a course to
stability relatively quickly
✔Modern communications (especially television
and the Internet) provide information about the
benefits of and methods for social change.
3.6. FAMILY PLANNING GIVES US CHOICE
Family planning allows couples to determine the
number and spacing of their children. It doesn’t
necessarily mean fewer children—people could use
family planning to have the maximum number of
children possible—but it does imply that the
parents will control their reproductive lives and
make rational, conscious decisions about how many
children they will have and when those children
will be born, rather than leaving it to chance.
levels by the end of the century. This doesn’t
seem likely. The medium projection shows a
population of about 9.4 billion in 35 years,
while the high projection would reach nearly 12
billion by midcentury. Recent progress in family
planning and economic development have led to
significantly reduced estimates compared to a few
years ago. The medium projection is 9.4 billion
in 2050, compared to previous estimates of over
10 billion for that date.
Successful family planning programs often require
significant societal changes
✔improved social, educational, and economic
status for women (birth control and women’s
rights are often linked).
✔the knowledge, availability, and use of
effective and acceptable means of birth control
✔acceptance of calculated choice as a valid
element in life in general and in fertility in
particular (the belief that we have no control
over our lives discourages a sense of
responsibility.
✔improved status for children (fewer children
are born if they are not needed as a cheap labor
source)
✔social security and political stability that
give people the means and the confidence to plan
for the future

3.6.2. TODAY THERE ARE MANY OPTIONS

Modern medicine gives us many more options for
controlling fertility than were available to our
ancestors. More than 100 new contraceptive
methods are now being studied, and some appear to
have great promise. ✔Vaccines for women are
being developed that will prepare the immune
system to reject the hormone chorionic
gonadotropin, which maintains the uterine lining
and allows egg implantation, or that will cause
an immune reaction against sperm. ✔Injections
for men are focused on reducing sperm production
and have proven effective in mice. Without a
doubt, the contemporary couple has access to many
more birth-control options than their
grandparents had

3.7. WHAT KIND OF FUTURE ARE WE CREATING NOW?

Because there’s often a lag between the time
when a society reaches replacement birth rate and
the end of population growth, we are deciding now
what the world will look like in a hundred years.
How many people will be in the world a century
from now? Most demographers believe that world
population will stabilize sometime during the
twenty-first century.

Population projections for different growth

scenarios
The optimistic (low) projection suggests that
world population might stabilize just below 8
billion by 2050 and then drop back below current

GENERAL CHEMISTRY (LEC)
BRIEF HISTORY OF THE MODERN ATOMIC
THEORY
Chemistry is a science that knows no boundaries and
therefore we call it a central science. Knowledge in
chemistry can get you to different applications; whether you
are a microbiologist, geologist or an astronaut and even in
your household and everyday living, chemistry can be put
into use. There is so much difference when you know
something beyond what you see in the physical matter and I
am talking about what is happening at the molecular level
and even in the atomic level. In this lesson, we will go
through a brief history on how does Dalton’s postulates of
the atom give way to our modern idea of what our world is
made of.
Before we go deeper into our discussion, let us prepare
ourselves by reviewing the familiar terms and postulates of
Dalton’s regarding the atom.
Key Points on Dalton’s postulates about the atom:
• Dalton’s atomic theory proposed that all matter was
composed of atoms, indivisible and indestructible building
blocks. While all atoms of an element were identical,
different elements had atoms of differing size and mass.
• Dalton’s atomic theory also stated that all compounds were
composed of combinations of these atoms in defined ratios.
• Dalton also postulated that chemical reactions resulted in
the rearrangement of the reacting atoms.
TERMS
Atom: The fundamental, indivisible particles that retain its
identity as a chemical element, now known to consist of a
nucleus and electrons.
Atomic Mass Unit (amu): The standard unit used to
indicate the mass of an atom. This is equivalent to 1/12 the
mass of the carbon-12 atom.
Law of Conservation of Mass: In any chemical reaction,
the mass of the substances that react equals the mass of the
products that are formed.
Law of Definite Proportions: Every chemical compound
contains fixed and constant proportions (by mass) of its
constituent elements.
Law of Multiple Proportions: When two elements form a
series of compounds, the ratios of the masses of the second
element that are present per gram of the first element can
almost always be expressed as the ratios of integers.
The theory that matter is composed of indivisible atoms
dates back to the Ancient Greeks, Democritus and
Leucippus. But with no technology, their hypothesis has not
been proven until the 16th and 17th century-the time of the
beginning of the modern chemistry. But before this,
Alchemy during the Middle Ages and the Renaissance period
has contributed much especially on For instructional
purposes only • 1st Semester SY 2020-2021 i the discovery
of some elements like quicksilver (mercury) and the
preparation of some strong acids. Transmutation was also the
main goal of this era, converting an element into another one
which we all know doesn’t happen at all. Example of this is
transforming cheap metals into gold.
The Modern Era in chemistry brought advances in the
extractions of metal elements from the ores (metallurgy) and
the first systematic quantitative experiments were carried
out. Robert Boyle in his book the Sceptical Chymist
described the relationship of the air pressure to its volume.
And more importantly, he defined an element as a substance
that cannot be broken down into two or more simpler
substances by chemical means. And this led to the discovery
of many elements most of which are metals.
Now, what is the difference between an element and an
atom? As we go on with this chapter, we will encounter
questions that will help us deepen our understanding on the
world we live in.
Moving on the 18th century, Joseph Priestley discovered
oxygen gas and its reaction with carbon containing
compounds that releases carbon dioxide and water known as
combustion. He also discovered that this gas produced from
combustion is the same gas produced from the fermentation
of beer. Though he did not know the identity of the gas, he
knew that this gas can be dissolved in water to produce
seltzer water (carbonated water). Quite essentially, he might
be called the father of the multibillion business of carbonated
drinks.
On the late 18th century, Antoine Lavoisier the father of
modern chemistry, explained more vigorously combustion
which is the reaction of carbon-containing compounds that
produces carbon dioxide and water which is similar to the
activity of living things, we know as respiration. His most
valuable work is about the law of conservation of mass
which states that in a chemical reaction, the mass of the
reactants is equal to the mass of the formed products. It is
similar to the law of conservation of energy, but in here,
mass is neither created nor destroyed. (Later as we go deeper
into the basic unit of matter, we will relate matter and
energy. But that is another topic in the next module.) That is
why we have to balance the chemical equation to satisfy this
law.
We can take this combustion of glucose, C6H12O6 with
oxygen gas, O2 to produce carbon dioxide, CO2 and water,
H2O and energy (ATP) as an example. We can present the
reaction by the following balanced chemical equation:
C6H12O6 + 5O2 → 6CO2 + 6H2O
6C = 6 (12amu)
12H = 12 (1amu)
16O = 16 (16amu)
At almost the same time, Joseph Proust conducted
experiments on the chemical composition of water and
copper carbonate and from these experiments, he proposed
the law of definite proportions. This law states that a
compound is formed by combination of elements at a
definite ratio by mass. That means that carbon dioxide which
has 1C atom = 12 amu and 2O atoms = (2*16amu) = 32 amu.
So, the ratio is 3:8. If you have water, which has 2H
=2(1amu) = 2 and 1O=1(16) =16; and so, the ratio is 1:8.
For instructional purposes only • 1st Semester SY 2020-2021
i Moving on with the atomic theory, we will explain how the
laws of conservation of mass and definite proportions are
supported by Dalton’s atomic theory. Here are the postulates
and the minor modifications of it.
1. All matter is composed of tiny indivisible particles called
atoms.
2. All atoms of an element are identical in mass and chemical
properties, whereas atoms of other elements differ in mass
and chemical properties. *We know that atoms of the same
element differ in mass as we have isotopes. Isotopes are
atoms of the same element that differ in the number of
neutrons inside the nucleus of the atom. We will go deeper
on isotopes as we discuss the subatomic particles.
3. A chemical compound contains the same atoms in the
same ratio. *We now know that this is not true for elements
that can combine to form more than 1 compounds. Like
carbon and oxygen that can form carbon monoxide and
carbon dioxide. There was not a reliable weighing scale at
that time so there was no way Dalton could know the masses
of carbon and oxygen. But using the atomic masses of
carbon and oxygen that we know; we can calculate for the
mass ratio of carbon to oxygen in the two compounds.
Carbon’s mass is 12 amu and oxygen’s mass is 16 amu, so
the mass ratio in carbon monoxide is 12:16 or 1:1.33 and

carbon dioxide on the other hand has a mass ratio of 1:2.66.

Based from these calculations, we can conclude that the
second compound has twice as much oxygen than the first
compound. This data can be applied to other elements like
nitrogen and oxygen that can form a series of compounds i.e.
NO, NO2, N2O3, etc. Look at the table below.
Now we can easily see that the ratio of the masses of oxygen in compound a and b is 1:2 and that
means that there must be twice as much oxygen in the
second compound than in the first compound (2.28/1.14) or
2:1. However, on the third compound, we cannot get a whole
number ratio (1.71 to 1.14) to the oxygen in the first
compound.
With these we can conclude that the ratio of oxygen in
compound C is thrice as much that oxygen in compound A
and that the ratio is in whole numbers
4. In a chemical reaction, atoms of the elements and
compounds rearrange and “reconnect” themselves to form
new elements or compounds. In this reaction, no element is
destroyed. This last hypothesis suggests that what the
alchemists’ goal was impossible since elements do not
“transmutate” into gold (an element). Gold is gold unless
through a nuclear reaction, wherein the nucleus of the atom
is destroyed and emits energy or split the atom into simpler
particles which we will discuss more on the next lesson.
Table 1.1, summarizes the characteristics of the atom:
1. The electron (-) and proton (+) have opposite charges
while neutron (0) is neutral.
2. The neutron (0) and proton (+) have masses that are
relatively similar (1 amu). This accounts for the mass of the
atom which is centered in the nucleus. And since protons are
positively charged, then the nuclear charge (charge of the
nucleus) is positive. Protons and neutrons are also called
nucleons-particles inside the nucleus. (Hint: 1 1 H, Hydrogen
with 1 proton and no neutron has a mass of 1 amu)
3. The mass of an electron is negligible compared to the
mass of a proton and a neutron. The mass of a neutron or a
proton is 1836 times heavier than the electron. The electron
is moving outside the nucleus. When it comes to chemical
reactions, knowing the characteristics of the electron will
surely help you in understanding the breaking and forming of
new bonds. We will also discuss more of the electrons on the
next module about quantum chemistry

Structure of the Atom and the Subatomic Particles

The challenge of knowing what is an atom and how it works
has been the greatest investigative research of all time. From
the characteristics of the atom to the subatomic particles,
every discovery has promoted chemistry to be one of the
most essential branches of science. In this part of the
discussion, we will focus on the atom and its characteristics
so that later on we can relate them to the many phenomena
that are happening in nature.
Figure 1.1 summarizes the history of the development of the
atomic structure. From the timeline, we can conclude that
our knowledge of the atom that brought advances in
chemistry is just a century away. The discovery of the
radioactive particles has helped so much on elucidating the
structure of the atom and its components. Please read and
understand the timeline so you can recall your general
chemistry from your high school. Later on, we will discuss
nuclear stability and radioactivity.
(Back to our topic) The atom is the smallest component of an
element that retains all the characteristic of the element. It is
composed of the massive nucleus where the protons and
neutrons are and outside the nucleus are the electrons. Please
see Figure 1.2 and Table 1.1. Although this picture (Figure
1.2) rule out other subatomic particles that are discovered,
this is sufficient in our discussion with chemical reactions
later on.
The Periodic Table of Elements The periodic table of
elements (figure 1.3) is a highly organized tool that helps us
to understand the properties of the elements. There are two
people who worked for organizing the elements according to
their repetitive properties and similar characteristics. Dimitri
Mendeleev and Lothar Mayer are the people we have to
credit for this important work. They both arranged the
elements according to increasing atomic masses however it
was Mendeleev who used the table to predict elements that
are not yet discovered at that time. He even predicted the
properties of the unknown elements precisely that would fall
in the group of aluminum and silicon that was later on
discovered as gallium and germanium. Because of this, he is
recognized as the Father of the Modern Periodic Table. On
the twentieth century, it was apparent that the elements have
repetitive patterns according to the atomic numbers and not
the atomic masses. This is called the periodic law which
states that when elements are arranged in increasing atomic
number their properties form a periodic pattern or the
elements fall into a group with similar properties The mass number of an element is equivalent to the number
of protons and neutrons of an element or you just subtract the
Figure 1.3 tells that the elements in the periodic table are atomic number from its mass number and you get the
arranged in increasing atomic number and vertically into number of neutrons. Let us have this chart as an example.
groups with similar properties. The horizontal row is called a Please familiarize yourself with the formula and analyze the
period which tells us about the energy level of electrons. We entry in each box.
will know more about this in electronic configuration of the
atoms. Each box on the table represents an element with its
chemical symbol, atomic number, atomic mass and
sometimes the name. Some periodic tables have group names
for the columns but some are just numbered from 1 to 18.
The 8 columns labeled as 1-2, 13-18, are the main group
elements or the representative elements. Columns 3-12 are
the transition metals while the 2 rows below the main table
are called the inner transition metals. These are the actinides
(bottom row) and the lanthanides (top row).

Elements that are similar in behavior are further classified

into metals, metalloids and nonmetals. Metals are lustrous,
malleable, conducts electricity and heat and are also ductile
so they are easily drawn into wires. They are found on the
left side of the periodic table. In our case the elements in
yellow colored boxes. Nonmetals on the other hand are poor
conductors of electricity and they are dull-the green colored
boxes. The pink boxes that separate the metals and the
nonmetals are called the metalloids. They conduct electricity
moderately and are used in microchips in computers and in
doping to produce superconductors. They have also the
properties of metals and the nonmetals.

The periodic table of elements summarizes the known

elements with their important characteristics. Each element
in the periodic table are expressed in atomic symbols. You
should be able to recognize them- the atomic number (Z), the
mass number (A) and the symbol of the element (X) as you
see in Fig. 1.3.

The atomic number (Z) tells the identity of the element and
is equal to the number of protons the atom of the element
has. In a neutral atom, the number of protons is equivalent to
the number of electrons. We know that if an atom loss an
electron, the charge of the atom changes into positive
because of the extra proton or positive charge or if the atom
gains an electron, it becomes negative because of the extra
negative charge. We can discuss more about charged atoms
as we reach the trends in the periodic table. Please
familiarize yourselves with the atomic symbols below.