INTRODUCTION

Descripción breve
Learn to speak, write, and

read
English with this book
And discover the power of this
language
VOL: 1
That will change your life.

YENCI M. CRISPIN
Contenido
Nouns............................................................................................................................................6
Common and Proper Nouns: ........................................................................................................6
Nouns of Address: ........................................................................................................................6
Concrete and Abstract Nouns: .....................................................................................................6
Countable Nouns:.........................................................................................................................7
Uncountable Nouns: ....................................................................................................................7
Collective Nouns: .........................................................................................................................7
Compound Nouns: .......................................................................................................................7
Nominalization (Creating Nouns): ................................................................................................7
Pronouns: .....................................................................................................................................8
Personal pronouns: ......................................................................................................................8
Personal Pronouns - Number: ......................................................................................................8
Personal Pronouns - Gender: .......................................................................................................9
Personal Pronouns - Case: ............................................................................................................9
Personal Pronouns - Reflexive Pronouns: .....................................................................................9
Intensive Pronouns:......................................................................................................................9
Indefinite Pronouns: ...................................................................................................................10
Verbs ..........................................................................................................................................10
Finite and Non-finite Verbs: .......................................................................................................10
Transitive and Intransitive Verbs: ...............................................................................................10
Regular and Irregular Verbs: .......................................................................................................10
Auxiliary Verbs: ..........................................................................................................................11
Primary Auxiliary Verbs: .............................................................................................................11
Modal Auxiliary Verbs: ...............................................................................................................11
Modal Auxiliary Verbs - Will: ......................................................................................................11
Modal Auxiliary Verbs - Would: ..................................................................................................12
Modal Auxiliary Verbs - Shall: .....................................................................................................12
Modal Auxiliary Verbs - Should: .................................................................................................12
Conditional Verbs: ......................................................................................................................12
Causative Verbs: .........................................................................................................................13
Factitive Verbs: ...........................................................................................................................13
Reflexive Verbs: ..........................................................................................................................13
Adjectives: ..................................................................................................................................13
Attributive Adjectives: ................................................................................................................13
Predicative Adjectives: ...............................................................................................................14
Proper Adjectives: ......................................................................................................................14
Collective Adjectives: .................................................................................................................14
Demonstrative Adjectives: .........................................................................................................14
Interrogative Adjectives: ............................................................................................................15
Nominal Adjectives: ...................................................................................................................15
Compound Adjectives: ...............................................................................................................15
Order of Adjectives: ...................................................................................................................15
Degrees of Comparison: .............................................................................................................16
Comparative Adjectives:.............................................................................................................16
Superlative Adjectives: ...............................................................................................................16
Adverbs of Time (Advanced): .....................................................................................................16
Adverbs of Place (Advanced): .....................................................................................................16
Adverbs of Manner (Advanced): ................................................................................................17
Adverbs of Degree (Advanced):..................................................................................................17
Mitigators (Advanced): ...............................................................................................................17
Intensifiers (Advanced): .............................................................................................................17
Adverbs of Frequency (Advanced): ............................................................................................18
Adverbs of Purpose: ...................................................................................................................18
Focusing Adverbs: ......................................................................................................................18
Negative Adverbs: ......................................................................................................................18
Evaluative Adverbs: ....................................................................................................................19
Viewpoint Adverbs: ....................................................................................................................19
Relative Adverbs:........................................................................................................................20
Adverbial Nouns: ........................................................................................................................20
Regular and Irregular Adverbs:...................................................................................................20
Comparative Adverbs: ................................................................................................................21
Superlative Adverbs: ..................................................................................................................21
Order of Adverbs: .......................................................................................................................21
Prepositions: ..............................................................................................................................22
Prepositional Phrases: ................................................................................................................22
Adverbs of Purpose: ...................................................................................................................22
Focusing Adverbs: ......................................................................................................................22
Negative Adverbs: ......................................................................................................................22
Conjunctive Adverbs: .................................................................................................................23
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Evaluative Adverbs: ....................................................................................................................23
Viewpoint Adverbs: ....................................................................................................................23
Relative Adverbs:........................................................................................................................23
Regular and Irregular Adverbs:...................................................................................................24
Comparative Adverbs: ................................................................................................................24
Superlative Adverbs: ..................................................................................................................25
Order of Adverbs: .......................................................................................................................25
Prepositions: ..............................................................................................................................25
Prepositional Phrases: ................................................................................................................25
Categories of Prepositions: ........................................................................................................26
Common Prepositional Errors: ...................................................................................................26
Prepositions with Nouns: ...........................................................................................................26
Prepositions with Verbs:.............................................................................................................27
Prepositions with Adjectives: .....................................................................................................27
Prepositions in Idioms: ...............................................................................................................27
Idioms that End with Prepositions: ............................................................................................28
Conjunctions: .............................................................................................................................28
Coordinating Conjunctions: ........................................................................................................28
Correlative Conjunctions: ...........................................................................................................28
Subordinating Conjunctions: ......................................................................................................29
Other parts of speech: ...............................................................................................................29
Particles .......................................................................................................................................29
Possessive Determiners:.............................................................................................................30
Gerunds......................................................................................................................................30
Gerunds as Objects of Verbs: .....................................................................................................30
Interjections: ..............................................................................................................................30
Inflection (Accidence):................................................................................................................31
Conjugation: ...............................................................................................................................31
Tense: .........................................................................................................................................31
Present Tense: ............................................................................................................................32
Present Simple Tense: ................................................................................................................32
Present Continuous Tense (Progressive): ...................................................................................32
Present Perfect Tense: ................................................................................................................32
Present Perfect Continuous Tense: .............................................................................................33
Past Tense: .................................................................................................................................33
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Past Simple Tense: ......................................................................................................................33
Past Continuous Tense: ..............................................................................................................33
Past Perfect Tense: .....................................................................................................................34
Past Perfect Continuous Tense: ..................................................................................................34
Future Tense (Approximation): ...................................................................................................34
Future Simple Tense: ..................................................................................................................34
Future Continuous Tense:...........................................................................................................35
Future Perfect Tense: .................................................................................................................35
Future Perfect Continuous Tense: ..............................................................................................35
Aspect .........................................................................................................................................35
Perfective Aspect:.......................................................................................................................36
Imperfective Aspect: ..................................................................................................................36
Aspects of the Present Tense: ....................................................................................................36
Simple Present Aspect:...............................................................................................................36
Present Continuous Aspect: .......................................................................................................36
Aspects of the Past Tense: ..........................................................................................................37
Simple Past Aspect: ....................................................................................................................37
Past Continuous Aspect: .............................................................................................................37
Aspects of the Future Tense: ......................................................................................................37
Simple Future Aspect: ................................................................................................................37
Future Continuous Aspect: .........................................................................................................38
Mood: .........................................................................................................................................38
Indicative Mood: ........................................................................................................................38
Subjunctive Mood: .....................................................................................................................38
Subjunctive Mood - Expressing Wishes: .....................................................................................38
Voice ...........................................................................................................................................39
Passive Voice: .............................................................................................................................39
Middle Voice: .............................................................................................................................39
Speech:.......................................................................................................................................39
Grammatical Person: ..................................................................................................................40
Declension:.................................................................................................................................40
Plurals:.........................................................................................................................................40
Gender in Nouns: .......................................................................................................................40
Regular and Irregular Inflection:.................................................................................................41
Syntax .........................................................................................................................................41
Subjects and Predicates: ............................................................................................................41
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The Predicate: ............................................................................................................................42
Complements: ..............................................................................................................................42
Adjective Complements: ............................................................................................................42
Adverbial......................................................................................................................................42
Adjuncts .....................................................................................................................................43
Phrases ........................................................................................................................................43
Noun Phrases: ............................................................................................................................43
Adjective Phrases: ......................................................................................................................44
Adverbial Phrases: ......................................................................................................................44
Participle Phrases: ......................................................................................................................44
Absolute Phrases: .......................................................................................................................44
Appositives: ................................................................................................................................45
Clauses .......................................................................................................................................45
Independent Clauses: .................................................................................................................45
Dependent Clauses: ...................................................................................................................45
Noun Clauses: ............................................................................................................................45
Relative Clauses:.........................................................................................................................46
Adverbial Clauses: ......................................................................................................................46
Complex Sentences: ...................................................................................................................46
Compound-Complex Sentences: ................................................................................................47
Declarative ...................................................................................................................................47
Interrogative.................................................................................................................................47
Negative Interrogative Sentences:..............................................................................................47
Imperative Sentences: ................................................................................................................47
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Nouns:
- Nouns are words that represent people, places, things, or ideas.
Example:
1. The built a successful business from scratch.
2. The conducted groundbreaking research in the field of genetics.
3. The masterpiece captivated art enthusiasts from around the world.
4. The delivered a compelling speech that resonated with the audience.
Common and Proper Nouns:

- Common nouns refer to general people, places, or things, while proper nouns refer to
specific individuals, locations, or brands and are capitalized.
Example:
1. Common Nouns: The city was bustling with activity during rush hour.
2. Proper Nouns: New York City is known as the "Big Apple" and is a global cultural
hub.
3. Common Nouns: The dog wagged its tail happily.
4. Proper Nouns: Fido, the loyal and intelligent Golden Retriever, won the dog show.
Nouns of Address:
- Nouns of address are used to directly address or refer to a person.
Example:
1. "Good morning, Mr. Johnson. How may I assist you today?"
2. "Excuse me, Professor Smith. I have a question about the assignment."
3. "Hello, ladies and gentlemen. Welcome to tonight's performance."
4. "Sir, your reservation has been confirmed. Enjoy your stay at our hotel."
Concrete and Abstract Nouns:

- Concrete nouns refer to physical and tangible objects, while abstract nouns refer to
ideas, concepts, or emotions.
Example:
1. Concrete Nouns: The child played joyfully in the park.
2. Abstract Nouns: Love is a powerful force that can bring people together.
3. Concrete Nouns: The mountain stood tall and majestic against the horizon.
4. Abstract Nouns: The artist's painting evoked a sense of tranquility and serenity.
6
Countable Nouns:
- Countable nouns can be counted and have both singular and plural forms.
Example:
1. I bought three books from the bookstore.
2. The company hired five new employees to expand its workforce.
3. She received two invitations to attend prestigious events.
4. We saw several deer grazing in the field.
Uncountable Nouns:
- Uncountable nouns cannot be counted and do not have a plural form.
Example:
1. The chef used a pinch of salt to enhance the flavor of the dish.
2. She provided valuable information about the industry trends.
3. The furniture in the room was made of high-quality wood.
4. We enjoyed a glass of refreshing water after the long hike.
Collective Nouns:
- Collective nouns refer to a group or collection of people or things.
Example:
1. The team celebrated their victory with a parade.
2. The committee made a unanimous decision on the proposal.
3. The flock of birds flew in perfect formation across the sky.
4. The family gathered around the table for a delicious meal.
Compound Nouns:
- Compound nouns are formed by combining two or more words to create a new noun.
Example:
1. She bought a laptop bag to protect her valuable equipment.
2. The basketball court was filled with enthusiastic players.
3. The sunflower field stretched as far as the eye could see.
4. The bookshelf was filled with a diverse collection of novels.
Nominalization (Creating Nouns):

- Nominalization is the process of creating nouns from other parts of speech, such as
verbs or adjectives.
Example:
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1. The runner's dedication and hard work led to her success in the marathon.
2. The professor's research on climate change made a significant impact in the
scientific community.
3. The artist's creativity and unique perspective were evident in her paintings.
4. The writer's vivid descriptions and storytelling skills brought the characters to life.
Pronouns:
- Pronouns are words used in place of nouns to avoid repetition.
Example:
1. He is an experienced lawyer who specializes in corporate law.
2. We are planning a surprise party for her birthday.
3. They have been working diligently to complete the project on time.
4. I appreciate your help and support throughout this process.
Personal pronouns:
- Personal pronouns refer to specific people or things.
Example:
1. I am responsible for completing the report by the end of the day.
2. You have the freedom to choose your own path in life.
3. He is known for his expertise in the field of neuroscience.
4. We should all strive to make a positive impact on society.
Personal Pronouns - Number:

- Personal pronouns can be singular or plural.
Example:
1. Singular: I am responsible for completing the report by the end of the day.
2. Plural: We have the freedom to choose our own path in life.
3. Singular: He is known for his expertise in the field of neuroscience.
4. Plural: We should all strive to make a positive impact on society.
Personal Pronouns - Person (First person, Second person, Third person):
- Personal pronouns can represent different persons in a conversation.
Example:
1. First Person: I believe in the power of perseverance.
2. Second Person: You have the ability to achieve your goals.
3. Third Person: He is known for his generosity and philanthropy.
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4. Third Person: She is a talented musician with a unique style.
Personal Pronouns - Gender:

- Personal pronouns can have gender-specific forms.
Example:
1. Masculine: He is a dedicated teacher who inspires his students.
2. Feminine: She is a successful entrepreneur who built her own business.
3. Neutral: They are a dynamic duo, working together to make a difference.
4. Neutral: They are a gender-neutral pronoun that can be used to refer to a person of
any gender.
Personal Pronouns - Case:

- Personal pronouns can have different forms depending on their grammatical case
(subjective, objective, possessive).
Example:
1. Subjective Case: I went to the store to buy groceries.
2. Objective Case: She gave the book to me as a gift.
3. Possessive Case: The car is theirs, not ours.
4. Possessive Case: The responsibility is mine, not yours.
Personal Pronouns - Reflexive Pronouns:

- Reflexive pronouns are used when the subject and the object of a sentence refer to
the same person or thing.
Example:
1. I bought myself a new book as a treat.
2. She reminded herself to stay focused on her goals.
3. They congratulated themselves on their achievements.
4. We challenged ourselves to step out of our comfort zones.
Intensive Pronouns:
- Intensive pronouns are used to emphasize or intensify a noun or pronoun.
Example:
1. I myself will take care of the situation.
2. She herself admitted her mistake and apologized.
3. He himself witnessed the incident and provided a detailed account.
4. We ourselves are responsible for our own happiness.
9
Indefinite Pronouns:
- Indefinite pronouns refer to non-specific people or things.
Example:
1. Someone left their umbrella at the restaurant.
Verbs:
- Verbs are action words that express an action, occurrence, or state of being.
Example:
1. The dog runs in the park.
2. She sings beautifully.
3. They are studying for their exams.
4. We will go on a vacation next week.
Finite and Non-finite Verbs:

- Finite verbs are verbs that show tense, number, and person, while non-finite verbs do
not show these grammatical features.
Example:
1. Finite Verb: He writes a letter every day.
2. Non-finite Verb: She loves to read books.
3. Finite Verb: They are playing soccer in the field.
4. Non-finite Verb: We enjoy swimming in the ocean.
Transitive and Intransitive Verbs:

- Transitive verbs require a direct object to complete their meaning, while intransitive
verbs do not require a direct object.
Example:
1. Transitive Verb: She ate an apple.
2. Intransitive Verb: He laughed loudly.
3. Transitive Verb: They built a house.
4. Intransitive Verb: We danced all night.
Regular and Irregular Verbs:

- Regular verbs follow a predictable pattern when forming their past tense and past
participle, while irregular verbs do not follow the same pattern.
Example:
1. Regular Verb: I walked to the park yesterday.
2. Irregular Verb: She swam in the pool last summer.
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3. Regular Verb: They played soccer on the weekend.
4. Irregular Verb: We ate dinner at a fancy restaurant.
Auxiliary Verbs:
- Auxiliary verbs, also known as helping verbs, are used with main verbs to create
different verb forms, tenses, and moods.
Example:
1. She is studying for her exams.
2. They have finished their project.
3. We will be going on a trip next month.
4. He has been working hard all day.
Primary Auxiliary Verbs:

- Primary auxiliary verbs include "be," "have," and "do," and they are used to form
different tenses and questions.
Example:
1. She is studying for her exams.
2. They have finished their project.
3. We did our homework yesterday.
4. He has been working hard all day.
Modal Auxiliary Verbs:

- Modal auxiliary verbs express possibility, necessity, ability, or permission. They
include "can," "could," "may," "might," "shall," "should," "will," "would," "must," and
"ought to."
Example:
1. She can speak three languages fluently.
2. They should arrive at the airport on time.
3. We will go to the party if we have time.
4. He must finish his homework before going out.
Modal Auxiliary Verbs - Will:

- The modal auxiliary verb "will" is used to express future actions, intentions, or
predictions.
Example:
1. She will meet us at the restaurant later.
2. They will start their new job next week.
11
3. We will travel to Europe next summer.
4. He will call you as soon as he arrives.
Modal Auxiliary Verbs - Would:

- The modal auxiliary verb "would" is used to express hypothetical situations,
politeness, or past habits.
Example:
1. She would help if she had the time.
2. They would always go for a walk after dinner.
3. We would appreciate your assistance.
4. He would often visit his grandparents when he was younger.
Modal Auxiliary Verbs - Shall:

- The modal auxiliary verb "shall" is used to express suggestions, offers, or future
actions in formal contexts.
Example:
1. Shall we go for a walk in the park?
2. They shall receive their awards at the ceremony.
3. We shall meet at the library at 5 PM.
4. Shall I help you with your bags?
Modal Auxiliary Verbs - Should:

- The modal auxiliary verb "should" is used to express advice, recommendations, or
obligations.
Example:
1. She should study more to improve her grades.
2. They should consider all the options before making a decision.
3. We should be more environmentally conscious.
4. He should apologize for his behavior.
Conditional Verbs:
- Conditional verbs are used to express hypothetical or conditional situations.
Example:
1. If it rains, we will stay indoors.
2. She would go to the party if she had time.
3. We could have won the game if we had scored a goal.
4. He might have been promoted if he had performed better.
12
Causative Verbs:
- Causative verbs are used to indicate that someone or something causes another
person to do an action.
Example:
1. She had her car repaired by a mechanic.
2. They made their children do their homework.
3. We had our house painted by professionals.
4. He got his hair cut at the salon.
Factitive Verbs:
- Factitive verbs are used to express that someone or something is made or considered
to be something.
Example:
1. She was elected president of the club.
2. They appointed him as the team captain.
3. We named our new puppy Max.
4. He declared himself the winner of the competition.
Reflexive Verbs:
- Reflexive verbs are used when the subject and object of a verb are the same,
indicating that the subject performs an action on itself.
Example:
1. She washed herself before going to bed.
2. They dressed themselves in their best clothes.
3. We taught ourselves how to play the guitar.
4. He cut himself while cooking.
Adjectives:
- Adjectives are words that describe or modify nouns or pronouns.
Example:
1. She has a beautiful garden.
2. They live in a spacious house.
3. We went on an exciting adventure.
4. He is wearing a comfortable sweater.
Attributive Adjectives:
- Attributive adjectives are placed before the noun they modify.
13
Example:
1. She bought a red car.
2. They have a large garden.
3. We visited an old castle.
4. He is reading an interesting book.
Predicative Adjectives:
- Predicative adjectives are placed after linking verbs and describe the subject.
Example:
1. She is happy.
2. They seem tired.
3. We are excited.
4. He became successful.
Proper Adjectives:
- Proper adjectives are derived from proper nouns and refer to specific people, places,
or things.
Example:
1. She speaks fluent French.
2. They enjoy Italian cuisine.
3. We visited the Eiffel Tower in Paris.
4. He bought a German car.
Collective Adjectives:
- Collective adjectives describe a group or collection of things.
Example:
1. She attended a three-day conference.
2. They bought a dozen eggs.
3. We have a fleet of cars.
4. He owns a pair of shoes.
Demonstrative Adjectives:
- Demonstrative adjectives indicate which person or thing is being referred to.
Example:
1. She wants this book.
2. They prefer those shoes.
14
3. We like these cookies.
4. He needs that pen.
Interrogative Adjectives:
- Interrogative adjectives are used to ask questions about nouns.
Example:
1. She asked which car to choose.
2. They wondered whose bag it was.
3. We are curious about what happened.
4. He wants to know why it happened.
Nominal Adjectives:
- Nominal adjectives function as nouns and describe a group or category of things.
Example:
1. She is interested in the artistic.
2. They support the underprivileged.
3. We are part of the working class.
4. He studies the historical.
Compound Adjectives:
- Compound adjectives are formed by combining two or more words to describe a
noun.
Example:
1. She bought a well-made dress.
2. They live in a five-story building.
3. We went on a last-minute trip.
4. He is wearing a bright-colored shirt.
Order of Adjectives:
- When multiple adjectives are used to describe a noun, there is a specific order in
which they should be placed.
Example:
1. She has a beautiful, old, wooden table.
2. They live in a small, cozy, beachfront cottage.
3. We went on a long, exhausting, adventurous hike.
4. He is wearing a stylish, expensive, leather jacket.
15
Degrees of Comparison:
- Adjectives have three degrees of comparison: positive, comparative, and superlative.
Example:
1. She is tall. (Positive)
She is taller than her sister. (Comparative)
She is the tallest person in the room. (Superlative)
Comparative Adjectives:
- Comparative adjectives are used to compare two things.
Example:
1. She is smarter than him.
2. They are taller than their classmates.
3. We are faster than them.
4. He is more experienced than her.
Superlative Adjectives:
- Superlative adjectives are used to compare three or more things, indicating the
highest degree.
Example:
1. She is the smartest student in the class.
2. They are the tallest buildings in the city.
3. We are the fastest runners on the team.
4. He is the most talented musician in the orchestra.
Adverbs of Time (Advanced):

- Adverbs of time at an advanced level can include specific time frames, durations, or
temporal relationships.
Example:
1. She arrived precisely at 8 o'clock.
2. They will leave within the next hour.
3. We frequently meet up every two weeks.
4. He occasionally stays up all night working.
Adverbs of Place (Advanced):

- Adverbs of place at an advanced level can include specific locations, directions, or
spatial relationships.
Example:
16
1. She searched meticulously throughout the entire house.
2. They live remotely in a secluded mountain cabin.
3. We traveled extensively across multiple continents.
4. He climbed effortlessly to the top of the tallest peak.
Adverbs of Manner (Advanced):

- Adverbs of manner at an advanced level can include more nuanced descriptions of
how an action is performed.
Example:
1. She sang passionately with a hint of melancholy.
2. They danced synchronously with intricate footwork.
3. We drove cautiously, navigating through heavy traffic.
4. He spoke eloquently, captivating the audience with his words.
Adverbs of Degree (Advanced):

- Adverbs of degree at an advanced level can include precise measurements,
comparisons, or intensifiers.
Example:
1. She is exceptionally talented, surpassing all expectations.
2. They are marginally satisfied, with room for improvement.
3. We are relatively content, considering the circumstances.
4. He is exponentially more skilled than his peers.
Mitigators (Advanced):
- Mitigators at an advanced level can include adverbs that subtly downplay or soften
the impact of a statement with finesse.
Example:
1. She is somewhat disappointed, though she understands the reasons.
2. They are slightly fatigued, but they push through with determination.
3. We are kind of busy, but we can make time for a quick meeting.
4. He is partially responsible, acknowledging his role in the situation.
Intensifiers (Advanced):
- Intensifiers at an advanced level can include adverbs that strongly emphasize or
amplify the meaning of a statement.
Example:
1. She is absolutely ecstatic, overjoyed beyond words.
17
2. They are incredibly devoted, putting in maximum effort.
3. We are extremely grateful, deeply appreciative of their support.
4. He is utterly exhausted, completely drained from the demanding work.
Adverbs of Frequency (Advanced):

- Adverbs of frequency at an advanced level can include more specific or nuanced
expressions of how often an action occurs.
Example:
1. She always arrives punctually, never failing to be on time.
2. They rarely go to the movies, preferring other forms of entertainment.
3. We usually have dinner together, maintaining a consistent routine.
4. He occasionally visits his grandparents, taking advantage of opportunities when
available.
Adverbs of Purpose:
- Adverbs of purpose indicate the reason or intention behind an action. They provide
information about why something is done.
Example:
1. She studied diligently to pass the exam and achieve her academic goals.
2. They worked tirelessly to build a successful business.
3. We saved money meticulously to fulfill our dream of traveling around the world.
4. He exercised regularly in order to maintain his physical fitness and overall health.
Focusing Adverbs:
- Focusing adverbs draw attention to a specific element or aspect of a sentence. They
highlight the importance or significance of a particular word or idea.
Example:
1. She specifically requested a blue pen for the task.
2. They particularly enjoyed the exquisite flavors of the gourmet meal.
3. We primarily focus on providing exceptional customer service.
4. He specifically mentioned the urgent deadline for the project.
Negative Adverbs:
- Negative adverbs express negation or denial. They indicate the absence or opposite
of a particular quality or action.
Example:
1. She never misses an opportunity to showcase her talents.
18
2. They rarely attend social gatherings due to their introverted nature.
3. We hardly ever encounter difficulties in our well-planned projects.
4. He seldom complains about trivial matters and maintains a positive attitude.
Conjunctive Adverbs:
- Conjunctive adverbs connect independent clauses or sentences. They show

relationships such as cause and effect, contrast, comparison, or sequence.
Example:
1. She studied hard; therefore, she achieved outstanding results.
2. They were exhausted; nonetheless, they persevered and completed the task.
3. We were delayed; however, we managed to reach our destination on time.
4. He couldn't find his keys; thus, he couldn't unlock the door and had to call for
assistance.
Evaluative Adverbs:
- Evaluative adverbs express an opinion or evaluation about an action, event, or
situation. They provide a subjective assessment or judgment.
Example:
1. She performed exceptionally well in the competition, impressing both the judges and
the audience.
2. They handled the situation poorly, leading to negative consequences.
3. We managed to complete the project satisfactorily, meeting all the requirements and
expectations.
4. He spoke eloquently during the presentation, captivating the audience with his
persuasive arguments.
Viewpoint Adverbs:
- Viewpoint adverbs express the speaker's perspective, opinion, or attitude towards a
particular situation, action, or idea.
Example:
1. She strongly believes in equal rights for all individuals, advocating for social justice.
2. They apparently didn't receive the message, causing confusion and
miscommunication.
3. We personally witnessed the incident, which left a profound impact on our
understanding of the issue.
4. He frankly admitted his mistake, displaying honesty and accountability.
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Relative Adverbs:
- Relative adverbs introduce relative clauses and relate to time, place, or reason. They
provide additional information about the antecedent or referent in the sentence.
Example:
1. She visited the place where she grew up, reminiscing about her childhood
memories.
2. They arrived early, when the party hadn't started yet, allowing them to help with the
preparations.
3. We went to the restaurant, where we had our first date, celebrating our anniversary.
4. He explained the reason why he couldn't attend the meeting, clarifying the
circumstances that led to his absence.
Adverbial Nouns:
- Adverbial nouns function as adverbs but are derived from nouns. They modify verbs,
adjectives, or other adverbs and provide additional information about manner, time,
place, or frequency.
Example:
1. She arrived yesterday, surprising everyone with her unexpected visit.
2. They will leave tomorrow, embarking on their long-awaited vacation.
3. We met him today, discussing our future plans and aspirations.
4. He called earlier, expressing his eagerness to collaborate on the project.
Regular and Irregular Adverbs:

- Regular adverbs are formed by adding "-ly" to an adjective, while irregular adverbs
have a different form. They describe the manner, time, place, frequency, or degree of
an action or state.
Example:
1. She spoke softly, conveying her message with a gentle and soothing tone.
2. They ran quickly, striving to achieve their personal best in the race.
3. We worked diligently, dedicating our time and effort to accomplish the task.
4. He played well, showcasing his exceptional skills and talent on the field.
- Adverbs have three degrees of comparison: positive, comparative, and superlative.
They indicate the intensity, extent, or degree of an action or quality.
Example:
1. She sings beautifully. (Positive)
She sings more beautifully than anyone else. (Comparative)
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She sings the most beautifully of all. (Superlative)
Comparative Adverbs:
- Comparative adverbs are used to compare two actions, qualities, or degrees.
Example:
1. She sings more beautifully than him, captivating the audience with her melodious
voice.
2. They work less efficiently than their colleagues, affecting their productivity and
performance.
3. We traveled further than expected, exploring new destinations and expanding our
horizons.
4. He speaks faster than her, making it challenging to keep up with his rapid pace of
speech.
Superlative Adverbs:
- Superlative adverbs are used to compare three or more actions, qualities, or degrees,
indicating the highest level or degree.
Example:
1. She sings the most beautifully of all the contestants, mesmerizing the judges and the
audience.
2. They work the least efficiently in the department, causing delays and inefficiencies in
the workflow.
3. We traveled the furthest among our group, venturing to remote and exotic locations.
4. He speaks the fastest in the class, impressing the teacher and classmates with his
fluency and speed.
Order of Adverbs:
- The order of adverbs in a sentence is typically: manner, place, frequency, and time.
However, the order may vary depending on the specific adverbs used.
Example:
1. She carefully walked to the park every morning, enjoying the serene surroundings.
2. They enthusiastically cheered at the concert last night, expressing their admiration
for the performers.
3. We often go swimming in the nearby lake, refreshing ourselves in the cool waters.
4. He quickly finished his homework before dinner, allowing him to relax and enjoy the
evening.
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Prepositions:
- Prepositions are words that show the relationship between a noun or pronoun and
other words in a sentence. They indicate location, time, direction, manner, or other
relationships.
Example:
1. She sat on the chair, comfortably settling down for the meeting.
2. They walked through the park, enjoying the scenic beauty and fresh air.
3. We traveled by plane, reaching our destination swiftly and conveniently.
4. He lives in a small town, embracing the close-knit community and peaceful
atmosphere.
Prepositional Phrases:
Adverbs of Purpose:
- Adverbs of purpose (also known as adverbs of reason) indicate the reason or
intention behind an action. They provide information about why something is done.
Example:
1. She studied diligently in order to pass the exam.
2. They worked hard so that they could achieve their goals.
3. We saved money with the purpose of buying a new car.
4. He exercised regularly with the aim of staying healthy.
Focusing Adverbs:
- Focusing adverbs draw attention to a particular aspect or element of a sentence.
They emphasize a specific part of the sentence.
Example:
1. She specifically asked for a blue pen, not any other color.
2. They particularly enjoyed the dessert, finding it especially delicious.
3. We mainly focus on customer satisfaction as our primary goal.
4. He specifically mentioned the deadline, highlighting its importance.
Negative Adverbs:
- Negative adverbs express negation or denial. They indicate the absence or opposite
of a particular quality or action.
Example:
1. She never misses a deadline; she is always punctual.
2. They rarely go to parties; they prefer more quiet activities.
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3. We hardly ever eat fast food; we prioritize healthy meals.
4. He seldom complains about anything; he has a positive attitude.
Conjunctive Adverbs:
- Conjunctive adverbs connect two independent clauses or sentences. They show a
relationship between the two clauses, such as cause and effect, contrast, or addition.
Example:
1. She studied hard; therefore, she passed the exam with flying colors.
2. They were tired; nonetheless, they continued working to meet the deadline.
3. We were late; however, we managed to catch the train just in time.
4. He couldn't find his keys; thus, he couldn't unlock the door and had to call for help.
Evaluative Adverbs:
- Evaluative adverbs express an opinion or evaluation about an action or situation.
They provide a subjective judgment or assessment.
Example:
1. She performed exceptionally well in the competition, impressing the judges.
2. They handled the situation poorly, making several mistakes.
3. We managed to complete the project satisfactorily, meeting all the requirements.
4. He spoke eloquently during the presentation, captivating the audience.
Viewpoint Adverbs:
- Viewpoint adverbs express the speaker's perspective or opinion. They provide
information about how the speaker sees or interprets a situation.
Example:
1. She strongly believes in equal rights for all individuals.
2. They apparently didn't receive the message, according to the available information.
3. We personally witnessed the incident, seeing it firsthand.
4. He frankly admitted his mistake, being honest and upfront about it.
Relative Adverbs:
- Relative adverbs introduce relative clauses and relate to time, place, or reason. They
provide additional information about the noun or pronoun in the main clause.
Example:
1. She visited the place where she grew up, reminiscing about her childhood.
2. They arrived early, when the party hadn't started yet, allowing them to help with the
preparations.
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3. We went to the restaurant, where we had our first date, reliving those memories.
4. He explained the reason why he couldn't attend the meeting, clarifying the
circumstances.
Adverbial Nouns:
- Adverbial nouns function as adverbs but are derived from nouns. They provide
information about time, place, or manner.
Example:
1. She arrived yesterday, surprising everyone with her unexpected visit.
2. They will leave tomorrow, planning their departure in advance.
3. We met him today, having a pleasant encounter.
4. He called earlier, indicating that he contacted us before the expected time.
Regular and Irregular Adverbs:

- Regular adverbs are formed by adding "-ly" to an adjective, while irregular adverbs
have a different form. Regular adverbs follow a consistent pattern, while irregular
adverbs have unique forms.
Example:
1. She spoke softly, using a gentle tone.
2. They ran quickly, moving at a fast pace.
3. We worked hard, putting in a lot of effort.
4. He played well, demonstrating his skill in the game.
- Adverbs have three degrees of comparison: positive, comparative, and superlative.
They are used to compare the intensity or manner of an action or quality.
Example:
1. She sings beautifully. (Positive degree)
She sings more beautifully than anyone else. (Comparative degree)
She sings the most beautifully of all. (Superlative degree)
Comparative Adverbs:
- Comparative adverbs are used to compare two actions or qualities. They indicate a
higher or lower degree of intensity or manner.
Example:
1. She sings more beautifully than him, showcasing her superior vocal skills.
2. They work less efficiently than their colleagues, showing a lower level of productivity.
3. We traveled further than expected, covering a longer distance.
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4. He speaks faster than her, expressing his ability to articulate thoughts quickly.
Superlative Adverbs:
- Superlative adverbs are used to compare three or more actions or qualities. They
indicate the highest degree of intensity or manner.
Example:
1. She sings the most beautifully of all the contestants, demonstrating her exceptional
talent.
2. They work the least efficiently in the department, showing the lowest level of
productivity.
3. We traveled the furthest among our group, covering the longest distance.
4. He speaks the fastest in the class, expressing his superior speaking skills.
Order of Adverbs:
- The order of adverbs in a sentence is typically: manner, place, frequency, time.
However, the specific order can vary depending on the context and emphasis.
Example:
1. She carefully walked to the park every morning, ensuring her safety.
2. They enthusiastically cheered at the concert last night, showing their excitement.
3. We often go swimming in the nearby lake, enjoying the activity frequently.
4. He quickly finished his homework before dinner, managing his time effectively.
Prepositions:
- Prepositions are words that show the relationship between a noun or pronoun and
other words in a sentence. They indicate location, direction, time, manner, or other
relationships.
Example:
1. She sat on the chair, finding a comfortable spot to rest.
2. They walked through the park, enjoying the scenery.
3. We traveled by plane, opting for a faster mode of transportation.
4. He lives in a small town, residing in a less populated area.
Prepositional Phrases:
- Prepositional phrases consist of a preposition followed by a noun or pronoun and any
other words that complete the phrase. They provide additional information about
location, time, or other relationships.
Example:
1. She went to the store, buying some groceries.
2. They played soccer in the backyard, enjoying an outdoor game.
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3. We had a picnic by the river, savoring the peaceful surroundings.
4. He studied for the exam, focusing on his preparation.
Categories of Prepositions:
- Prepositions can be categorized into various types based on their usage and
meaning. Common categories include time, place, direction, manner, and possession.
Each category represents a specific relationship between the preposition and the other
elements in the sentence.
Example:
1. Time: She arrived at 9 o'clock.
2. Place: They live in the city.
3. Direction: We walked towards the beach.
4. Manner: He spoke with confidence.
5. Possession: She borrowed a book from the library.
Common Prepositional Errors:

- Common prepositional errors refer to mistakes made when using prepositions in
sentences. These errors can occur due to incorrect usage, confusion between similar
prepositions, or lack of understanding of prepositional phrases.
Example:
1. Incorrect: She is interested on art.
Correct: She is interested in art.
2. Incorrect: They are waiting for the bus at.
Correct: They are waiting for the bus.
3. Incorrect: We went to the party with our friends together.
Correct: We went to the party with our friends.
4. Incorrect: He is good in playing the guitar.
Correct: He is good at playing the guitar.
Prepositions with Nouns:

- Prepositions are often used with nouns to indicate relationships or connections. The
preposition establishes the relationship between the noun and other elements in the
sentence, such as time, place, or manner.
Example:
1. She is fond of music.
2. They have a fear of heights.
3. We have a preference for spicy food.
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4. He has an interest in photography.
Prepositions with Verbs:

- Prepositions are used with verbs to express specific meanings or relationships. The
combination of a verb and a preposition forms a phrasal verb or a verb-preposition
combination that conveys a particular action or intention.
Example:
1. She apologized for her mistake.
2. They rely on their teammates.
3. We are excited about the upcoming event.
4. He insisted on going with us.
Prepositions with Adjectives:

- Prepositions can be used with adjectives to indicate the relationship between the
adjective and other elements in the sentence. The preposition adds more information
or context to the adjective.
Example:
1. She is afraid of spiders.
2. They are proud of their achievements.
3. We are happy for you.
4. He is interested in learning new things.
Prepositions in Idioms:
- Prepositions are often used in idiomatic expressions to convey specific meanings.
These idioms have fixed structures and cannot be interpreted literally based on the
individual words.
Example:
1. She is on top of the world. (Extremely happy)
2. They are in the same boat. (In the same situation)
3. We are out of the woods. (Safe from danger or difficulty)
4. He is under the weather. (Feeling unwell)
Idioms that Start with Prepositions:
- Idioms that start with prepositions are fixed expressions that have a preposition at the
beginning. These idioms often have figurative meanings and cannot be understood by
looking at the preposition alone.
Example:
1. She is on cloud nine. (Extremely happy)
2. They are in a pickle. (In a difficult or tricky situation)
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3. We are at odds with each other. (In disagreement)
4. He is by all means. (Without a doubt)
Idioms that End with Prepositions:

- Idioms that end with prepositions are fixed expressions that have a preposition at the
end. These idioms often have figurative meanings and cannot be understood by
looking at the preposition alone.
Example:
1. She is in for a surprise. (About to experience something unexpected)
2. They are out of sight, out of mind. (Forgotten or not thought about when not present)
3. We are on the brink of disaster. (Close to a negative outcome)
4. He is under the gun. (Under pressure)
Conjunctions:
- Conjunctions are words that connect words, phrases, or clauses. They help to
establish relationships between different parts of a sentence.
Example:
1. Coordinating Conjunctions: She likes both coffee and tea.
2. Correlative Conjunctions: Either you come with us, or you stay here.
3. Subordinating Conjunctions: We went to the park because the weather was nice.
Coordinating Conjunctions:
- Coordinating conjunctions join words, phrases, or independent clauses that are of
equal importance in a sentence.
Example:
1. She likes coffee and tea.
2. They are smart, but they lack experience.
3. We can go to the beach or the mountains for vacation.
4. He studied hard, yet he didn't perform well on the test.
Correlative Conjunctions:
- Correlative conjunctions are pairs of words that work together to join elements in a
sentence. They show a relationship of balance or contrast between the connected
elements.
Example:
1. Either you come with us, or you stay here.
2. Both the students and the teacher were happy with the results.
3. Whether it rains or shines, we will continue with our plans.
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4. Not only did she study, but she also practiced.
Subordinating Conjunctions:
- Subordinating conjunctions join a dependent clause (subordinate clause) to an
independent clause (main clause). They indicate a relationship of dependence or
subordination between the clauses.
Example:
1. We went to the park because the weather was nice.
2. She stayed at home since she was feeling unwell.
3. They will win the game if they play well.
4. He couldn't attend the meeting as he had a prior commitment.
Other parts of speech:

- In addition to nouns, verbs, adjectives, and adverbs, there are other parts of speech
that play important roles in language. These include particles, articles, determiners,
possessive determiners, gerunds, interjections, inflection (accidence), conjugation, and
tense.
Particles:
- Particles are small words that have grammatical functions but do not fit into traditional
parts of speech categories. They can include words like up, down, off, on, etc., which
are used to modify verbs or prepositions.
Example:
1. She turned up the volume.
2. They took off their shoes.
3. We ran into each other at the store.
Articles:
- Articles are words used before nouns to indicate whether the noun refers to a specific
or nonspecific item. There are three articles: "a" (used before singular nonspecific
nouns), "an" (used before singular nonspecific nouns starting with a vowel sound), and
"the" (used before specific or nonspecific nouns).
Example:
1. She bought a new car.
2. They saw an eagle in the sky.
3. We visited the museum yesterday.
Determiners:
- Determiners are words that provide information about the noun that follows them.
They help to specify or clarify the noun by indicating quantity, ownership, specificity, or
reference.
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Example:
1. She ate her dinner. (Possessive determiner)
2. They visited those places. (Demonstrative determiner)
3. We have many books. (Quantifier determiner)
4. He loves every animal. (Indefinite determiner)
Possessive Determiners:
- Possessive determiners indicate ownership or possession of something. They are
used before a noun to show that something belongs to someone.
Example:
1. Her book is on the table.
2. Their house is big.
3. Our car needs repairs.
4. His dog is very friendly.
Gerunds:
- Gerunds are verb forms that function as nouns. They are created by adding "-ing" to
the base form of a verb. Gerunds can be used as subjects, objects, or complements in
a sentence.
Example:
1. Swimming is her favorite hobby. (Subject)
2. They enjoy cooking together. (Object)
3. His passion is playing the guitar. (Complement)
4. I appreciate your help.
Gerunds as Objects of Verbs:

- Gerunds can function as the direct object of a verb in a sentence. They receive the
action of the verb.
Example:
1. She loves swimming in the ocean.
2. They enjoy hiking in the mountains.
3. We dislike waiting in long lines.
4. He appreciates receiving compliments.
Interjections:
- Interjections are words or phrases used to express strong emotions, surprise, or
sudden reactions. They are often used in informal speech and are not grammatically
connected to the rest of the sentence.
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Example:
1. Wow, that's amazing!
2. Oh no, I forgot my keys.
3. Well, I guess we'll have to find another solution.
4. Oops, I spilled my coffee.
Inflection (Accidence):
- Inflection, also known as accidence, refers to the modification of words to indicate
grammatical categories such as tense, number, gender, and case. Inflectional changes
can occur in nouns, verbs, adjectives, and pronouns.
Example:
1. The cat catches mice. (Singular)
The cats catch mice. (Plural)
2. He walks to school. (Present tense)
He walked to school. (Past tense)
3. She is a tall girl. (Positive degree)
She is the tallest girl. (Superlative degree)
Conjugation:
- Conjugation refers to the changes made to a verb to indicate different grammatical
categories such as tense, mood, aspect, person, and number. Conjugation allows
verbs to agree with the subject of the sentence.
Example:
1. I play the guitar. (First person singular)
You play the guitar. (Second person singular)
They play the guitar. (Third person plural)
2. She is singing a song. (Present continuous)
He sang a song. (Past simple)
We will sing a song. (Future simple)
Tense:
- Tense is a grammatical category that indicates the time of an action or event. It can
be used to express the present, past, or future.
Example:
1. I eat breakfast every morning. (Present tense)
2. She studied for the exam last night. (Past tense)
3. We will go on vacation next week. (Future tense)
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4. He is writing a book. (Present continuous tense)
Present Tense:
- The present tense is used to describe actions or events that are happening now or
are generally true. It is also used to express habits, routines, or facts.
Example:
1. I eat lunch at 12 o'clock.
2. She works as a teacher.
3. We live in a big city.
4. He plays the guitar every day.
Present Simple Tense:

- The present simple tense is used to describe habitual actions, general truths, and
permanent situations. It is formed by using the base form of the verb.
Example:
1. She goes to school every day.
2. They live in London.
3. We play tennis on Sundays.
4. He speaks three languages.
Present Continuous Tense (Progressive):

- The present continuous tense is used to describe actions happening at the moment of
speaking or actions that are in progress around the present time. It is formed by using
the present tense of the verb "to be" + the present participle (-ing form) of the main
verb.
Example:
1. She is studying for her exam right now.
2. They are watching a movie at the cinema.
3. We are having dinner with friends tonight.
4. He is playing soccer in the park.
Present Perfect Tense:

- The present perfect tense is used to describe actions or events that started in the past
and have a connection to the present. It is formed by using the present tense of the
auxiliary verb "have" + the past participle of the main verb.
Example:
1. She has visited Paris twice.
2. They have already finished their work.
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3. We have lived in this city for five years.
4. He has never been to Japan.
Present Perfect Continuous Tense:

- The present perfect continuous tense is used to describe actions or events that
started in the past, have a connection to the present, and are ongoing. It is formed by
using the present perfect tense of the auxiliary verb "have" + been + the present
participle (-ing form) of the main verb.
Example:
1. She has been studying for hours.
2. They have been working on the project all day.
3. We have been waiting for the bus since morning.
4. He has been playing the guitar for years.
Past Tense:
- The past tense is used to describe actions or events that happened in the past. It is
formed by adding "-ed" or irregular forms to the base form of regular verbs.
Example:
1. She walked to the park yesterday.
2. They visited their grandparents last weekend.
3. We played soccer in high school.
4. He studied for the exam all night.
Past Simple Tense:

- The past simple tense is used to describe completed actions or events that happened
at a specific point in the past. It is formed by using the past tense of the verb.
Example:
1. She went to the party last night.
2. They finished their homework before dinner.
3. We saw a movie at the cinema yesterday.
4. He played the piano at the concert.
Past Continuous Tense:

- The past continuous tense is used to describe actions that were in progress at a
specific point in the past. It is formed by using the past tense of the verb "to be" + the
present participle (-ing form) of the main verb.
Example:
1. She was studying when I called her.
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2. They were watching TV when the power went out.
3. We were having dinner when the phone rang.
4. He was playing basketball at the park yesterday.
Past Perfect Tense:

- The past perfect tense is used to describe an action that happened before another
action or a specific point in the past. It is formed by using the past tense of the auxiliary
verb "have" + the past participle of the main verb.
Example:
1. She had already finished her work when I arrived.
2. They had left the party before it started raining.
3. We had studied for the exam before the teacher gave us the test.
4. He had never seen such a beautiful sunset before.
Past Perfect Continuous Tense:

- The past perfect continuous tense is used to describe an ongoing action that started
in the past and continued up until another point in the past. It is formed by using the
past perfect tense of the auxiliary verb "have" + been + the present participle (-ing
form) of the main verb.
Example:
1. She had been waiting for the bus for an hour when it finally arrived.
2. They had been working on the project all day before they submitted it.
3. We had been living in the city for five years before we moved to the countryside.
4. He had been playing the guitar for years before he joined a band.
Future Tense (Approximation):

- The future tense is used to describe actions or events that will happen in the future. It
can also be used to express predictions, plans, or intentions. In English, the future
tense is often expressed using auxiliary verbs, modal verbs, or phrases.
Example:
1. She will go to the party tomorrow.
2. They are going to travel to Europe next month.
3. We plan to visit our relatives during the summer.
4. He is likely to finish his project by the end of the week.
Future Simple Tense:

- The future simple tense is used to describe actions or events that will happen in the
future. It is formed by using the modal verb "will" + the base form of the main verb.
Example:
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1. She will meet her friends for lunch.
2. They will start a new job next week.
3. We will have a party to celebrate his birthday.
4. He will study abroad next year.
Future Continuous Tense:

- The future continuous tense is used to describe actions or events that will be in
progress at a specific point in the future. It is formed by using the modal verb "will" + be
+ the present participle (-ing form) of the main verb.
Example:
1. She will be studying for her exam at this time tomorrow.
2. They will be traveling to a different country next month.
3. We will be having dinner with friends at 8 p.m. tonight.
4. He will be playing soccer in the park this weekend.
Future Perfect Tense:

- The future perfect tense is used to describe an action that will be completed before a
specific point in the future. It is formed by using the modal verb "will" + have + the past
participle of the main verb.
Example:
1. She will have finished her work by the time you arrive.
2. They will have left for their vacation before the weekend.
3. We will have completed the project by the end of the month.
4. He will have graduated from university by next year.
Future Perfect Continuous Tense:

- The future perfect continuous tense is used to describe an ongoing action that will be
completed before a specific point in the future. It is formed by using the modal verb
"will" + have + been + the present participle (-ing form) of the main verb.
Example:
1. She will have been studying for hours by the time the exam starts.
2. They will have been working on the project for a month by the deadline.
3. We will have been living in the city for ten years by the time we move.
4. He will have been playing the guitar for a long time by the concert.
Aspect:
- Aspect refers to how the action or event is viewed in terms of its completeness or
duration. There are two main aspects: perfective and imperfective.
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Perfective Aspect:
- The perfective aspect views the action or event as a completed whole, focusing on
the result or outcome. It emphasizes the endpoint or completion of the action.
Example:
1. She finished writing the report.
2. They completed the project before the deadline.
3. We arrived at the destination.
4. He solved the puzzle.
Imperfective Aspect:
- The imperfective aspect views the action or event as ongoing or in progress, focusing
on the duration or repetition of the action. It emphasizes the process or continuity of the
action.
Example:
1. She was writing the report for hours.
2. They were working on the project all night.
3. We were driving to the destination.
4. He was practicing the guitar every day.
Aspects of the Present Tense:

- In the present tense, the aspect can be either simple or continuous, indicating
different perspectives on the action or event.
Simple Present Aspect:

- The simple present aspect describes general truths, habits, and permanent situations.
It focuses on the action or state as a whole without emphasizing its duration.
Example:
1. She writes poetry in her free time.
2. They often visit their grandparents on weekends.
3. We live in a digital age.
4. He speaks fluent French.
Present Continuous Aspect:

- The present continuous aspect describes actions that are happening at the moment
of speaking or actions that are in progress around the present time. It emphasizes the
ongoing nature of the action.
Example:
1. She is currently writing a novel.
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2. They are studying for their exams this week.
3. We are working on a new project at the office.
4. He is learning to play the piano.
Aspects of the Past Tense:

- In the past tense, the aspect can be either simple or continuous, indicating different
perspectives on the action or event.
Simple Past Aspect:

- The simple past aspect describes completed actions or events that happened at a
specific point in the past. It focuses on the action or state as a whole without
emphasizing its duration.
Example:
1. She wrote a book last year.
2. They visited Paris during their vacation.
3. We finished our work before the deadline.
4. He played soccer when he was in high school.
Past Continuous Aspect:

- The past continuous aspect describes actions that were in progress at a specific point
in the past. It emphasizes the ongoing nature of the action.
Example:
1. She was studying for her exam when the phone rang.
2. They were having dinner when the power went out.
3. We were working on the project all night.
4. He was playing basketball at the park yesterday.
Aspects of the Future Tense:

- In the future tense, the aspect can be either simple or continuous, indicating different
perspectives on the action or event.
Simple Future Aspect:

- The simple future aspect describes actions or events that will happen in the future. It
focuses on the action or state as a whole without emphasizing its duration.
Example:
1. She will write a novel next year.
2. They will travel to Europe during their summer break.
3. We will have a meeting tomorrow morning.
4. He will learn to play the guitar in the coming months.
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Future Continuous Aspect:
- The future continuous aspect describes actions or events that will be in progress at a
specific point in the future. It emphasizes the ongoing nature of the action.
Example:
1. She will be studying for her exam at this time tomorrow.
2. They will be traveling to a different country next month.
3. We will be having a party on Saturday evening.
4. He will be playing soccer in the park this weekend.
Mood:
- Mood refers to the grammatical category that expresses the speaker's attitude
towards the action or event. There are different moods in English, including indicative
and subjunctive.
Indicative Mood:
- The indicative mood is used to express statements, facts, or questions that are
presented as real or true.
Example:
1. She is studying for her exam.
2. They visited their grandparents last weekend.
3. We will have a meeting tomorrow.
4. He played soccer when he was in high school.
Subjunctive Mood:
- The subjunctive mood is used to express hypothetical or unreal situations, wishes,
suggestions, or doubts.
Example:
1. It is important that she study for her exam.
2. I wish they were here with us.
3. We suggest that you be on time for the meeting.
4. If I were you, I would take a break.
Subjunctive Mood - Expressing Wishes:

- The subjunctive mood can be used to express wishes or desires for something that is
not currently true or possible.
Example:
1. I wish she were here with us.
2. We wish they had won the game.
38
3. I wish you would listen to me.
4. We wish it would stop raining.
Voice:
- Voice refers to the relationship between the subject and the verb in a sentence. There
are three main voices in English: active, passive, and middle.
Active Voice:
- The active voice is used when the subject of the sentence performs the action.
Example:
1. She wrote the letter.
2. They built the house.
3. We are organizing the event.
4. He fixed the car.
Passive Voice:
- The passive voice is used when the subject of the sentence receives the action. The
focus is on the object or the result of the action.
Example:
1. The letter was written by her.
2. The house was built by them.
3. The event is being organized by us.
4. The car was fixed by him.
Middle Voice:
- The middle voice is used to express actions that are performed by the subject for its
own benefit or interest. It is less commonly used in English compared to the active and
passive voices.
Example:
1. She dressed herself quickly.
2. They enjoyed themselves at the party.
3. We need to prepare ourselves for the challenge.
4. He found himself in a difficult situation.
Speech:
- Speech refers to the different ways of reporting or conveying information. Reported
speech, also known as indirect speech, is one common form of speech.
Reported Speech (Indirect Speech):
39
- Reported speech is used to report or relay what someone else said. It involves a
change in verb tense, pronouns, and adverbials to reflect the original speaker's words.
Example:
Direct speech: "I am going to the party," she said.
Reported speech: She said that she was going to the party.
Grammatical Person:
- Grammatical person refers to the different forms of pronouns and verb conjugations
used to indicate the role of the speaker, the person being spoken to, and the person or
thing being spoken about.
Example:
1. First person: I, we
2. Second person: you
3. Third person: he, she, it, they
Declension:
- Declension refers to the changes in nouns, pronouns, and adjectives to indicate
grammatical categories such as case, number, and gender. It involves modifying the
form of the word to match its role in the sentence.
Example:
1. Noun declension: cat (singular), cats (plural)
2. Pronoun declension: he (subject), him (object)
3. Adjective declension: tall (positive degree), taller (comparative degree), tallest
(superlative degree)
Plurals:
- Plurals are used to indicate more than one of a noun. In English, most nouns form
their plural by adding "-s" or "-es" to the singular form.
Example:
1. Singular: cat, Plural: cats
2. Singular: book, Plural: books
3. Singular: box, Plural: boxes
4. Singular: child, Plural: children (irregular plural)
Gender in Nouns:
- Gender in nouns refers to the classification of nouns into masculine, feminine, or
neuter genders. In English, most nouns do not have grammatical gender, but some
nouns may be associated with a particular gender based on their meaning.
Example:
40
1. Masculine: boy, man
2. Feminine: girl, woman
3. Neuter: table, book
Regular and Irregular Inflection:

- Regular inflection refers to the consistent pattern of adding suffixes or making
changes to the base form of a word to indicate grammatical categories. Irregular
inflection, on the other hand, involves unpredictable changes in the form of the word.
Example:
1. Regular inflection: walk (base form), walked (past tense)
2. Irregular inflection: go (base form), went (past tense)
Syntax:
- Syntax refers to the arrangement of words and phrases in a sentence to create
meaningful structures. It involves the study of sentence structure, word order, and the
relationships between different elements of a sentence.
Example:
1. Subject + Verb + Object: She reads a book.
2. Verb + Subject + Object: Reads she a book?
3. Subject + Verb: She reads.
Subjects and Predicates:

- Subjects and predicates are the two main components of a sentence. The subject is
the noun or pronoun that performs the action or is being described, while the predicate
is the verb or verb phrase that expresses the action or state of the subject.
Example:
1. Subject: She, Predicate: reads a book.
2. Subject: They, Predicate: are playing soccer.
3. Subject: We, Predicate: have finished our work.
The Subject:
- The subject of a sentence is the noun or pronoun that performs the action or is being
described. It is typically the main focus of the sentence and is usually located at the
beginning of the sentence.
Example:
2. They went to the park.
3. We are having dinner at a restaurant.
4. He plays the guitar.
41
The Predicate:
- The predicate of a sentence is the verb or verb phrase that expresses the action or
state of the subject. It provides information about what the subject is doing or what is
being said about the subject.
Example:
2. They went to the park.
3. We are having dinner at a restaurant.
4. He plays the guitar.
Complements:
- Complements are words or phrases that provide additional information about the
subject or the object in a sentence. They complete the meaning of the verb and are
necessary to make the sentence grammatically correct.
Example:
1. Subject complement: She is a doctor. (The noun phrase "a doctor" complements the
subject "she.")
2. Object complement: They made him their leader. (The noun phrase "their leader"
complements the object "him.")
3. Verb complement: We consider him a friend. (The noun phrase "a friend"
complements the verb "consider.")
Adjective Complements:
- Adjective complements are words or phrases that provide additional information about
the subject or object of a sentence and complete the meaning of an adjective. They are
used to describe or modify the adjective.
Example:
1. She is confident in her abilities. (The prepositional phrase "in her abilities"
complements the adjective "confident.")
2. The book is full of interesting stories. (The prepositional phrase "of interesting
stories" complements the adjective "full.")
Adverbial Complements:
- Adverbial complements are words or phrases that provide additional information
about the verb in a sentence and complete the meaning of an adverb. They are used to
describe or modify the adverb.
Example:
1. She ran quickly to catch the bus. (The prepositional phrase "to catch the bus"
complements the adverb "quickly.")
42
2. He spoke softly during the meeting. (The prepositional phrase "during the meeting"
complements the adverb "softly.")
Modifiers:
- Modifiers are words or phrases that provide additional information or describe other
words in a sentence. They can modify nouns, verbs, adjectives, or other adverbs.
Example:
1. The tall building stood in the city. (The adjective "tall" modifies the noun "building.")
2. She quickly ran to catch the train. (The adverb "quickly" modifies the verb "ran.")
Adjuncts:
- Adjuncts are optional elements in a sentence that provide additional information but
can be removed without affecting the grammatical structure of the sentence. They often
function as adverbs or adverbial phrases.
Example:
1. She walked slowly to the park. (The adverb "slowly" is an adjunct that provides
additional information about how she walked.)
2. They met at the coffee shop yesterday. (The adverbial phrase "at the coffee shop" is
an adjunct that provides additional information about where they met.)
Phrases:
- Phrases are groups of words that function as a unit and convey a specific meaning.
They can consist of different types of words, such as nouns, adjectives, adverbs, or
verbs.
Example:
1. Noun Phrase: The big red apple. (The phrase "the big red apple" functions as a
noun.)
2. Adjective Phrase: Very tall and handsome. (The phrase "very tall and handsome"
functions as an adjective.)
3. Adverbial Phrase: In the morning. (The phrase "in the morning" functions as an
adverb.)
4. Participle Phrase: Running in the park. (The phrase "running in the park" functions
as a participle modifying a noun.)
5. Absolute Phrase: The rain pouring down, they decided to stay indoors. (The phrase
"the rain pouring down" functions as an absolute phrase.)
Noun Phrases:
- Noun phrases are phrases that function as nouns in a sentence. They consist of a
noun or pronoun along with any modifiers, determiners, or complements.
Example:
43
1. The black cat. (The noun phrase "the black cat" functions as the subject of the
sentence.)
2. Her favorite book. (The noun phrase "her favorite book" functions as the object of the
sentence.)
Adjective Phrases:
- Adjective phrases are phrases that function as adjectives in a sentence. They consist
of an adjective along with any modifiers or complements.
Example:
1. Extremely delicious. (The adjective phrase "extremely delicious" describes the
noun.)
2. Covered in colorful flowers. (The adjective phrase "covered in colorful flowers"
describes the noun.)
Adverbial Phrases:
- Adverbial phrases are phrases that function as adverbs in a sentence. They provide
information about the manner, place, time, or frequency of an action.
Example:
1. With great care. (The adverbial phrase "with great care" describes how the action
was performed.)
2. In the evening. (The adverbial phrase "in the evening" describes when the action
took place.)
Participle Phrases:
- Participle phrases are phrases that consist of a participle (a verb form ending in -ing
or -ed) and any modifiers or complements. They function as adjectives in a sentence.
Example:
1. The boy sitting on the bench. (The participle phrase "sitting on the bench" describes
the boy.)
2. The broken window. (The participle phrase "broken window" describes the noun.)
Absolute Phrases:
- Absolute phrases are phrases that consist of a noun or pronoun and a participle or a
noun and a modifying clause. They provide additional information about the main
clause and are not grammatically connected to the rest of the sentence.
Example:
1. The sun shining brightly, they went for a walk. (The absolute phrase "the sun shining
brightly" provides additional information about the situation.)
2. Her eyes filled with tears, she hugged him tightly. (The absolute phrase "her eyes
filled with tears" provides additional information about her emotional state.)
44
Appositives:
- Appositives are noun phrases that provide additional information or clarification about
a preceding noun. They are often set off by commas.
Example:
1. My friend, Sarah, is a talented musician. (The appositive "Sarah" provides additional
information about "my friend.")
2. The city, Paris, is known for its beautiful architecture. (The appositive "Paris"
provides additional information about "the city.")
Clauses:
- Clauses are groups of words that contain a subject and a verb and can function as a
complete sentence or as part of a sentence.
Example:
1. Independent Clause: She went to the store. (The independent clause "She went to
the store" can stand alone as a complete sentence.)
2. Dependent Clause: When it started raining. (The dependent clause "When it started
raining" cannot stand alone as a complete sentence.)
Independent Clauses:
- Independent clauses are clauses that can stand alone as complete sentences
because they express a complete thought and contain a subject and a verb.
Example:
1. She went to the store.
2. They cooked dinner together.
Dependent Clauses:
- Dependent clauses are clauses that cannot stand alone as complete sentences
because they do not express a complete thought. They rely on an independent clause
to form a complete sentence.
Example:
1. When she went to the store.
2. Because they cooked dinner together.
Noun Clauses:
- Noun clauses are dependent clauses that function as nouns in a sentence. They can
act as subjects, objects, or complements.
Example:
1. What she said surprised me. (The noun clause "what she said" functions as the
object of the verb "surprised.")
45
2. Whether they will come is uncertain. (The noun clause "whether they will come"
functions as the subject of the verb "is.")
Relative Clauses:
- Relative clauses are dependent clauses that provide additional information about a
noun in the main clause. They are introduced by relative pronouns (such as who,
whom, whose, which, or that) or relative adverbs (such as when, where, or why).
Example:
1. The book that I read was very interesting. (The relative clause "that I read" provides
additional information about the book.)
2. The person who won the competition will receive a prize. (The relative clause "who
won the competition" provides additional information about the person.)
Adverbial Clauses:
- Adverbial clauses are dependent clauses that function as adverbs in a sentence.
They provide information about the manner, time, place, condition, reason, or purpose
of the main clause.
Example:
1. She studied hard so that she could pass the exam. (The adverbial clause "so that
she could pass the exam" explains the purpose of her studying.)
2. He went to bed early because he was tired. (The adverbial clause "because he was
tired" explains the reason for his going to bed early.)
Sentences:
- Sentences are grammatical units that express a complete thought. They can be
classified into different types based on their structure and purpose.
Compound Sentences:
- Compound sentences are sentences that contain two or more independent clauses
joined together by coordinating conjunctions (such as "and," "but," "or") or semicolons.
Example:
1. She wanted to go to the party, but she had to finish her work.
2. He loves to play soccer, and she enjoys playing basketball.
Complex Sentences:
- Complex sentences are sentences that contain one independent clause and at least
one dependent clause. The dependent clause cannot stand alone as a complete
sentence.
Example:
1. After she finished her work, she went to the party.
2. He will go to the park if the weather is nice.
46
Compound-Complex Sentences:
- Compound-complex sentences are sentences that contain two or more independent
clauses and at least one dependent clause.
Example:
1. She wanted to go to the party, but she had to finish her work because it was due the
next day.
2. He will go to the park if the weather is nice, and he will bring his dog along.
Declarative Sentences:
- Declarative sentences are sentences that make statements or convey information.
They end with a period.
Example:
1. She is going to the store to buy groceries.
2. The sun is shining brightly today.
Interrogative Sentences:
- Interrogative sentences are sentences that ask questions. They end with a question
mark.
Example:
1. Are you coming to the party tonight?
2. Where did you go on your vacation?
Negative Interrogative Sentences:

- Negative interrogative sentences are sentences that ask questions in the negative
form. They combine the elements of both negative and interrogative sentences.
Example:
1. Aren't you going to the party tonight?
2. Didn't you see the movie last night?
Imperative Sentences:
- Imperative sentences are sentences that give commands, make requests, or express
instructions. They often begin with a verb and do not necessarily have a subject.
Example:
1. Please pass me the salt.
2. Close the door before leaving.
Conditional Sentences:
- Conditional sentences are sentences that express a condition and its potential result.
They typically consist of an "if" clause (the condition) and a main clause (the result).
47
Example:
1. If it rains, we will stay indoors.
2. She will go to the concert if she can get tickets.
(Nation, 2009)
Bibliography
Nation, P. (2009). 4000 essential english world. (F. Cruz, Ed.)
(ai cici)
48

INTRODUCTION

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INTRODUCTION

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Learn to speak, write, and

That will change your life.

Common and Proper Nouns:

Concrete and Abstract Nouns:

Nominalization (Creating Nouns):

Personal Pronouns - Number:

Personal Pronouns - Gender:

Personal Pronouns - Case:

Personal Pronouns - Reflexive Pronouns:

Finite and Non-finite Verbs:

Transitive and Intransitive Verbs:

Regular and Irregular Verbs:

Primary Auxiliary Verbs:

Modal Auxiliary Verbs:

Modal Auxiliary Verbs - Will:

Modal Auxiliary Verbs - Would:

Modal Auxiliary Verbs - Shall:

Modal Auxiliary Verbs - Should:

Adverbs of Time (Advanced):

Adverbs of Place (Advanced):

Adverbs of Manner (Advanced):

Adverbs of Degree (Advanced):

Adverbs of Frequency (Advanced):

- Conjunctive adverbs connect independent clauses or sentences. They show

Regular and Irregular Adverbs:

Regular and Irregular Adverbs:

Common Prepositional Errors:

Prepositions with Nouns:

Prepositions with Verbs:

Prepositions with Adjectives:

Idioms that End with Prepositions:

Other parts of speech:

Gerunds as Objects of Verbs:

Present Simple Tense:

Present Continuous Tense (Progressive):

Present Perfect Tense:

Present Perfect Continuous Tense:

Past Simple Tense:

Past Continuous Tense:

Past Perfect Tense:

Past Perfect Continuous Tense:

Future Tense (Approximation):

Future Simple Tense:

Future Continuous Tense:

Future Perfect Tense:

Future Perfect Continuous Tense:

Aspects of the Present Tense:

Simple Present Aspect:

Present Continuous Aspect:

Aspects of the Past Tense:

Simple Past Aspect:

Past Continuous Aspect:

Aspects of the Future Tense:

Simple Future Aspect:

Subjunctive Mood - Expressing Wishes:

Regular and Irregular Inflection:

Subjects and Predicates:

Negative Interrogative Sentences:

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