GROUP 5

PRECIPITATION
FORMS, TYPES, MEASUREMENTS, INTERPRETATION, AND HOW IT IS
ARTIFICIALLY INDUCED.

In Partial Fulfillment of
the Requirements for Hydrology

Members
Jeffrey Liel Ferrer
Khyla B. Gainsan
Francis Adrian Y. Milabo

Instructor
Engr. Hazel Jean Balicas

CE32-B
March 2024
INTRODUCTION
Precipitation is a natural phenomenon vital to the Earth's water cycle, characterized by the
descent of condensed water vapor from the atmosphere to the Earth's surface in various forms
such as rain, snow, sleet, or hail. It begins with the atmosphere acting as a vast reservoir,
absorbing moisture from oceans, lakes, and rivers. As this moist air ascends, it undergoes a
cooling process, causing water vapor within it to condense into minuscule droplets or ice
crystals. These condensed particles coalesce, forming clouds, However, as clouds at excessive
moisture, they reach a saturation point where gravity overcomes the cloud's capacity to retain
water, resulting in the release of droplets or crystals back to Earth's surface. This downward
descent of condensed water constitutes precipitation, replenishing the Earth's water sources and
influencing various ecological processes.

I.FORMS OF PRECIPITATION

1. SNOW - Snowflakes are formed within clouds where the atmospheric temperature
remains consistently below the freezing point throughout the vertical column. This
sustained freezing temperature prevents the snowflakes from melting as they descend to
the Earth's surface, resulting in snowfall. It is noteworthy that as altitude increases within
the atmosphere, temperatures typically decrease, leading to colder conditions.
Consequently, regions at higher elevations, such as mountains, experience more frequent
and heavier snowfall due to the prevalence of colder air masses. This thermal gradient
contributes to the differential distribution of snow accumulation across varied
geographical terrains.

2. SLEET AND HAIL - As snow descends from the clouds, it encounters a stratified
atmospheric profile, featuring distinct layers of varying temperatures. Upon traversing a
thin stratum of relatively warmer air, the snowflake experiences partial melting. It is
crucial to note that once a snowflake undergoes this process of melting, it irreversibly
loses its characteristic structure and cannot revert to its original form. Subsequently, as
the partially melted droplets descend into regions characterized by sub-freezing
temperatures closer to the Earth's surface, they undergo a phase transition, solidifying
into small ice pellets known as sleet. Sleet formation predominantly occurs during winter
seasons, in contrast, the formation of hailstones typically transpires during summer
months.

HAIL FORMATION
Hail formation occurs predominantly within the dynamic environment of cumulonimbus
clouds, characterized by their towering vertical structure, distinctive anvil-like shape, and
 dense, dark appearance with a flat base. As warm air rises inside a thunderstorm, it
carries water droplets upwards into colder areas of the cloud. There, the droplets freeze
quickly and stick together, forming hailstones. But it doesn't stop there. Strong updrafts in
the storm keep pushing the hailstones back up into the cold regions, where they gather
more layers of ice. This cycle can repeat several times, making the hailstones grow
bigger.

The size of hailstones tells us how strong the storm is. Bigger hailstones mean stronger
updrafts and more intense weather. So, by looking at the size of hailstones, we can predict
how severe a storm might be. This whole process happens within cumulonimbus clouds
during thunderstorms, showing us how weather patterns interact to create hailstones.

3. FREEZING RAIN - As snow descends from the clouds, it encounters warmer

temperatures in the lower atmosphere, causing it to melt completely. However, as it
continues its descent, it passes through a thin layer of colder air near the Earth's surface,
where temperatures are below freezing. This rapid transition from liquid to solid results
in the formation of freezing rain upon contact with the ground.

Freezing rain poses significant hazards, particularly for transportation, as it creates a layer
of ice on roads and sidewalks, making travel perilous. Moreover, the accumulation of ice
from freezing rain can exert considerable weight on power lines and tree branches,
increasing the risk of breakage and potential hazards. Thus, freezing rain events
necessitate heightened caution and preparation to mitigate the associated risks and ensure
public safety.

4. RAIN AND DRIZZLE - In the upper atmosphere where clouds form, temperatures are
notably cold, often leading to the initial precipitation taking the form of snow. However,
as this snow descends into regions of warmer temperatures closer to the Earth's surface, it
undergoes a phase transition, melting into liquid form and resulting in rainfall. These
raindrops typically range in diameter from 0.5mm to 6.35mm.

Additionally, it is important to distinguish between rain and drizzle based on the size of
the droplets. Raindrops, characterized by their larger size, are generally above 0.5mm in
diameter, whereas drizzle droplets are smaller, measuring less than 0.5mm. The presence
of drizzle, characterized by its fine, densely distributed droplets, can significantly impair
visibility, particularly when the droplets are abundant, posing challenges for travel and
navigation.

II.TYPES OF PRECIPITATION
1. CONVECTIONAL RAIN - Convectional rain occurs as a result of a natural process
known as convection, which involves the transfer of heat energy within fluids, including
gasses like air. This concept is akin to the convection currents observed in the Earth's
mantle, where the heat from magma rises towards the lithosphere.

In the atmosphere, convection currents are initiated when the sun's rays heat the Earth's
surface, warming the air in its vicinity. As warm air tends to rise due to its lower density,
it ascends into the troposphere, which is comparatively cooler. This upward movement of
warm air sets in motion a convection current, characterized by the transfer of heat energy.

As warm air rises higher into the atmosphere, it gradually cools, leading to condensation
and the formation of clouds. Subsequently, precipitation occurs as the condensed
moisture within the clouds reaches a critical mass and falls back to the Earth's surface as
rainfall.

Convectional rain is most prevalent during the summer season, when the warming of air
is most pronounced. Additionally, it tends to occur frequently in equatorial regions,
where sunlight is abundant throughout the year. Furthermore, convectional rain is
commonly observed in inland areas of continents, where land surfaces heat up more
rapidly than water surfaces. Lastly, it is noteworthy that convectional rain predominantly
occurs in the northern hemisphere, owing to the greater landmass in this region, which
facilitates faster heating during the summer months.

2. OROGRAPHIC RAIN - The term "orographic" is closely associated with orogenic

processes, which refer to the geological mechanisms involved in mountain formation.
Mountains are typically created when tectonic plates interact, either converging,
diverging, or sliding past each other. The collision of plates can result in one plate sliding
beneath the other, causing the land surface to uplift and form mountains.

Rainfall is intricately linked to these orogenic processes, particularly in mountainous

regions. Solar energy heats both land and water surfaces, but land tends to heat up and
cool down more rapidly than water due to its opaque nature. Consequently, mountain
surfaces warm up and cool down faster than valley floors, creating temperature
differentials that influence atmospheric dynamics.

As warm air rises from the ocean due to evaporation, it moves towards cooler regions,
ultimately ascending along the slopes of mountains. This upward movement is aided by
horizontal airflow patterns. As the warm air ascends, it cools due to decreasing
atmospheric pressure with altitude. This cooling process leads to the condensation of
water vapor, forming clouds and, subsequently, rainfall.
 As the air continues to ascend over the mountain summit, it begins to descend, causing
temperatures to rise again. This descending air has an increased capacity to hold moisture
due to the warmer temperatures, resulting in reduced rainfall on the leeward side of the
mountain, known as the rain shadow area.

In summary, orographic rainfall occurs when warm, moisture-laden air is forced to rise
over mountainous terrain. As the air rises, it cools, leading to condensation and rainfall
on the windward side of the mountain. This phenomenon highlights the intricate interplay
between geological processes and atmospheric dynamics in shaping regional precipitation
patterns.

3. CYCLONIC RAIN - A cyclone is a large-scale atmospheric phenomenon characterized

by the rotation of air around a central low-pressure zone. This rotation is driven by the
movement of air from areas of high pressure to those of low pressure, following the
fundamental principle that air moves from regions of higher pressure to lower pressure.

The formation of cyclones is closely linked to the interaction between air masses of
differing temperatures. High and low-pressure systems arise due to variations in
temperature across the Earth's surface, a consequence of uneven solar energy distribution.
Warm air holds more moisture compared to cool, dry air.

The convergence of warm and cool air masses leads to the formation of fronts,
specifically warm fronts and cold fronts. In a warm front scenario, lighter warm air gently
ascends over denser cool air, aided by the low temperatures present in the upper
troposphere. As the warm air rises, it cools, causing moisture within it to condense and
form clouds, eventually resulting in rainfall.
Cyclonic rainfall occurs when these contrasting air masses collide, with warm air rising
rapidly over cool air due to differences in density. As the warm air ascends, it begins to
lose heat, causing moisture to condense and form clouds, ultimately leading to
precipitation in the form of rain. This process underscores the fundamental principle that
warm and cool air masses do not readily mix due to their disparate densities, resulting in
the distinct atmospheric phenomena associated with cyclonic activity.

III. MEASUREMENT OF PRECIPITATION - The process of gathering and analyzing data

of water that reaches horizontal ground or the horizontal ground projection plane of the earth’s
surface through the use of instruments and devices.

1. Rain Gauge - is an instrument used to measure the amount of rainfall that occurs over a
specific period of time in a particular location. It typically consists of a cylindrical or
funnel-shaped container with calibrated markings to indicate the amount of rainfall collected.
Recording Rain Gauge - an instrument that automatically records rainfall data continuously, it
utilizes sensors or mechanisms to automatically capture and store rainfall data over time,
ensuring a constant stream of information regarding rainfall intensity and duration without the
need for manual oversight.

a. Float Type Rain Gauge - a specific type of rain gauge that operates on the principle of
buoyancy. It typically consists of a container with a floating mechanism inside. When
rainwater fills the container, the float rises, providing a visual indication or a
measurement of the accumulated precipitation. This design allows for the quantification
of rainfall by observing the displacement of the float within the gauge.

b. Tipping Bucket Rain Gauge - a type of rain gauge that measures precipitation by
collecting rainwater in a funnel, which then fills a small bucket. Once the bucket reaches
a certain level, it tips over, emptying its contents and simultaneously records a
measurement. This tipping action repeats for each increment of rainfall, recording
patterns and analyzing data of rainfall intensity providing a way to quantify precipitation
over time.

c. Weighing Type Rain Gauge - it measures rainfall by directly weighing the collected
precipitation in a container on a scale. The change in weight over time provides precise
measurements of rainfall amounts. It consists of a collection container atop a sensitive
balance or load cell. As rainwater enters the container, the increase in weight is recorded
by the balance or load cell. This weight is then converted into rainfall depth using a
calibration factor. The data is logged and analyzed to understand precipitation patterns
and intensity.

Non - Recording Rain Gauge - instruments that require manual observation and human
intervention on the recording of rainfall measurements, employing a simple container or cylinder
with marked indicators to gauge rainfall depth.

a. Cylindrical Plain Rain Gauge - a basic rain gauge that involves a An outer and an inner
cylindrical container, which the inner container fully measures up to one inch of rainfall
and can measure up to the nearest hundredth. The outer container is used to catch the
overfall from the inner container so that it can be used later dor total measurement of
collected rainfall. Data can be measured by the 1 inch inner container over time.

2. Ground Based Weather Radar

- a radar system stationed on the Earth's surface, designed to emit radio waves into the
atmosphere. Ground-based weather radars are deployed in various sectors and
 locations to ensure accurate weather monitoring. They are utilized by meteorological
agencies, research institutions, airports, military bases, and critical infrastructure
facilities. These radars provide continuous monitoring of precipitation, severe storms,
and atmospheric conditions, supporting weather forecasting, aviation safety, and
scientific research. Coastal regions often rely on ground-based radars to monitor
approaching storms and issue timely warnings. Overall, ground-based weather radars
play a crucial role in enhancing public safety and supporting various sectors by providing
essential weather data and insights.

3. Earth Observing Satellites

- specifically designed spacecraft equipped with various sensors and instruments to

monitor and collect data about the Earth's surface, atmosphere, oceans, and other
environmental factors from space. These satellites orbit the Earth, capturing imagery,
measuring temperature, humidity, atmospheric composition, and other parameters to
provide valuable information for weather forecasting, climate monitoring, disaster
management, agriculture, urban planning, and scientific research.

4. Snow Gauge

- a device used to measure the depth of snow accumulation. It typically consists of a

board with calibrated markings to indicate the height of the snow. A flat surface base is
used to ensure that measurements are accurate and correctly leveled. Snow gauges
are placed in open, unobstructed areas to collect accurate measurements of snowfall.

ARTIFICIALLY INDUCED PRECIPITATION -Is the process of injecting artificial

condensation nuclei depending on the clouds' physical property with substances such as silver
iodide, dry ice or salts to induce rain from rain bearing clouds.

Process:
- First is to target the clouds with the condensation nuclei
- Second, as the nuclei is added to the clouds, it will then increase its size, condense it with
the moisture present in the rain.
- Third, the particles that were then condensed within the rain will become heavy enough
and fall on the ground causing rain.

IV.METHODS OF ARTIFICIALLY INDUCED PRECIPITATION

1. Cloud seeding method- The process of directing the nuclei to the cloud by:
- Plane dropping the chemicals directing to the clouds
 - Ground generator seeding- burning the chemicals within the generator to evaporate the
chemicals towards the clouds
- Rocket cloud seeding- rockets are being launched towards the clouds releasing the
chemicals for precipitation to occur.

2. Cloud buster method- Is a pseudoscientific device which is said that clouds produce
rain by maintaining what is called “orgone energy” present in the atmosphere and the
cloud buster is then directed in a location in the sky and grounding it in some material
that was presumed to absorb orgone energy such as a body of water and is believe would
also draw the orgone energy out of the atmosphere that would cause the formation of
clouds and eventually rain

3. Bioprecipitation method- This involves bacteria acting as ice nucleators, initiating the
formation of rain. These bacteria possess ice nucleation proteins that enable them to
catalyze the formation of ice crystals in clouds. When water vapor in the atmosphere
condenses onto these ice nuclei, it forms ice crystals. As these ice crystals grow in size,
they eventually become heavy enough to fall forming snow or rain.

The Importance of Precipitation and Method of Artificial Induced Precipitation To Civil

Engineering- To equip every civil engineer with the knowledge and skills needed to address
water resource challenges in locations and areas where water is insufficient since water is
essentially used for a lot of things for construction. This also helps Civil Engineers to know the
process of forcing rain whenever we need it for concrete curing or if we need to fill our water
sources.

V.METHODS OF INTERPRETING PRECIPITATION

1. Aerial Rainfall Estimation Using Arithmetic Method- Used to calculate the total
amount of rainfall where different point rainfall from different rain gauges within an area
exist.

Process: Calculate the average from the data that was gathered from different gauges that would
represent the whole area of a watershed.

2. Thiessen method- Make a polygon that would represent an area which is represented by
the rain gauges and get the area of the watershed that is represented by a certain rain
gauge in which the data of the rain gauge is the only area it represents and not the whole
watershed.
3. Isohyetal Method- We are to draw isohyets or contours of equal precipitation and then
compute the average rainfall between each pair of isohyets.