Fragblast 1385-514x/02/0601-021$16.

00
2002, Vol. 6, No. 1, pp. 21±35 # Swets & Zeitlinger

P and S Mach Waves Generated by the Detonation

of a Cylindrical Explosive Charge ± Experiments
and Simulations
 N2 AND
FREÂDEÂRIC VANBRABANT1, ENRIQUE P. CHACO
Ä ONES
LUIS A. QUIN 3

ABSTRACT

During blasting operations in a competent rock mass without open joints or faults, the structure of the wave
®elds generated by the detonation of a cylindrical charge depends mainly on the relation between the
velocity of detonation (cd ) and the velocity of the P and S waves, cP and cS , respectively, in the medium.
If cd is larger than cP , detonation is supersonic and Mach P and S waves appear. If cd is between cP and
cS , detonation is transonic, and only an S Mach wave is generated. If cd is less than cS , subsonic detonation
occurs.
In this paper, we describe an experiment conducted at the Andina mine (Chile) in order to demonstrate
the differences between the wave ®elds generated by supersonic and transonic detonation.
We also present a simulation of the detonation of a cylindrical charge using the ®nite differences Itasca
software FLAC3.4. In particular, we show how important it is to secure a good adjustment of the rheological
behaviour of the medium, in our case, a strain softening elasto-plastic model.

1. INTRODUCTION

Despite the fact that the physical processes associated with the detonation of a column
of explosives have been studied for various decades, most of the blasting applications
use empirical attenuation laws to represent the stress wave ®eld, or apply discrete
spherical source models to simulate continuous cylindrical detonation [1].
The development of new numerical tools and the introduction of precision
detonation technologies in blasting activities have generated a new interest in the
study of the detonation of column charges, and in particular in blast stress wave
generation and propagation [2].

Address correspondence to: FreÂdeÂric Vanbrabant, Researcher, Institute for Innovation in Mining &
Metallurgy, Codelco, Chile. E-mail: Fvanbrab@imz.codelco.cl
1
Researcher, Institute for Innovation in Mining & Metallurgy, Codelco, Chile.
2
Chief Project, Institute for Innovation in Mining & Metallurgy, Codelco, Chile.
3
Divisional Coordinator Project, Andina Division, Codelco, Chile.
22 FREÂDEÂRIC VANBRABANT ET AL.

Earlier research and new results show that the wave ®eld generated by the
detonation of a ®nite cylindrical charge is complex and very much different from that
of a spherical charge [3]. This is due to the fact that, despite of the high velocity of
detonation, the velocity of detonation cd is of the same order of magnitude as the
propagation speeds of the waves in the rock. Therefore, a detonation cannot be
considered as an instantaneous or punctual event; instead it develops over time and
space.
Rossmanith et al. [4] and Kouzniak and Rossmanith [5] have presented the
analytical solution to the propagation of elastic stress waves generated by the
detonation of an in®nitely long cylindrical charge with a ®nite velocity of detonation.
They considered a continuous, homogeneous, elastic ®eld and different shapes of
pulses.
The structure of the wave ®elds depends on two ``Mach numbers,'' MP and MS ,
which are de®ned by the ratios of velocity of detonation (cd ) to the velocity of the P-
and S-waves, cP and cS , respectively:
cd
MP ˆ
cP
1†
cd
MS ˆ
cS
Based on the velocity of detonation cd , three cases can be distinguished:
± the supersonic case: MS > MP > 1, cd > cP > cS
± the transonic case: MS > 1 > MP , cP > cd > cS
± the subsonic case: 1 > MS > MP , cP > cS > cd
Figure 1 illustrates the stresses representative of these three cases for the 2-D situation
(after Rossmanith et al. [4]).

Fig. 1. Stresses representative of supersonic (MP ˆ 1:29, MS ˆ 2:11), transonic (MP ˆ 0:9, MS ˆ 1:47)
and subsonic (MP ˆ 0:56, MS ˆ 0:92) detonations of an in®nite cylindrical charge (2-D
representation). The pulse P is a Dirac function (after Rossmanith et al. [4]).
 P AND S MACH WAVES 23

Fig. 2. P and S Mach conical waves of a ®nite charge.

The supersonic case is characterised by the presence of two conical Mach P and S
waves, and the transonic case by a single conical Mach S wave. The subsonic case
does not show coherent wave fronts. The angles of the cones are given by the
following relationships:
 
cP
ˆ a sin
cd
  2†
cS
ˆ a sin
cd
When a ®nite length column of explosives initiates, ``pseudo-part-spherical P- and
S-waves form around the charge ends which match up with the conical Mach waves.
This is shown in Figure 2 for the initiation of a charge.

2. EXPERIMENT

In order to verify that conical Mach P and S waves really appear during rock mass
blasting, and thereby choose the appropriate explosives, sequences and delays, we
have conduced a speci®c trial at the underground Andina mine (Codelco, Chile).
The rock mass located in the trial area is a massive primary andesite, which can be
compared to a homogeneous and continuous medium.
The rock properties are as follows:
Density: 2500 kg/m3
Elastic Young's modulus: 55 GPa
Poisson's coef®cient: 0.22
24 FREÂDEÂRIC VANBRABANT ET AL.

Fig. 3. Trial design. Three ANFO charges, 2 emulsion charges, 2 boosters and 9 geophones [6].

These parameters provide a theoretical cP ˆ 5012 m/s, in keeping with the usual
values found at the mine.
The trial consisted of measuring the vibrations in the near ®eld of two cylindrical
charges (5 and 10 meters long), and the explosives were chosen according to their cd ,
in order to generate supersonic and transonic detonations. For the supersonic case,
we have used an emulsion (density ˆ 1:25 gr/cm3, cd theo: ˆ 5500 m/s) and for the
transonic one, an ANFO (density ˆ 0:78 gr/cm3, cd theo: ˆ 4000 m/s). One of the 5-
meter long charges of ANFO was used for calibrating the geophones, and an elementary
``cross-hole tomography'' was conducted with two booster charges in order to check
the cp . A network of nine triaxial geophones was set out between the charges (Fig. 3)
whose positions were calculated in order to ensure the capture of the Mach waves.

3. RESULTS

cd measurements for the 10-meter long charges of ANFO and BLASTEX (emulsion)
provide values of 4052 m/s for the ANFO and 5582 m/s for the emulsion (Fig. 4).
The travelling time of the P waves generated by the boosters and cylindrical
charges registered by the geophones provide an average cP of 5660 m/s (Fig. 5). This
value is greater than the expected velocity. Hence, the detonation is clearly transonic
 P AND S MACH WAVES 25

Fig. 4. cd measurements for the 10-meter long ANFO and emulsion charges (Blastex).

Fig. 5. Average cP of the rock mass, evaluated by the travelling times of P waves generated by boosters and
cylindrical charges.
26 FREÂDEÂRIC VANBRABANT ET AL.

Fig. 6. Conical Mach-S waves for emulsion (a) and ANFO (b).

for the ANFO but just at the limit between the transonic and supersonic for the
emulsion.
If we use these cd and cP values, we can draw a representation of the conical Mach
S waves for emulsion charges (Fig. 6a) and ANFO charges (Fig. 6b).
The detailed study on the traces recorded by each channel provides us with some
valuable information on the stress ®eld. For example, if we look at the vibrations
produced by the detonation of the 5-meter long ANFO charge, we clearly see the
existence of a compression wave ®eld and a shear wave ®eld. This can be illustrated
by comparing the radial and vertical components, or by using the difference between
the velocity of propagation of these two waves. In the ®rst case (Fig. 7a), the sign of
the radial and vertical particle velocity is the same for one of the wave (the P wave in
our case), and is opposite for the other wave. This is due to the fact that the P and the S
waves are perpendicular and that the direction of propagation of the wave front makes
an angle with the axis de®ned by the radial and vertical components of the geophone.
In the second case (Fig. 7b), the plot of the particle velocity at various distance puts
clearly in evidence the existence of two waves travelling at different speed.
The heterogeneity of the wave ®eld and the existence of supersonic Mach waves,
as predicted by the theory, also appear in study of the relative amplitude of the particle
movement. Figure 8 shows a comparison of the particle velocity recorded by
geophones G5 and G9 generated by the 5-meter long ANFO charge (see Fig. 6b for
location of the geophones). The peaks due to the P waves are similar, but the
 P AND S MACH WAVES 27

Fig. 7. Identi®cation of P and S waves by studying the sign of the components of the particle velocity (a), or
by using the difference between the velocities of propagation (b).

Fig. 8. Relative amplitude of the P and S induced movement according to the position of the geophone.

movement induced by the shear wave is 50% less in the case of geophone G9 than in
the case of geophone G5. This one is precisely located along the path of the
theoretical Mach shear wave.
The existence of this Mach shear wave also appears to be con®rmed by the study
on the detonation of the 10-meter ANFO charge (Fig. 9). The particle velocities
28 FREÂDEÂRIC VANBRABANT ET AL.

Fig. 9. Evidence of the existence of a Mach shear wave by comparing the particle velocity recorded by 3
geophones located at the same distance from the charge borehole, but at different distances from the
theoretical conical path wave (see Fig. 6b).

registered by geophones G1, G2 and G3, placed at the same distance from the
explosive borehole charge, provides very different values of the shear induced
movement (see Fig. 6b for location of the geophones). Speci®cally, the shear peak is
very strong for the geophone G1, and the farther the geophone is located from
theoretical Mach shear cone, the smaller the shear peak.

4. NUMERICAL MODEL

We used the geo-technical software FLAC3.4 (@Itasca Consulting group, Inc.) in

order to conduct a numerical simulation of the detonation of a ®nite cylindrical
 P AND S MACH WAVES 29

Fig. 10. Typical axisymmetrical mesh used to perform the simulations.

charge. FLAC3.4 is a ®nite differences numerical code that generates 2-D meshes, but
with an axisymmetrical con®guration [7], and a dynamic module [8].
Figure 10 illustrates the typical mesh used to represent the detonation of a cylin-
drical charge in a con®ned medium. The x ˆ 0 axis determines the axis of symmetry.
As we are just looking for the stress waves in a continuous medium and not the
complex interactions between waves, gases and fractures, the complete description of
the pressure pro®le in the borehole due to the chemical reaction is useless for us. We
just consider the following equation of the pressure P [9],
P t† ˆ P0 t n eÿ t
3†
where P0;n and are parameters of shape (Fig. 11).
According to the Equation (3), the peak of pressure occurs at the time tpeak ˆ n= .
So we can relate the nominal pressure P0 to the explosion pressure Pe (the maximum
pressure applied to the wall of the borehole) by:
 n
P0 ˆ e n Pe 4†
n
Practically, as the pressure moves along the mesh with the velocity cd, we cannot
simulate it as a simple boundary condition. We must assign a velocity within a user-
written function to the corresponding gridpoint along the wall of the borehole. This
30 FREÂDEÂRIC VANBRABANT ET AL.

Fig. 11. Pressure applied to the wall of the borehole with a velocity cd.

velocity is chosen so that it produces the same effect as the pressure described in
Equation (3).
We ®rst apply the code to simulate a supersonic detonation (cP ˆ 5000 m/s and
cd ˆ 6000 m/s) and a transonic detonation (cP ˆ 5000 m/s and cd ˆ 4000 m/s). The
material is elastic. The plot of the differential stresses (1 ÿ 3 ) clearly shows the
generation of a conical Mach P wave for the supersonic detonation, and a conical Mach S
wave for the supersonic and transonic cases (Fig. 12). These results are consistent with
similar simulations found in the literature [4]. The plot of the main stresses demonstrates
the signi®cant decrease of the P wave's amplitude if detonation is transonic.
Despite the fact that this model apparently seems to realistically represent the
phenomenon of detonation, the attempt to numerically reproduce the ®eld trial has
met the usual limitations of most deterministic numerical models: excessive simpli-
®cations, multiplicity of the parameters under consideration and a lack of information
on these parameters.
As the main parameter ± the pressure of detonation ± is unknown, we have tried to
determine an equivalent pressure by adjusting the model to ®eld data. Furthermore, as
the model is continuous and thus considerably simpli®es the physical processes taking
place during detonation, this equivalent pressure can hardly be equal to the real pressure.
It just produces the same effect, in terms of vibration, on the measure points (geophones).
Therefore, the extrapolation of the model to the very near ®eld or the far ®eld is random.
Moreover, it was quickly concluded that the application of an elastic model was
inadequate. The simulation of the transonic case (Fig. 12) shows values of the shear
wave ®ve to ten times higher than the compressive wave. The corresponding values
are not found in the ®eld trial, that shows a higher damping of the shear wave. This is
 P AND S MACH WAVES 31

Fig. 12. Numerical modelling (1 ÿ 3 ) of the supersonic case (a) and the transonic case (b). The plots
(down) represent the main stresses at point P. The model is elastic.

con®rmed by the attempt to simulate the experiment using an elastic model. It

considerably overestimates the shear wave (Fig. 13).
In order to better simulate the rock behaviour, we have used a strain-softening
elasto-plastic model. This model is based on the Flac Mohr±Coulomb model [10]. It
bounds the stresses the material can support and considers a deterioration of its
mechanical properties (cohesion, friction, dilation and tensile strength) above a
critical strain threshold. These parameters are user-de®ned functions of a parameter
measuring the plastic shear strain. In the Mohr±Coulomb model those properties are
assumed to remain constant (Fig. 14). See [10, § 2.4.4] for more details.
We can certainly believe that the slower shear waves will propagate in a medium
already deteriorated by the movement of the P wave, especially its tail of traction. One
of this model's limitations is that, numerically, this degradation is instantaneous,
while in fact it takes a certain time to occur. Moreover, up to the yield point, damage is
expressed by plastic strain, yet in reality it appears more as micro fracturing or
32 FREÂDEÂRIC VANBRABANT ET AL.

Fig. 13. Modelling of the detonation of the 10-meter emulsion charge, using an elastic model. The model
overestimates the shear wave.

Fig. 14. (a) Some rheological models; (b) the Mohr±Coulomb yield criterion; (c) variation of cohesion,
friction, dilation and tensile strength with plastic strain considered by the strain-softening elasto-
plastic model.
 P AND S MACH WAVES 33

activation of joints. This phenomenon only can be described by fracture mechanics,

and not by continuum solid mechanics. In particular, these permanent strains affect
the propagation of the waves by modifying their amplitudes and frequencies, as real
fractures, but following a distinct mechanism. This makes the adjustment of the
model very delicate.
Lastly, by changing the elastic model for a strain-softening elasto-plastic one, we
introduce new parameters relative to the post-peak comportment, in general of scant
knowledge. We need also level of in-situ stresses, which determines the degree of
con®nement, and thus the surpassing of the yield criterion.
The mechanical parameters of the rock, delivered by the mine, are based on geo-
technical trials. As for the pressure of detonation, these parameters had to be adjusted
in order to permit a good representation of the wave propagation. These ``equivalent''
parameters conceal the complexity of the phenomenon, in particular its dynamic
nature, and the dif®culty we have experienced in determining the scale at which it
occurs (properties of ``intact rock'' or at ``large scale''?).
Finally, a last dif®culty has been adjusting these parameters in such a way that the
model ®ts all the geophones simultaneously, i.e., by using mechanical properties and
in-situ stresses for the four trials, and the same curve of pressure for each kind of
explosive, regardless of its length.
Despite all these limitations, in the end the model is quite consistent with the real
values in most cases. Figure 15 compares some numerical results with the equivalent

Fig. 15. Example of numerical results comparing with real measurements.

34 FREÂDEÂRIC VANBRABANT ET AL.

®eld measurements. The ®tting is quite good. The general shape and duration of the
signals are well represented. The wave amplitude assessment is satisfactory. Never-
theless, some of the P or S waves are underestimated, thereby by making it dif®cult to
adjust the P and S waves at the same time, by direct and indirect means (the pressure
of detonation and the behaviour model). Thus, this model is more qualitative than
quantitative. Its most interesting result is a complete description of the wave ®elds, in
particular the shear waves.

5. CONCLUSIONS

We have tried to demonstrate the existence of the P and S conical Mach waves
predicted by the theory, by conducting a special experiment based on the detonation
of cylindrical charges of different lengths and VOD, and the capture of vibrations in
the near ®eld.
Due to the high velocity of propagation of the waves in the trial sector, the
detonations were essentially transonic. The existence and high values of shear waves,
corresponding to the Mach wave, could be demonstrated by comparing the different
geophones.
Using the FLAC3.4 geo-technical software to simulate the detonation has made it
possible to determine a good approximation of both P and S waves. The application of
an elastic model considerably overestimates the conical S mach waves. Implementing
a strain-softening elasto-plastic model, which limits the level of stress that can be
supported by the medium, can prevent this. Unfortunately, the increased parameters
that must be taken into consideration make the model very versatile. In this situation,
the model is of more interest for its qualitative potential of describing the wave ®elds
than its quantitative prediction.

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 P AND S MACH WAVES 35

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