RS UNIT-I

1.What are the various applications of Radar.

Radar (short for "radio detection and ranging") has a wide range of applications across many industries.
Some common applications of radar include:
 Military and defense: Radar is widely used for military purposes such as tracking aircraft, missiles,
and ships, as well as for surveillance and intelligence gathering.
 Weather monitoring: Weather radars are used to track storms and measure precipitation.
 Air traffic control: Radar is used to monitor the position and movement of aircraft to ensure safe and
efficient air travel.
 Navigation: Radar is used for navigation in various forms such as marine navigation and ground-
based navigation systems.
 Automotive safety: Radar-based sensors are used in cars for collision avoidance systems, blind spot
detection, and other safety features.
 Industrial applications: Radar is used in various industrial applications such as level measurement,
position sensing, and materials analysis.
 Remote sensing: Radar is used in remote sensing applications such as terrain mapping, agriculture
monitoring, and resource exploration.

2. What are second-time-around echoes? When do they are occur.

Second-time-around echoes (STAE) are echoes that occur when a radar signal is reflected off a target
and then reflects off a second object before returning to the radar receiver. STAE can cause confusion in
radar systems because the reflected signal arrives at the receiver later than the direct signal, which can make
it difficult to determine the precise location of the target.
These echoes occur when the distance between the radar and the distant object is such that the radio
wave travels twice that distance before being reflected back to the radar. This typically happens when the
radar is used to detect objects that are beyond its normal range.
The second-time-around echoes arrive at the radar after a delay, which is twice the time it takes the radio
wave to travel to the distant object and back to the radar. The delay between the primary and delayed
echoes can cause confusion in radar systems, especially if the delayed echoes are mistaken for echoes from
a separate object.
To mitigate the effects of STAE, radar systems often use advanced signal processing techniques such as
pulse compression, frequency modulation, and Doppler filtering. These techniques help to filter out
unwanted echoes and improve the accuracy of radar measurements.
3. Derive the equation for maximum Radar range in terms of radar and target parameters?
4. Draw the block diagram of the pulse radar and explain the function of each block.

 Pulse Modulator − It produces a pulse-modulated signal and it is applied to the Transmitter.

 Transmitter − It transmits the pulse-modulated signal, which is a train of repetitive pulses.
 Duplexer − It is a microwave switch, which connects the Antenna to both transmitter section and
receiver section alternately. Antenna transmits the pulse-modulated signal, when the duplexer
connects the Antenna to the transmitter. Similarly, the signal, which is received by Antenna will be
given to Low Noise RF Amplifier, when the duplexer connects the Antenna to Low Noise RF Amplifier.
 Low Noise RF Amplifier − It amplifies the weak RF signal, which is received by Antenna. The output
of this amplifier is connected to Mixer.
 Local Oscillator − It produces a signal having stable frequency. The output of Local Oscillator is
connected to Mixer.
 Mixer − We know that Mixer can produce both sum and difference of the frequencies that are applied
to it. The mixer combines the received signal with a reference signal from the pulse generator to
produce an intermediate frequency (IF) signal.
 IF Amplifier − IF amplifier amplifies the Intermediate Frequency (IF) signal. The IF amplifier shown
in the figure allows only the Intermediate Frequency, which is obtained from Mixer and amplifies it.
It improves the Signal to Noise Ratio at output.
 Detector − It demodulates the signal, which is obtained at the output of the IF Amplifier.
 Video Amplifier − As the name suggests, it amplifies the video signal, which is obtained at the output
of detector.
 Display − In general, it displays the amplified video signal on CRT screen.

5. Explain how the noise is limiting the Radar receiver sensitivity?

Noise is a major limiting factor in radar receiver sensitivity because it adds unwanted energy to the received
signal, reducing the signal-to-noise ratio (SNR). The SNR is the ratio of the power of the received signal to
the power of the noise in the receiver bandwidth. The SNR determines the ability of the receiver to detect
weak signals and distinguish them from noise.
There are several types of noise that can limit the sensitivity of a radar receiver:
 1. Thermal noise: This is the random noise generated by the thermal agitation of electrons in a
conductor. Thermal noise is proportional to the temperature of the receiver and the bandwidth of
the receiver.
2. Shot noise: This is the random noise generated by the discrete nature of electrical charge. Shot noise
is proportional to the current flowing through the receiver and the bandwidth of the receiver.
3. Amplifier noise: This is the noise generated by the amplifiers in the receiver. Amplifier noise is
proportional to the gain of the amplifier and the bandwidth of the receiver.
4. Interference noise: This is the noise generated by other electromagnetic sources, such as other
radars, communication systems, or natural sources. Interference noise can be reduced by using filters
or directional antennas.
All these types of noise add to the received signal, reducing the SNR and making it more difficult to detect
weak signals.
The presence of noise in the receiver can limit its sensitivity in several ways.
First, noise can increase the noise floor of the receiver, which is the minimum detectable signal level that
can be distinguished from noise. As the noise floor increases, the receiver becomes less sensitive to weak
signals, which can result in missed detections or false alarms.
Second, noise can reduce the dynamic range of the receiver, which is the range of signal levels that the
receiver can accurately detect and measure. If the noise level is too high, the receiver may not be able to
distinguish between small variations in the received signal, which can result in errors in the target tracking
or measurement.
Finally, noise can affect the accuracy of the receiver measurements by introducing errors or uncertainties
in the signal processing algorithms.

6. What are the specific bands assigned by the ITU for the Radar? What are the corresponding frequencies?
The International Telecommunications Union has defined a system of terminology for electromagnetic
frequencies used for radio and radar.
3-30 Hz ELF (Extremely Low Frequency)
30Hz to 300Hz SLF (Super Low Frequency)
300Hz to 3000Hz ULF (Ultra Low Frequency)
3kHz to 30kHz VLF (Very Low Frequency)
30-300 KHz LF (Low Frequency; "longwave")
300KHz-3 MHz MF (Medium Frequency; "medium wave")
3-30 MHz HF (High Frequency; "shortwave")
30-300 MHz VHF (Very High Frequency)
300 MHz -3 GHz UHF (Ultra High Frequency)
3-30 GHz SHF (Super High Frequency)
30-300 GHz EHF (Extremely High Frequency)

7. Explain how system losses will effect on the Radar Range?

System losses can significantly affect the maximum range of a radar system. System losses refer to the
reduction in the power of the transmitted signal as it travels through the system and the loss of power in
the receiver due to various factors such as antenna losses, transmission line losses, and mismatch losses.
System losses reduce the effective power of the transmitted signal and limit the maximum range of the
radar system.
The received signal power decreases with the square of the range, according to the inverse-square law,
which states that the power of a signal is inversely proportional to the square of the distance from the
source. Therefore, as the range increases, the received signal power decreases, and the signal becomes
weaker.
𝟏
𝑹𝒆𝒄𝒆𝒊𝒗𝒆𝒅 𝒔𝒊𝒈𝒏𝒂𝒍 𝒑𝒐𝒘𝒆𝒓 𝜶
(𝑹𝒂𝒏𝒈𝒆)𝟐
The effect of system losses on the radar range can be quantified by the radar equation, which relates the
received signal power to the transmitted power, antenna gain, target cross-section, and range. The radar
equation can be expressed as:
𝑷𝒕 ∗ 𝑮 ∗ 𝝈 ∗ 𝑨𝒆
𝑷𝒓 =
𝟒𝝅𝑹𝟒
where Pr is the received signal power, Pt is the transmitted power, G is antenna gain, σ is the target radar
cross-section, R is the range, and Ae is the effective aperture area of the receiver antenna.
From the radar equation, it can be seen that system losses reduce the received signal power, which
results in a decrease in the maximum range of the radar system. For example, if the transmitter power is
reduced due to transmission line losses, the received signal power will decrease, and the maximum range of
the radar system will be reduced.
To compensate for system losses and maintain the maximum range of the radar system, designers can use
high-gain antennas, low-loss transmission lines, and efficient amplifiers. They can also design the system
to operate at a higher frequency, which reduces the effects of atmospheric attenuation and improves the
range performance. However, increasing the operating frequency can also increase the losses due to
antenna and transmission line effects, which may limit the range performance.

8. Explain the Concept of prediction of Range Performance?

The prediction of range performance is a crucial aspect of radar system design, where the aim is to
estimate the maximum range of the radar system for a given set of parameters such as transmitted power,
antenna gains, radar cross section of the target, minimum detectable signal power, and losses in the system.
This estimation is done before the actual deployment of the radar system to ensure that the system meets
the operational requirements.
The prediction of range performance is based on the radar equation, which relates the transmitted
power, antenna gains, and target characteristics to the received power at the receiver. This equation can be
used to calculate the maximum range of the radar system for a given set of parameters.

However, the prediction of range performance is complicated by several factors that can affect the
radar system's performance. These include environmental factors such as atmospheric absorption and
reflection, as well as system factors such as losses in the transmission line, antenna, and receiver. In
addition, the presence of noise and clutter can also affect the performance of the radar system.
To account for these factors, various models and simulation tools are used to predict the range
performance of radar systems. These models consider the radar system's physical and operational
parameters and simulate the radar system's performance in different scenarios. For example, simulation
tools can be used to predict the radar system's performance in different weather conditions, target types,
and clutter environments.
The prediction of range performance is an iterative process, where the design parameters of the radar
system are adjusted based on the predicted range performance until the desired performance is achieved.
This process requires a good understanding of the radar system's performance parameters and the ability to
accurately model and simulate the system's behaviour in different scenarios.

9. Explain the Concept of Receiver Noise?

Receiver noise is an unwanted signal that is generated by the electronic components of a radar receiver.
It is a type of internal noise that limits the sensitivity and dynamic range of the radar system.
Receiver noise arises from the thermal motion of electrons in the electronic components of the radar
receiver, and it is commonly referred to as thermal noise or Johnson noise. This noise is present in all
electronic components, including amplifiers, mixers, and filters. It is proportional to the temperature of the
electronic components and the bandwidth of the receiver.
𝑷𝑵 𝜶 𝑻𝒐 𝜷
PN is Noise power
To is System Temperature (usually 290K)
Β is Receiver Noise Bandwidth (Hz).
Receiver noise is often characterized by the noise figure of the receiver, which is a measure of the
degradation of the signal-to-noise ratio (SNR) due to the receiver noise. The noise figure is expressed in
decibels (dB) and is defined as the ratio of the SNR at the input of the receiver to the SNR at the output of
the receiver. A lower noise figure indicates a better receiver performance, as it means that the receiver is
less affected by internal noise.
Receiver noise can be reduced by using low-noise components and optimizing the receiver design. For
example, the use of cryogenic cooling can reduce the thermal noise of electronic components, and the use
of narrowband filters can reduce the noise bandwidth of the receiver. In addition, the use of signal
processing techniques such as coherent integration and pulse compression can improve the SNR of the
received signal and reduce the effect of receiver noise.
Receiver noise is an important consideration in the design and operation of radar systems, as it directly
affects the sensitivity and dynamic range of the system. By minimizing receiver noise, radar systems can
achieve better performance and detection capabilities, especially in low-SNR scenarios.

10. What is meant by minimum detectable signal in radar?

If the echo signal has minimum power, detecting that signal by the Radar is known as minimum
detectable signal. This means, Radar cannot detect the echo signal if that signal is having less power than
that of minimum power.
In general, Radar receives the echo signal in addition with noise. If the threshold value is used for
detecting the presence of the target from the received signal, then that detection is called threshold
detection.
We must select proper threshold value based on the strength of the signal to be detected.
 A high threshold value should be chosen when the strength of the signal to be detected is high so
that it will eliminate the unwanted noise signal present in it.
 Similarly, a low threshold value should be chosen when the strength of the signal to be detected is
low.
Consider the output of a typical radar receiver as a function of time
The x-axis and y-axis represent time and voltage respectively. The rms value of noise and threshold value are
indicated with dotted lines in the above figure.
We have considered three points, A, B & C in above figure for identifying the valid detections and missing
detections.
 The value of the signal at point A is greater than threshold value. Hence, it is a valid detection.
 The value of the signal at point B is equal to threshold value. Hence, it is a valid detection.
 Even though the value of the signal at point C is closer to threshold value, it is a missing detection.
Because, the value of the signal at point C is less than threshold value.
So, the points, A & B are valid detections. Whereas, the point C is a missing detection.

Q. Maximum Unambiguous Range:

The maximum unambiguous range (Rmax) is the longest range to which a transmitted pulse can travel out
to and back again between consecutive transmitted pulses. In other words, Rmax is the maximum distance
radar energy can travel round trip between pulses and still produce reliable information.
The relationship between the Pulse Repetition Frequency(PRT) represented by T and Rmax determines the
unambiguous range of the radar. Suppose the radar emits a pulse that strikes a target and returns to the
radar in round trip time t:
 If t < T then the return signal arrives before the next pulse has been emitted.
 If t = T then the return signal arrives exactly when the next pulse has been emitted.
 If t > T then the return signal arrives after the next pulse has been emitted and there is an ambiguity,
i.e., the radar cannot tell whether the return signal has come from the first or second pulse.
The maximum unambiguous range can be calculated using the following equation:
Rmax = c/2PRF
where Rmax is the maximum unambiguous range, c is the speed of light, and PRF is the pulse repetition
frequency
11. Calculate the maximum range of Radar for the following specifications. Operating frequency is 10GHz,
Peak power transmitted by the Radar Pt= 400KW, Effective aperture of the receiving Antenna, = 5 m2,
Radar cross section of the target is 30 m2 Power of minimum detectable signal, = 10-10 w.
12. Calculate the maximum range of Radar for the following specifications: Peak power transmitted by the
Radar 250, Gain of transmitting Antenna is 4000, Effective aperture of the receiving Antenna is A e= 4 m2,
Radar cross section of the target is 25 m2, Power of minimum detectable signal, = 10−12 W.
 UNIT-II
1. Find the relation between bandwidth and the acceleration of the target with respect to radar?
The relation between the bandwidth of the received radar signal and the acceleration of the target with
respect to the radar can be described using the Doppler effect. The Doppler effect is a change in the
frequency of a wave that occurs when the source or the observer is in motion relative to the other.
In the case of radar, the radar signal is reflected off the moving target, and the frequency of the reflected
signal is shifted due to the motion of the target.
The amount of frequency shift (Δf) in the received radar signal is proportional to the radial velocity (Vr) of
the target. The relation between the frequency shift and the radial velocity is given by the following equation:
Δf = 2fv/c * Vr
where f is the carrier frequency of the radar, v is the velocity of light, c is the speed of sound, and Vr is the
radial velocity of the target.
If the target is accelerating, its radial velocity will be changing with time, and this will cause a time-varying
frequency shift in the received radar signal. The rate of change of frequency shift (dΔf/dt) is proportional
to the acceleration (a) of the target. The relation between the acceleration and the rate of change of
frequency shift can be derived as follows:

dΔf/dt = (2fv/c )* (dVr/dt) = (2fv/c )* a

where dVr/dt is the rate of change of radial velocity of the target, which is equal to the acceleration (a) in
this case.
Therefore, the relation between the bandwidth of the received radar signal and the acceleration of the target
is:
Bandwidth = 2fva/c
This equation shows that the bandwidth of the received radar signal is directly proportional to the
acceleration of the target

2. Explain how earphones are used as an indicator in CW Radar?

In CW (Continuous Wave) Radar, earphones are used as an indicator to detect the presence of a target.
When the transmitted RF signal reflects from the target, it mixes with the local oscillator (LO) signal in a
detector to produce an IF (Intermediate Frequency) signal. The IF signal is then passed through a filter to
eliminate any unwanted signals and then fed to a modulator that modulates an audio tone onto the signal.
This modulated signal is then amplified and fed to a pair of earphones, which act as an audio indicator.
When the signal is received, the audio tone heard in the earphones changes in pitch or volume, indicating
the presence of a target. The pitch or volume change depends on the frequency or amplitude of the reflected
signal.
Earphones are preferred in CW Radar as they provide an audible indication of target presence and allow
the operator to easily detect and track the target. However, their use is limited to short-range detection
and tracking as the audio signal becomes weaker as the range increases.

3. Explain the two frequency CW technique for measuring the Radar range?
The Two-Frequency CW (Continuous Wave) technique is a range measurement technique used in Radar. It
is based on the Doppler Effect and the beat frequency phenomenon.
In this technique, two CW signals with slightly different frequencies (f1 and f2) are transmitted
simultaneously by the Radar. When these signals reflect back from the target, they produce two Doppler
shifted frequencies (f1' and f2') due to the relative motion of the target. The difference between the two
Doppler shifted frequencies (f1' - f2') is called the beat frequency (fb), which is proportional to the target
range.
The beat frequency is obtained by mixing the received signals with local oscillator signals having the same
frequencies as the transmitted signals (f1 and f2). The difference frequency (fb) is then filtered and amplified
to produce a DC voltage proportional to the range.
The formula for calculating the beat frequency is:

fb = 2v(f2-f1)/c
where:
v = velocity of the target
f1 = frequency of the first CW signal
f2 = frequency of the second CW signal
c = speed of light

The range of the target can be calculated using the formula:

R = cfb/(2(f2-f1))
where:
R = range of the target
c = speed of light
fb = beat frequency
f1 = frequency of the first CW signal
f2 = frequency of the second CW signal

4. What is the major disadvantage of CW Radar? How to overcome it?

The major disadvantage of CW radar is its inability to measure target range. This is because it
transmits a continuous wave, and does not have a separate transmitter and receiver to measure the time
delay between transmitted and received signals. However, this limitation can be overcome by using a
technique called Frequency Modulated Continuous Wave (FMCW) radar.
In FMCW radar, the transmitter generates a linearly increasing or decreasing frequency modulation
on the continuous wave. The receiver mixes the received signal with a replica of the transmitted signal to
generate a beat frequency, which is proportional to the time delay between the transmitted and received
signals. This beat frequency is then used to determine the range of the target.

5. How to select the difference between two transmitted signals of CW radar?

In CW (Continuous Wave) radar, the transmitted signals are continuous waveforms with two different
frequencies, which are referred to as the "reference" and "transmitted" frequencies. The difference between
these two frequencies determines the Doppler frequency shift of the received signal, which is proportional
to the relative velocity between the radar and the target.
The selection of the frequency difference between the reference and transmitted signals is critical to
achieving accurate velocity measurements in CW radar. The frequency difference, also known as the "beat
frequency," should be selected to maximize the signal-to-noise ratio (SNR) of the received signal.
There are several methods for selecting the beat frequency in CW radar, including:
1. Manual tuning: The operator manually adjusts the frequency of one of the transmitted signals to
obtain the desired beat frequency.
 2. Automatic frequency control (AFC): The radar system uses a feedback loop to adjust the frequency
of one of the transmitted signals to maintain a constant beat frequency.
3. Frequency modulation (FM): The transmitted signals are modulated with a low-frequency signal,
which causes the beat frequency to vary in a known manner. The receiver then uses the known
modulation signal to demodulate the received signal and extract the Doppler frequency shift.
4. Phase-locked loop (PLL): The radar system uses a PLL to lock the frequency of one of the transmitted
signals to the beat frequency, which maximizes the SNR of the received signal.

6. Write the applications of CW Radar.

some applications of CW Radar:
 Speed radar: CW Radar can be used for speed detection of moving objects, such as vehicles, ships,
and aircraft.
 Altitude radar: CW Radar can be used for measuring the altitude of aircraft or other flying objects by
using the Doppler shift of the return signal.
 Navigation radar: CW Radar can be used for navigation of ships and aircraft by measuring the
direction and distance of the target.
 Weather radar: CW Radar can be used for detecting and tracking weather patterns, such as rainfall,
storms, and hurricanes.
 Police radar: CW Radar can be used by law enforcement agencies for speed enforcement and
monitoring of traffic.
 Industrial radar: CW Radar can be used in various industrial applications, such as level measurement,
distance measurement, and object detection.
 Military radar: CW Radar is widely used in military applications, such as surveillance, target tracking,
and missile guidance

7. How to find the target speed from Doppler frequency?

When a radar signal reflects off a moving target, the frequency of the reflected signal shifts by an amount
proportional to the target's velocity relative to the radar. This shift in frequency is called the Doppler
frequency shift and can be used to determine the target's speed.
The Doppler frequency shift is given by the equation:
fd = 2 * v * fc / c
where f_d is the Doppler frequency shift, v is the radial velocity of the target, f_c is the frequency of the
radar signal, and c is the speed of light.
To find the target speed, we can rearrange the equation to solve for v:
v = (c * fd) / (2 * fc)
8. Explain how a threshold level is selected in threshold detection?
In threshold detection, a threshold level is selected to discriminate between the signal and noise. The
threshold level is set based on the characteristics of the received signal and the level of noise present in the
system. The following steps are generally followed to select the threshold level:
1. Noise measurement: The first step is to measure the noise level in the system. This can be done by
measuring the signal level when there is no signal present in the system.
2. Signal measurement: The second step is to measure the signal level when a known signal is present
in the system.
3. SNR calculation: Once the noise and signal levels are known, the signal-to-noise ratio (SNR) can be
calculated using the following formula:
SNR = (Signal Power) / (Noise Power)
4. Threshold selection: Based on the required detection probability and false alarm probability, a
threshold level can be selected such that any signal with an SNR above this threshold is considered a
valid signal, and any signal with an SNR below this threshold is considered noise.
9. Explain the Concept of False alarm time Probability?
False alarm probability is the probability of the radar system producing a detection or alarm when no signal
or target is actually present. It is also known as the false alarm rate or false alarm probability density function

10. Explain the Concept of Integration of Radar pulses?

The integration of radar pulses is a process in which a series of transmitted pulses are combined together
to form a longer, more powerful pulse. This is done to increase the signal-to-noise ratio (SNR) of the received
signal, which makes it easier to detect and track targets.

The integration process involves adding together the amplitudes of each transmitted pulse, while keeping
the pulse duration the same. This creates a longer pulse with a higher peak power and a higher energy
content than the individual pulses. The longer pulse is then transmitted and the resulting echo is received
by the radar receiver.
The integration of radar pulses is commonly used in long-range radar systems, where the received signal is
weak due to attenuation and scattering over long distances. By integrating multiple pulses together, the
SNR of the received signal can be increased, which improves the radar's ability to detect and track targets at
longer ranges.

11. Explain Clearly about CW Radar Block Diagram?

 CW Transmitter − It produces an analog signal having a frequency of fo. The output of CW

Transmitter is connected to both transmitting Antenna and Mixer-I.
  Local Oscillator − It produces a signal having a frequency of fl. The output of Local Oscillator is
connected to Mixer-I.
 Mixer-I − Mixer can produce both sum and difference of the frequencies that are applied to it. The
signals having frequencies of fo and fl are applied to Mixer-I. So, the Mixer-I will produce the output
having frequencies fo+fl or fo−fl
 Side Band Filter − side band filter allows a par cular side band frequencies − either upper side band
frequencies or lower side band frequencies.
 Mixer-II − Mixer can produce both sum and difference of the frequencies that are applied to it. The
signals having frequencies of fo+fl and fo±fd are applied to Mixer-II. So, the Mixer-II will produce the
output having frequencies of 2fo+fl±fd or fl±fd.
 IF Amplifier − IF amplifier amplifies the Intermediate Frequency (IF) signal. The IF amplifier shown in
the figure allows only the Intermediate Frequency, fl±fd and amplifies it.
 Detector − It detects the signal, which is having Doppler frequency, fd.
 Doppler Amplifier − Doppler amplifier amplifies the signal, which is having Doppler frequency, fd.
 Indicator − It indicates the informa on related rela ve velocity and whether the target is inbound or
outbound.

12. Define Doppler Effect?

The Doppler effect is the apparent shift in the frequency or wavelength of a wave that is perceived by an
observer when the source of the wave is in motion relative to the observer. It is commonly observed in sound
waves, light waves, and radio waves.
13. If the Radar operates at a frequency of 5GHz, then find the Doppler frequency of an aircraft moving
with a speed of 100KMph?

14.
UNIT-III
1. What is the beat frequency? How it is used in FM-CW radar?
In radar, the beat frequency is the difference between the frequency of the transmitted signal and the
frequency of the received signal. In FM-CW (Frequency-Modulated Continuous Wave) radar, the
transmitted signal is a continuous wave that is frequency modulated by a linear ramp. The frequency of the
transmitted signal increases linearly with time, so that the frequency at any given time is proportional to the
time elapsed since the beginning of the transmission.
When the transmitted signal reflects off a target and returns to the radar receiver, its frequency is shifted
by the Doppler effect due to the target's motion. The amount of frequency shift is proportional to the
target's radial velocity. The received signal is then mixed with a copy of the transmitted signal that is
generated by a local oscillator. The output of the mixer is the difference frequency, which is proportional to
the Doppler shift.
By measuring the beat frequency, the radar can determine the range and velocity of the target. The range
is determined from the time delay between the transmission of the signal and the reception of the echo,
while the velocity is determined from the beat frequency.

2. Explain the principle of FM-CW altimeter.

FM-CW (Frequency-Modulated Continuous Wave) altimeter is a radar system used to measure the altitude
of an aircraft above the ground or the height of a target above a surface. It operates on the principle of
measuring the round-trip time delay of a radio signal from the radar antenna to the surface and back.
The FM-CW altimeter sends out a continuous wave signal that is frequency-modulated with a triangular
waveform. The frequency of the transmitted signal changes linearly with time, sweeping through a range of
frequencies during each transmission. The signal is transmitted from the antenna and travels towards the
ground, where it reflects off the surface and returns to the radar receiver.
The time delay between the transmitted and received signals is proportional to the distance from the
antenna to the surface. The received signal is mixed with the transmitted signal to produce a beat frequency,
which is proportional to the range of the target. The beat frequency is then processed to determine the
height of the target above the surface.
The FM-CW altimeter is advantageous as it provides accurate altitude measurements even in adverse
weather conditions such as rain or fog. It is commonly used in aviation and maritime applications for
measuring altitude and depth, respectively.

3. Explain about Multiple Frequency CW Radar?

4. Explain the Range and Doppler Measurement?

Range and Doppler measurement are important aspects of radar systems. The range measurement is the
determination of the distance between the radar transmitter and the target. Doppler measurement is the
determination of the radial velocity of the target.
Range measurement can be accomplished by measuring the time it takes for a transmitted pulse to be
reflected off the target and return to the radar receiver. The round-trip time can be converted into range
by knowing the speed of light.
Doppler measurement is based on the Doppler effect, which causes the frequency of a reflected signal to
shift in proportion to the radial velocity of the target. This shift in frequency is detected by the radar
receiver and can be used to determine the target's velocity.
5. Draw the block diagram of sinusoidally modulated FM-CW radar?

6. Explain the function of FM-CW radar each block?

 FM Modulator − It produces a Frequency Modulated (FM) signal having variable frequency, fo(t)
 and it is applied to the FM transmitter.
 FM Transmitter − It transmits the FM signal with the help of transmi ng Antenna. The output of FM
Transmitter is also connected to Mixer-I.
 Local Oscillator − In general, Local Oscillator is used to produce an RF signal. But, here it is used to
produce a signal having an Intermediate Frequency. The output of Local Oscillator is connected to
both Mixer-I and Balanced Detector.
 Mixer-I − Mixer can produce both sum and difference of the frequencies that are applied to it. The
signals having frequencies of fo(t)and fIF are applied to Mixer-I. So, the Mixer-I will produce the
output having frequency either fo(t)+fIF or fo(t)−fIF
 Side Band Filter − It allows only one side band frequencies, i.e., either upper side band frequencies
or lower side band frequencies. It acts like a filter.
 Mixer-II − Mixer can produce both sum and difference of the frequencies that are applied to it.
 IF Amplifier − IF amplifier amplifies the Intermediate Frequency (IF) signal. This amplified signal is
applied as an input to the Balanced detector.
 Balanced Detector − used to convert the received signal into a voltage that is propor onal to the
frequency difference between the transmitted and received signals.
 Low Frequency Amplifier − It amplifies the output of Balanced detector to the required level. The
output of Low Frequency Amplifier is applied to both switched frequency counter and average
frequency counter.
 Switched Frequency Counter − It is useful for ge ng the value of Doppler velocity.
  Average Frequency Counter − It is useful for getting the value of Range.

7. What is the need of delay line canceler?

Delay line canceller is a filter, which eliminates the DC components of echo signals received from stationary
targets. This means, it allows the AC components of echo signals received from non-stationary targets, i.e.,
moving targets.
To eliminate the range clutter, a delay line canceler is used in radar systems. The delay line canceler is a filter
that removes the unwanted clutter signals from the received radar echoes. It works by generating a
reference signal that is identical to the clutter signal but delayed in time. The reference signal is then
subtracted from the received signal, effectively canceling out the clutter signal.
Delay line cancellers can be classified into the following two types based on the number of delay lines that
are present in it.
 Single Delay Line Canceller
 Double Delay Line Canceller

8. Explain three pulse canceler.

The three-pulse canceler is a signal processing technique used in pulse radar to eliminate unwanted echoes
caused by the environment or other targets.
The basic idea behind the three-pulse canceler is to use a reference pulse and two adjacent echo pulses to
estimate the characteristics of the unwanted echoes and then subtract them from the received signal. The
block diagram of the three-pulse canceler is shown below:

Draw the block diagram of MTI radar with power oscillator transmitter
Write the description of Range gate Doppler filters.
The delay-line canceller, which can be considered as a time-domain filter, is widely used in MTI radar to
separate moving targets from stationary clutter.
It is also possible to employ the more common frequency-domain band pass filters of conventional design
in MTI radar to separate the Doppler-frequency-shifted targets.
Range gate Doppler filters (RGDF) are a type of digital filter used in radar signal processing to reject unwanted
signals and noise. They are used in radar systems that employ pulse-Doppler techniques, such as weather
radar, air traffic control radar, and military radar systems.
The RGDF is designed to pass only the signals that are received within a specific range gate and within a
specified Doppler frequency range. The range gate is typically a time interval in which the radar pulse is
transmitted and received, while the Doppler frequency range is determined by the velocity of the target
relative to the radar.
The RGDF can be implemented in the frequency domain or the time domain. In the frequency domain, the
filter is designed using the Fourier transform of the received signal. In the time domain, the filter is
implemented using digital signal processing techniques, such as finite impulse response (FIR) or infinite
impulse response (IIR) filters.

Draw the block diagram of IF Doppler bank and explain the operation of it with the help of frequency
response of it.

The operation of the IF Doppler bank is based on the principle of frequency mixing. The input signal is mixed
with two reference signals that are shifted in phase with respect to each other. The two resulting
intermediate frequency (IF) signals are then filtered and amplified by bandpass filters and amplifiers. The
bandpass filters have narrow passbands centered on the desired Doppler frequencies.
UNIT-4

1. Explain Mono pulse tracking in two angle coordinates

Monopulse tracking is a technique used in radar systems for tracking moving targets. It allows the radar to
determine the position and velocity of a target in two angle coordinates - azimuth and elevation.
The cluster of four feeds generates four partial overlapping antenna beams, the feeds are used with a
parabolic reflector, casegrain antenna or a lens.
The monopole antenna must generate a sum pattern of high efficiency and a difference pattern with larger
value of slope at crossover of the offset beams.
Greater the SNR and the steeper the slope of error signal in the vicinity of zero angular error, gives more
accurate measurement of angle.
The side lobes of both sum and difference patterns must be low.
Advantage of monopulse tracking is its ability to provide accurate tracking of multiple targets simultaneously.
It can also provide more precise tracking than traditional tracking techniques, which can be particularly useful
in situations where the radar needs to track targets in crowded environments or in adverse weather
conditions.

2. Discuss in detail about the Angle fluctuations.

In radar systems, angle fluctuations refer to variations in the angle of arrival (AOA) of a radar signal
caused by various factors such as atmospheric effects, target motion, and multipath propagation. These
fluctuations can lead to errors in the radar's tracking and ranging capabilities, making it difficult to accurately
determine the location of a target.
One of the primary causes of angle fluctuations is atmospheric refraction, which occurs when the radar
signal passes through different layers of the atmosphere with varying refractive indices. This can cause the
signal to be bent or refracted, leading to variations in the AOA. The amount of refraction depends on various
atmospheric conditions such as temperature, pressure, and humidity.
Target motion can also cause angle fluctuations. When a target is moving, its relative velocity can
cause the radar signal to be Doppler shifted, which can affect the angle of arrival. In addition, the target's
motion can cause changes in its radar cross-section, which can further affect the AOA of the signal.
Multipath propagation is another factor that can cause angle fluctuations. Multipath occurs when the
radar signal reflects off multiple surfaces before reaching the receiver, leading to multiple copies of the signal
arriving at different times and angles. This can result in interference and signal cancellation, leading to errors
in the AOA measurements.
 To mitigate the effects of angle fluctuations, radar systems can use various techniques such as
adaptive beamforming, which adjusts the antenna pattern to minimize the effects of interference and
multipath propagation. Signal processing techniques such as digital signal processing (DSP) can also be used
to filter out unwanted signals and improve the accuracy of AOA measurements.

3. Compare different tracking radar techniques

Sequential lobing, conical scan, and monopulse scanning are all techniques used for tracking targets in radar
systems. Each technique has its own advantages and disadvantages, which can make it more or less suitable
for a given application.
1. Accuracy: Monopulse scanning is the most accurate of the three techniques, followed by conical
scanning and sequential lobing.
2. Speed of tracking: Sequential lobing is the fastest of the three techniques, followed by conical scanning
and monopulse scanning.
3. Resistance to jamming: Monopulse scanning is the most resistant to jamming, followed by sequential
lobing and conical scanning.
4. Complexity of the antenna: Conical scanning requires the simplest antenna design, followed by
sequential lobing and monopulse scanning.
5. Resistance to interference: Sequential lobing is the most resistant to interference, followed by
monopulse scanning and conical scanning.
6. Signal-to-Noise Ratio (SNR): Monopulse scanning has the highest SNR among the three techniques,
followed by sequential lobing and conical scanning.
7. Minimum number of pulses required: Conical scanning requires the fewest number of pulses to
complete a scan, followed by monopulse scanning and sequential lobing.
8. Applications: Sequential lobing is commonly used in air defence systems and missile guidance, conical
scanning is commonly used in air traffic control and weather radar, and monopulse scanning is
commonly used in fire control radar and tracking systems.

4. What are the various methods of acquisition before tracking a target with a radar?
Acquisition is the process of detecting and identifying targets in the radar's field of view and establishing initial
track information. It is the first step in the target tracking process and is essential for a successful track.
A tracking radar must first find and acquire its target before it can operate as a tracker. Therefore it is
necessary for the radar to scan an angular sector in which the presence of the target is suspected.
Most tracking radars employ a narrow pencil-beam antenna. Searching a volume in space for an aircraft target
with a narrow pencil beam would be somewhat analogous to searching for a fly in a darkened auditorium with
a flashlight. It must be done with some care if the entire volume is to be covered uniformly and efficiently.
common types of scantling patterns employed with pencil-beam antennas are:

a. Helical Scan: Helical scan is a type of antenna scan pattern in which the radar beam is rotated around
a vertical axis while it is continuously tilted up and down. This results in a helix-shaped scan pattern.
 b. Palmer scan: It consists of a rapid circular scan (conical scan) about the axis of the antenna, combined
with a linear movement of the axis of rotation. When the axis of rotation is held stationary the Palmer
scan reduces to the conical scan. Because of this property, the Palmer scan is sometimes used with
conical-scan tracking radars which must operate with a search as well as a track mode.
c. Spiral Scan: Spiral scan is another type of antenna scan pattern in which the radar beam is rotated
around a vertical axis while it is continuously swept outwards in a spiral pattern. The advantage of the
spiral scan is that it covers a larger area compared to the helical scan.
d. TV Scan: TV scan is a type of antenna scan pattern in which the radar beam is rotated around a vertical
axis while it is continuously tilted up and down in a sawtooth pattern. This results in a scan pattern
that resembles the lines on a TV screen. The advantage of the TV scan is that it is simple and easy to
implement.
e. Nodding Scan: Nodding scan is a type of antenna scan pattern in which the radar beam is continuously
tilted up and down in a small angle. This results in a scan pattern that covers a narrow vertical area
but provides a high-resolution image. The advantage of the nodding scan is that it is useful for
detecting low-flying targets.

5. Explain Amplitude comparison mono pulse tracking.

Amplitude Comparison Monopulse Tracking is a method of tracking a target using a monopulse radar.
Monopulse radars use a single antenna to transmit and receive radar signals. The received signal is then split
into two or more channels, each with a slightly different phase or angle of arrival.
In Amplitude Comparison Monopulse Tracking, two receiving channels are used: a sum channel and a
difference channel. The sum channel adds the signals from both channels, while the difference channel
subtracts them. By comparing the amplitudes of the sum and difference channels, the angle to the target can
be determined.
The principle behind Amplitude Comparison Monopulse Tracking is that the sum channel amplitude is
proportional to the total power reflected by the target, while the difference channel amplitude is proportional
to the slope of the power distribution over the target.
The difference channel amplitude provides the directional information, while the sum channel amplitude
provides the range information.
Amplitude Comparison Monopulse Tracking provides accurate tracking of fast-moving targets with high
accuracy and resolution. It is commonly used in military and aerospace applications.

6.Draw and explain block diagram of Conical-scan tracking radar

In a conical scan antenna instead of switching the antenna beam between two different positions the beam
position is steered continuously.
 As shown in fig. a cassegrain feed with rotating sun-reflector is used to generate conical scan antenna
beam.
 A generator produces two sinusoidal reference signals at rotation frequency fs 900 out of phase with
each other.
 These are applied to the phase sensitive detectors for the incoming echo intensity received through
range gate.
 These error signals are amplified by servo amplifiers to drive the azimuth and elevation motors.
 The position of rotation axis of antenna beam in iteration and azimuth are displayed by making use of
potentiometers.

7. Describe Acquisition with respect to Tracking radar

acquisition refers to the process of detecting and establishing initial tracking of a target that has entered the
radar's field of view. The acquisition process involves a series of steps to detect and identify the target,
including search, detection, and measurement.

During the search phase, the radar system scans a particular region of the sky using a particular scanning
pattern such as conical scan, helical scan, or spiral scan. Once a target is detected, the system switches to the
detection phase, where it verifies the existence of the target and its location.

After detecting the target, the system enters the measurement phase, where it tracks the target and measures
its position and velocity accurately. The accuracy of these measurements depends on the performance of the
radar system, including the transmitter, receiver, signal processing, and antenna subsystems.

8. Explain how AGC is achieved in conical scan tracking Radar receiver.

Automatic Gain Control (AGC) is a technique used in radar systems to maintain a constant level of signal
strength, regardless of the variation in signal strength caused by changes in target range or other factors.
In a conical scan tracking radar, the AGC circuit is used to keep the received signal strength constant while the
antenna scans in azimuth. The process includes:
 The received signal is first amplified by the Low Noise Amplifier (LNA) to boost its strength.
 The amplified signal then goes through a Detector, which measures its strength and produces a DC
voltage proportional to the strength of the signal.
 This DC voltage is then fed back to the LNA through an AGC circuit. The AGC circuit adjusts the gain of
the LNA to keep the output signal strength constant, even as the antenna scans in azimuth and the
target range changes.
 The AGC circuit constantly monitors the signal strength and adjusts the gain of the LNA accordingly. If
the signal is weak, the gain is increased, and if the signal is strong, the gain is decreased. This ensures
that the signal remains at a constant level, which makes it easier to detect and track targets accurately.

9. Discuss in detail about Matched filter Receiver with necessary expressions.

10. Write short notes on efficiency of non-matched filters

 In practice the matched filter cannot always be obtained exactly. It is appropriate, therefore, to
examine the efficiency of non-matched filters compared with the ideal matched filter.
 The measure of efficiency is taken as the peak signal-to-noise ratio from the non-matched filter divided
by the peak signal-to-noise ratio (2E/No) from the matched filter
 In general, non-matched filters have lower efficiency compared to matched filters because they do
not maximize the signal-to-noise ratio (SNR) at the output. However, non-matched filters have some
advantages over matched filters, such as their ability to process signals with non-stationary properties
and to handle multiple signals simultaneously.
 The efficiency of a non-matched filter can be improved by optimizing its design parameters such as
filter length, shape, and weighting coefficients.

11. Write the short notes on matched filter

12. Explain the characteristics of a matched filter receiver with necessary equations

13. Explain the characteristics of a cross-correlation receiver with block diagram

The characteristics of a cross-correlation receiver are:
1. Matched filtering: The receiver uses a matched filter to detect the received signal, which results in
optimal detection performance.
2. Signal-to-noise ratio: The integration process in the receiver improves the signal-to-noise ratio, which
results in better detection performance.
 3. Processing gain: The integration process also results in a processing gain, which improves the overall
detection sensitivity of the receiver.
4. Narrowband: The receiver is typically designed to operate over a narrow bandwidth, which allows it
to filter out unwanted frequencies and noise.
5. Phase stability: The receiver requires phase stability between the transmitted and received signals to
maintain the correlation process.

14. Explain in detail about Efficiency of non-matched filters compared with the matched Filter.
15. Discuss about Matched filter with nonwhite noise.
16. Discuss the relation between the matched filter characteristics and correlation detection?
 UNIT-V

1. Explain the terms Linear Array, Planar array, Broadside array and end fire array.
Linear array, planar array, broadside array, and end fire array are different types of antenna arrays used in
radar systems.
1. Linear Array: A linear array is a one-dimensional array of antennas that are arranged in a straight line. The
antennas are spaced at equal intervals, and the signal received by each antenna is combined to form a
beam that can be steered in a specific direction. Linear arrays are commonly used in applications where
the radar needs to scan a wide area in one direction.
2. Planar Array: A planar array is a two-dimensional array of antennas that are arranged in a rectangular or
circular grid pattern. The antennas are spaced at equal intervals in both the horizontal and vertical
directions, and the signal received by each antenna is combined to form a beam that can be steered in a
specific direction. Planar arrays are commonly used in applications where the radar needs to scan a wide
area in both horizontal and vertical directions.
3. Broadside Array: A broadside array is a linear array of antennas that are arranged perpendicular to the
axis of the array. The antennas are spaced at equal intervals, and the signal received by each antenna is
combined to form a beam that is directed perpendicular to the axis of the array. Broadside arrays are
commonly used in applications where the radar needs to scan a narrow sector in a specific direction.
4. End Fire Array: An end fire array is a linear array of antennas that are arranged parallel to the axis of the
array. The antennas are spaced at equal intervals, and the signal received by each antenna is combined to
form a beam that is directed parallel to the axis of the array. End fire arrays are commonly used in
applications where the radar needs to scan a narrow sector in a specific direction, and the target is moving
perpendicular to the direction of the array.
Linear and planar arrays are used to scan wide areas, while broadside and end fire arrays are one-dimensional
arrays used to scan narrow sectors. The choice of array type depends on the specific application and the
requirements of the radar system.

2. With respect to phased array antennas explain the terms beam steering and beam widths changes.
Phased array antennas are a type of antenna array that uses multiple small antennas, each with its own phase
shifter, to steer the beam in a desired direction. The individual antennas are combined to form a beam that
can be steered in a particular direction without physically moving the antenna itself.
Beam steering is the process of changing the direction of the beam by adjusting the phases of the individual
antennas in the array. This is achieved by introducing a controlled phase shift to the signals received by each
antenna in the array. By varying the phase shift, the signals from each antenna can be added or subtracted,
resulting in constructive or destructive interference. This allows the beam to be steered in a particular
direction without physically moving the antenna.
Beam width is a measure of the angular extent of the main lobe of the beam. The main lobe is the central
region of the beam with the highest signal strength. Changes in beam width can be achieved by adjusting the
spacing between the elements in the array or by adjusting the phasing of the elements. Increasing the spacing
between elements decreases the beam width, while decreasing the spacing increases the beam width.
3. List out the merits and demerits of phased array antennas.
Phased array antennas have several advantages and disadvantages, which are listed below:
Merits:
1. Electronic beam steering: Phased array antennas allow for electronic beam steering, which enables
the antenna to track multiple targets simultaneously without physically moving the antenna. This is a
significant advantage over traditional mechanically steered antennas, as it improves the speed and
accuracy of tracking.
2. Rapid scanning: Phased array antennas can scan a wide area rapidly, making them ideal for
applications such as air traffic control, weather forecasting, and military surveillance.
3. Low profile: Phased array antennas can be made very thin and low profile, making them ideal for use
in aircraft, ships, and other vehicles.
4. High reliability: Phased array antennas have no moving parts, making them more reliable and less
prone to mechanical failure than traditional antennas.
5. Improved signal quality: Phased array antennas have a high signal-to-noise ratio, resulting in improved
signal quality and better detection of weak signals.
Demerits:
1. Complexity: Phased array antennas are more complex than traditional antennas, requiring
sophisticated electronics for beam steering and signal processing.
2. Cost: Phased array antennas are more expensive to manufacture and maintain than traditional
antennas.
3. Power consumption: Phased array antennas require a significant amount of power to operate, which
can be a limiting factor for certain applications.
4. Limited bandwidth: Phased array antennas have a limited bandwidth, which can limit their use in
certain applications.
 5. Vulnerability to interference: Phased array antennas can be vulnerable to interference from other
electronic devices, which can affect their performance.

4. Explain characteristics of different radar displays?

1. A-Scope: The A-scope, or amplitude scope, is the simplest and oldest type of radar display. It shows the
strength of the radar return signal over time. The A-scope display is useful for detecting the presence of a
target, but it does not provide any information about the range, bearing, or speed of the target.
2. B-Scope: The B-scope, or range-height indicator (RHI), shows the range and altitude of the target over
time. The B-scope display is useful for tracking the altitude and range of an aircraft, but it does not provide
any information about the target's bearing or speed.
3. C-Scope: The C-scope, or plan position indicator (PPI), is a circular radar display that shows the range and
bearing of targets in a two-dimensional plane. The C-scope display is useful for tracking the range and
bearing of multiple targets simultaneously.
4. D-Scope: The D-scope, or Doppler radar display, shows the radial velocity of the target over time. The D-
scope display is useful for tracking the speed and direction of moving targets.
5. E-Scope: The E-scope, or envelope detector display, shows the envelope of the radar return signal.
6. F-Scope: The F-scope, or fast-time display, shows the radar return signal in the time domain with very high
resolution. It is useful for detecting and analyzing short-duration radar pulses, such as those used in radar
altimeters.
7. G-Scope: The G-scope, or ground-mapping display, shows a top-down view of the terrain beneath the
radar. It is useful for creating high-resolution maps and detecting changes in the terrain, such as the
presence of buildings, roads, or vegetation.
8. H-Scope: The H-scope, or height-finder display, shows the altitude of targets by measuring the angle of
elevation between the radar and the target. It is useful for detecting and tracking aircraft and other
airborne targets.
9. I-Scope: The I-scope, or inverse synthetic aperture radar (ISAR) display, shows a high-resolution image of
a target, such as a ship or aircraft, by processing the radar returns from multiple angles.
10. J-Scope: The J-scope, or jitter display, shows the variation in the timing of radar pulses over time. It is
useful for detecting and analyzing the effects of atmospheric and environmental conditions on the radar
signals.
11. K-Scope: The K-scope, or Ku-band radar display, is a type of radar used for remote sensing and
meteorology applications.
12. L-Scope: The L-scope, or long-range radar display, is used for detecting and tracking targets at very long
ranges, typically beyond the horizon
13. M-Scope: The M-scope, or multiple target display, shows the position and motion of multiple targets
simultaneously. It is useful for monitoring air traffic, marine traffic, and other complex systems.
14. O-Scope: The O-scope, or oscilloscope display, is a generic term for any type of display that shows a
waveform in the time domain. It is commonly used in radar systems for analyzing and troubleshooting
signal processing issues.
15. P-Scope: The P-scope, or pulse-Doppler radar display, combines the range and Doppler information to
provide a three-dimensional display of the target's range, bearing, and velocity.
5. Explain various duplexers
We can classify the Duplexers into the following three types.
 Branch-type Duplexer
 Balanced Duplexer
 Circulator as Duplexer
Branch-type Duplexer consists of two switches — Transmit-Receive (TR) switch and Anti Transmit-Receive
(ATR) switch.

The two switches, TR & ATR are placed at a distance of λ/4 from the transmission line and both the switches
are separated by a distance of λ/4. The working of Branch-type Duplexer is mentioned below.
 During transmission, both TR & ATR will look like an open circuit from the transmission line. Therefore,
the Antenna will be connected to the transmitter through transmission line.
 During reception, ATR will look like a short circuit across the transmission line. Hence, Antenna will be
connected to the receiver through transmission line.
The Branch-type Duplexer is suitable only for low-cost Radars, since it is having less power handling capability.
 Balanced Duplexer
A balanced type duplexer is a type of waveguide duplexer that uses two separate waveguides to separate the
transmit and receive signals. The transmit and receive waveguides are connected to the antenna through a
balanced-to-unbalanced transformer. The transformer allows the transmit and receive signals to be combined
or separated as needed.

The signal, which is produced by the transmitter must reach the Antenna for the Antenna to transmit that
signal during transmission time. The solid lines with arrow marks shown in the above figure represent how
the signal reaches Antenna from transmitter.
The dotted lines with arrow marks shown in the above figure represent the signal, which is leaked from the
Dual TR tubes; this will reach only the matched load. So, no signal has been reached to the receiver. The
configuration of Balanced Duplexer for reception purpose is shown in figure given below.
We know that Antenna receives the signal during reception time. The signal which is received by the Antenna
has to reach the receiver. The solid lines with arrow marks shown in the above figure represent how the signal
is reaching the receiver from Antenna. In this case, Dual TR tubes pass the signal from the first section of
waveguide to the next section of waveguide.
The Balanced Duplexer has high power handling capability and high bandwidth when compared to Branch-
type Duplexer.
 Circulator as Duplexer
A circulator is a three-port device that can be used as a duplexer in radar systems. The three ports are labelled
as the input port, the output port, and the isolation port. The circulator allows the transmit signal to be sent
from the transmitter to the antenna, and the receive signal to be sent from the antenna to the receiver, while
preventing any interference between the two signals.
In a radar system, the circulator acts as a duplexer by separating the transmit and receive signals. The transmit
signal is sent from the transmitter to the input port of the circulator, which directs it to the output port and
then to the antenna. The receive signal is picked up by the antenna and sent to the isolation port of the
circulator, which directs it to the receiver.
The circulator provides isolation between the transmit and receive signals, which helps to reduce interference
and improve the sensitivity of the receiver.
6. Draw the structures of balanced duplexer during transmission and reception modes
Transmission mode

Reception mode

7. Explain the basic concept of phased array antennas?

Phased array antennas are a type of antenna system that use multiple individual antennas, called
elements, to produce a directional beam of electromagnetic radiation. The beam direction and shape can be
electronically controlled by adjusting the phase and amplitude of the signals fed to each individual element.
The basic concept of phased array antennas can be understood by considering the behaviour of waves.
When waves from multiple sources are combined, they can produce constructive or destructive interference,
depending on their relative phase. By adjusting the phase of the waves from each individual element, the
overall radiation pattern can be shaped and steered in a desired direction.
Phased array antennas are typically composed of many individual elements arranged in a regular grid
or pattern. Each element is fed by a signal with a specific phase and amplitude, which determines its
contribution to the overall radiation pattern.
Applications of Phased Array Antennas:
1. Radar Systems:
2. Communication Systems: Phased array antennas are also used in communication systems, such as
cellular networks and satellite communication systems.
3. Electronic Warfare: Phased array antennas are used in electronic warfare systems to detect and locate
sources of interference and jamming, as well as to jam or deceive enemy systems.
4. Space Applications: For high-speed data transmission and reception, as well as for tracking and
telemetry.
1. Limitations of Phased Array Antennas:
5. Cost
6. Power Handling: Phased array antennas may have limitations in their ability to handle high power
levels, due to the small size of the individual elements and the need to maintain precise phase and
amplitude control.
7. Bandwidth: Phased array antennas may have limited bandwidth, due to the need for precise phase
and amplitude control over a wide range of frequencies.
8. Complexity: Phased array antennas require complex electronic control systems to adjust the phase
and amplitude of the signals, and to coordinate the signals from multiple elements. This can make
them more difficult to design, test, and maintain

8. Define the noise figure for a radar receiver, and obtain an expression for the noise figure for three networks
in cascade?
9. Explain in detail about different types of phased array radars and list out their advantages and
disadvantages.
There are several types of phased array radars, each with their own advantages and disadvantages.
1. Passive Electronically Scanned Array (PESA) Radars: PESA radars use a fixed array of antennas to transmit
and receive signals. The signals are combined and processed electronically to steer the beam in different
directions. PESA radars are generally less expensive and simpler to operate than other types of phased
array radars, but they may have limitations in terms of range and accuracy.
Advantages:
 Low cost compared to other types of phased array radars.
 Simple and reliable operation.
 Good for short-range applications.
Disadvantages:
 Limited range and accuracy compared to other types of phased array radars.
 May be vulnerable to jamming and interference.

2. Active Electronically Scanned Array (AESA) Radars: AESA radars use small individual transceiver modules
to transmit and receive signals. Each module can be controlled independently, allowing for more precise
control of the beam shape and direction. AESA radars are generally more expensive and complex than
PESA radars, but they offer higher performance and better resistance to interference and jamming.
Advantages:
 High accuracy and resolution.
 Good resistance to jamming and interference.
 Can perform multiple functions simultaneously, such as surveillance and tracking.
Disadvantages:
 Higher cost and complexity compared to PESA radars.
 May require more power and cooling.

3. Active Phased Array Radars (APAR): APARs are a specialized type of AESA radar used on naval vessels for
air and missile defense. They are designed to rapidly acquire and track multiple targets simultaneously,
and to engage them with high-speed missiles. APARs are highly integrated systems that include a large
number of individual antenna elements and advanced signal processing and control systems.
Advantages:
 High accuracy and speed in acquiring and tracking multiple targets.
 Good resistance to jamming and interference.
 Advanced signal processing and control systems.
Disadvantages:
 Very expensive and complex.
 Requires a large amount of power and cooling.
 Limited to naval applications.
4. Passive Coherent Location (PCL) Radars: PCL radars use signals from existing sources, such as TV and radio
stations, to locate and track targets. By analyzing the reflected signals, a PCL radar can determine the
location and velocity of the target. PCL radars are generally less expensive and simpler than other types
of phased array radars, but they may have limitations in terms of range and accuracy.
Advantages:
 Low cost and simplicity.
 Can use existing signals as a source.
 Good for short-range applications.
Disadvantages:
 Limited range and accuracy compared to other types of phased array radars.
 Vulnerable to interference from other signals.
 Limited to line-of-sight applications.