Welding + Weldin; i i 8 1S a joining process which produces coalescence of materials by heating them to suitable temper: r ic peratures with or without the application of pressure or by the application of pressure alone, and with or withoutt the use of filler material Welding processes Welding processes can categorized into two basic types: 1. Fusion welding, in which coalescence is accomplished by melting the two surfaces to be joined, in some cases adding filler metal to the joint (a) are welding, (b) resistance welding, (c) Oxy-fuel gas welding 1, Solid-state welding, in which heat and/or pressure are used to achieve coalescence, but no melting of the base metals occurs and no filler metal is added. ‘ Friction, friction stir welding, ultrasonic, diffusionWelded joints and their advantages: Welding is a very commonly used permanent joining process A welded joint has following advantages: > > > > > > Compared to other type of joints, the welded joint has higher efficiency. An efficiency > 95 % is easily possible. Since the added material is minimum, the joint has lighter weight. Welded joints have smooth appearances. Due to flexibility in the welding procedure, alteration and addition are possible. It is less expensive. Forming a joint in difficult locations is possible through welding. tA Welding terminology Backing: It is the material support provided at the root side to aid in the control of penetration. Base Metal: the metal to be joined or cut is termed as the base metal. Bead or weld bead: Bead is the metal added during a single pass of welding, The bead appears as a separate material from the base metal Crater: In are welding, a crater is the depression in the weld metal pool at the point where the arc strikes the base metal plate. ‘Deposition rate: The rate at which the weld metal is deposited per unit time, is the deposition rate. Fillet weld: the metal fused in to the comer of a joint trade of two pieces placed at approximately 90° to each other, is termed fillet weld. Sromvecr inchedWelding terminology + Penetration: It is the depth up to which the weld metal combines with the base metal as measured from the top surface of the joint. + Puddle: The portion of the weld joint that melted by the heat of ‘welding is called puddle. « Root: It is the point at which the two pieces to be joined by welding are nearest. «Tack weld: A small weld, generally used to temporarily hold the two pieces together during actual welding, is the tack weld. + Toe of weld: It is the junction between the weld face and the base metal. | + Torch: in gas welding, the torch mixes the fuel and oxygen and controls its delivery to get the desired flame. * Weld face: It is the exposed surface of the weld.ARC welding + Arc welding is a fusion welding process in which coalescence of the metals is achieved by the heat from an electric arc between electrode and the work + An electric atc is a discharge of electric current across a gap in a circuit * To initiate the arc in an AW process, the electrode is brought in to contact with the work and then quickly separated from it by a short distance * The electric energy from the arc thus formed produces temperatures of 500°C or higher, sufficiently hot to melt any metal + A pool of molten metal, consisting of base metal(s) and filler metal (if used), is formed near the tip of the electrode 5General Technology of Arc Welding Electrodes: Electrodes used in AW processes are classified as consumable or non-consumable. + Consumable electrodes: ¥ Consumable electrodes provide the source of the filler metal in arc welding. v These are available in rods (also called sticks) and wire. Y Welding rods are typically 9 to 18 in. long and 3/gin, diameter. ¥ The problem with consumable electrodes is that they must be changed periodically. + Non-consumable electrodes: V Non-consumable electrodes are made of tungsten (or carbon, rarely), which resists melting by the arc. ¥ Despite its name, a non-consumable electrode is gradually depleted during the welding process (vaporization is Y For AW processes that utilize non-col operation must be supplied by means the principle mechanism). nsumable electrodes, any filler metal used in the of a separate wire that is fed in to the weld pool. 6Ff + At the high temperatures in arc welding, ARC shielding the metals being joined are very chemically reactive to ‘oxygen, nitrogen and hydrogen in the ait. + To prevent from this undesirable reaction, some means is provided in nearly all arc welding processes to shield the arc from the surrounding air * Arc shielding is accomplished by covering the electrode tip, arc, and molten weld pool with a blanket of gas or flux, or both, which inhibits exposure of the weld metal to air + Common shielding gases include argon and helium, both of which are inert * A flux is a substance used to prevent the formation of oxides and other unwanted contaminants: + Flux serves the functions such as: (1) to provide a protective atmosphere for welding, (2) to stabilize the are, and (3) to reduce spattering.Power source in ARC welding + Both direct current (de) and alternating current (ac) are used in arc welding = AC machines are less expensive to purchase and operate, but are generally restricted(limited) to welding of ferrous metals + DC equipment can be used on all metals with good results and is generally noted for better are control + Inall arc welding nt I passing through the arc and the voltage E. across it ed in to heat, but not Rate of heat generation at the weld: HRw processes, power to drive the operation is the product of the curre all the heat is transferred to the surface of the work + This power is convert =fiflv Where; f; heat transfer efficiency ‘fy Melting efficiency and V — current and voltage and spatter account for losses that reduce the amount of usable heat Convection, conduction, radiation,1. Shielded metal ARC welding(SMAW) Shielded Metal Are Welding (SMAW) is an arc welding process in which coalescence of metals is produced by heat from an electric arc that is maintained between the tip of a consumable electrode consisting of a filler metal rod coated with chemical that provide flux shielding and the surface of the base metal in the joint being welded Principle of SMAW Shielded Metal Arc welding employs the heat of the arc to melt the base metal and the tip of a the electrode consumable covered clectrode. and the work are part of an electric circuit. This circuit begins with the electric power source and includes the welding cables, an electrode holder, a workpiece connection, the workpiece (weldment), Op and an arc welding electrode.SMAW (contd.) + Since the arc is one of the hottest of the commercial sources of heat [temperatures above 9000° F (500° C) have been measured at its center}, melting ofthe base metal takes place almost instantaneously upon are injtiation + The sizgs and types of electrodes for shielded metal are welding define the arc voltage requirements (within the overall range of 6 to 40 V) and the amperage requirements (within the overall range of 20 to 550 A) Electrode covering- Core wire. Shielding atmosphere:t1 + Shielded metal arc welding (SMAW) is an arc welding process that uses a consumable a SMAW (contd.) electrode consisting of a filler metal rod coated with chemical that provide flux shielding. « The welding stick (SMAW is sometimes called stick welding) is typically 9 to 18 in. long and ¥32 to ¥Bin. diameter. , * The filler metal used in the rod must be compatible with the metal to be welded + Currents typically used in SMAW range between 30 and 300 A at voltages from 15 to 45 V.“> Advantage of SMAW It is preferred for thicker sections above 4.8 mm ‘The equipment is relatively simple, inexpensive, and portable Suitable for alloys including steels, stainless steels, cast irons, and certain nonferrous alloys The filler metal, and the means of protecting it and the weld metal from harmful oxidation during welding, is provided by the covered electrode. The process is less sensitive to wind and draft than gas shielded arc welding processes. ‘Auxiliary gas shielding or granular flux is not required Limitation Low Deposition Rates, Low Productivity, Operator Dependent Heat of welding too high for lead, tin, zinc, and their alloys Inadequate weld pool shielding for reactive metals such as titanium, zieonium, tantalum, columbium, x2. Submerged Arc welding(SAW) « Submerged are welding (SAW) is an are welding that uses a continusus, consumable bare wire electrode, and are shielding is provided by a cover of granular flux « The electrode wire is fed automatically from a cgi) into the ars. «The flux is introduced in to the joint slightly ahead of the weld arc by gravity from hopper. «The blanket of granular flux completely submerges the arc welding process + The portion of the flux closest to the are is melted, mixing with the molten weld etal to remove impurities and then solidifying on top of the weld joint to form a 19 glasslike slag3. Inadequate weld pool shielding for reactive metals such as titanium, zirconium, tantalum, columbium. SAW (cont.) + The slag and unfused flux granules on top provide good protection from the atmosphere and good thermal insulation for the weld area.15 Limitations High deposition rates and Productivity. + Flat or horizontal position Tolerant to variations in joint edge preparation only. and fit up. + Mostly limited to steels, stainless steel and nickel alloys. + Slag removal necessary High cost of equipment (power supply, electrode feeder, flux handling, boom carriage) Advantage and limitation of SAW Advantages Good weld mechanical properties and excellent weld quality. + High weld speed + Simplified joint preparation + Screening of the arc under flux + Active chemical control of weld poo! + Minimal operator training necessary + Collection and utilization of unfused flux. Controllable deep or shallow penetration3. Gas metal Are welding + Gas metal arc welding (GMAW) is an arc welding process in which the electrode is a consumable bare metal wire and shielding is accompanied by flooding the arc with a gas + The bare wire is fed continuously and automatically from a spool through the welding gun + Wire diameters ranging from 0.8 to 6.4 mm are used in. GMAW, the size depending on the thickness of the parts being joined and the desired deposition rate. + Gases used for shielding include inert gases like argon and helium and active gases such as carbon dioxide. “Gas Metal Are Welding Seowr. aeGas metal Arc welding (contd.) + Inert gases are used for welding aluminum alloys and stainless steels, while CO, is commonly used for welding low and medium carbon steels. electrode wire and shielding gases eliminates the slag covering on + The combination of bare des the need for manual grinding and cleaning of the slag. the weld bead and thus preclu = The GMAW process is therefore ideal for making multiple welding passes on the same joint. 1]auu uetiuin aiid active gases such as carbon dioxide BEG . ae ‘Gan Metal Are Welding sais Metal can be transferred in three methods 1, Spray transfer:- small, molten metal droplets from the electrode are transferred to the Weld area at a rate of several hundred droplets per second. 2. Globular Transfer:- carbon-dioxide-rich gases are utilized, and globules are propelled by the forces of the electric-arc transfer of the metal, resulting in considerable spatter. High Welding currents are used, making it possible for greater Weld penetration and higher welding speed than are achieved in spray transfer. Heavier sections commonly are joined by this method 3, Short Circuiting:- the metal is transferred in individual droplets (more than 50 per second) as the electrode tip touches the molten Weld metal and short circuits. Low currents and voltages are utilized with carbon-dioxide-rich gases and electrodes made of small-diameter Wire. 13 »4. Gas tungsten are welding (GTAW - TIG) + Gas tungsten are welding (GTAW) is an arc welding Ee — process that uses a non-consumable tungsten electrode and = esas (Uf cane i200} an inert gas for arc shielding. + The GTAW be I d wit ith = = process can be implemented with or without & 65. cas Tungsten Are Welding) TIG Welding filler metal Dic mt + When a filler metal is used, it is added to the weld pool from a separate rod or wire, being melted by the heat of the are rather than transferred across the arc as in the consumable electrode AW processes.241 ADVANTAGES. UMITATION + Deposition rates higher than SMAW + Equipment is more expensive and complex than + Easily automated to mechanized or robotic | SMAW. applications + Process variants/metal transfer _ mechanisms * It is compatible with all commercial metals make the process more complex and the process * Welding can be performed in all positions window more difficult to control. * Weld deposition rate can be pushed higher + Restricted accesses, Hard to reach locations are than that from alternative processes less easily welded because of bulky torch and + Versatility of performance permits adapting cables. GWAW gun is larger than SMAW holder. to wide varying conditions + Wind or air drafts may compromise gas shielding : leaning is reduced to minimum Rost wield dean + High heat may be uncomfortable to welders + Manipulation skills are easily learnt and : ; mastered by apprentices + Correct parameter selection learning needs dedicatedtrainingContd. Tungsten is a good electrode material due to its high melting point of 3410°C. Shielding gases typically used include a TIG welding In the MIG welding process th In TIG welding, no met differs from MIG welding in that the electrode is not al is added unless a separate fills 22 ¢ electrode is continuously melted and is added into th ler rod is used. rgon, helium, or a mixture of these gas elements consumed in the weld. e weld.‘The gas tungsten-arc welding process, formerly known as TIG (for tungsten-inert-gas) welding’ Equipment for gas tungsten-are welding operations Torch Filer rod Workpieve Feat pedal (oir)ae — 5. Plasma Arc welding try in 1964 as a method The plasma welding process was introduced to the welding indus anges ig better control to the arc welding process in lower current of bringin, + Plasma arc welding (PAW) is 2 special form of gas tungsten arc welding in which a constricted plasma arc is diggcted at the weld area. focuses a In PAW, a tungsten electrode is contained in a specially designed nozzle that jocity stream of inert gas argon into the region of the arc to form a high ot plasma arc stream. high-vel velocity, intensely h ny metal. Temperatures in plasma arc welding reach 28000°C, hot enough to melt atPAW(cont.) ‘The process can be used to weld almost any metal, including tungsten = figure 4.5: Plasma arc on the left and a TIG arc on the right How it works? Plasma is a gas which is heated to an extremely high temperature and ionized so that it becomes electrically conductive. Similar to GTAW (TIG), the plasma arc welding process uses this plasma to transfer an electric arc to a work piece. melted by the intense heat of the arc and fuses together. 25 The metal to be welded isPAW(cont.) + Plasma gases are normally argon. Arc energy in plasma welding can reach three times that of TIG welding causing less weld distortion and smaller welds with higher welding speeds Application of PAW Needles, wires, bulb filaments, thermocouples, probes, and some surgical instruments Tungsten electrode + Plasma gas A co Shielding gas 7 Shielding gas Direction of trave! —a—e—ee Plasma stream Solidified weld metal Base metal Molten weld metal are enevgy ploiuce Weak Anvacse T IG ® less weve 26 Sj] smever wards Dw Luither Lo el dy een2] Advantages: Disadvantages: Good are stability High equipment cost Better penetration control than other AW | Larger torch size than other AW High travel speeds Tends to restrict access in some Excellent weld quality joints [can be used to weld almost any metals |or ey ae a. Thermit Welding SS + The term Thermit is a trade-mark name for thermite, a mixture of aluminum powder and iron oxide that produces an exothermic reaction when ignited + Thermit welding (TW)_‘S a fusion welding process in which the heat for coalescence is produced by superhegfed molten metal from the chemical reaction of Thermit * Eiller metal is obtained from the liquid metal; and although the process is used for = joining it has more in common with casting than it does with welding * Finely mixed powders of aluminum and iron oxide ( in a 1:3 mixture), when ignited temperature of around 1300°C, produce the following chemical reaction: to a BAL + 3Fe,0, > 9Fe + 4Alz03 + heatContd. + The temperature from the reaction is around 2500°C, resulting in superheated molten iron plus aluminum oxide, which floats to the top as a slag and protects the iron from the atmosphere ‘Thermit welding: (1) Thermit ignited; (2) crucible tapped, superheated metal flows into mold; 29 (3) metal solidifies to produce weld jointet aes Magee Xe Alz 0a + heat aocomvore Len) b. Electron Beam Welding \ ¥© + Electron be i is a fusi a : am welding (EBW) is a fusion welding process in which the heat for welding is * Hediste as provided by a highly focused high-intensity stream of electrons impinging against the work surface. * The electron beam gun operates at high voltage (10 to 150 kV) * to accelerate the electrons and beam currents are low (measured in milliampere) + The kinetic energy of electrons is converted into hgat as they strike the workpiece focus the beam on the workpiece in + This process requires @ special equipment to penetrates and the gxsafer the depth-to- vacuum; the higher the vacuum, the more the beam po ahs width ratio 30FA + Laser beam welding (LBW) is a fusion welding process in which coalescence is achieved by c. Laser Beam Welding (LBW) energy of a highly concentrated, coherent light beam focused on joint to be welded * “Laser” is an acronym for "light amplification by stimulated emission of radiation‘ + LBW normally performed with shielding ses (for example helium, argon, nitrogen and carbon dioxide) to prevent oxidation ‘ + Because the beam can be focused on to a very small area, + ithas high energy density and therefore, deep penetration capability. * Consequently, this process is particularly suitable for welding deep and narrow joints with depth-to width ratios typically ranging from 4 to 10Oxy-fuel gas welding (OF W) + In oxy-fuel gas welding (OFW) the heat is obtained from the combustion of a fuel gas such as acetylene(C2H2) in combination with oxygen. in the joint is completely melted to fuse generated in the flame, a + The process is a fusion welding where! «The fuel gas generally used is acetylene because of the high temperature «This process is called oxy-acetylene welding. ed in accordance with a pair of chemical reactions / mol (18.75 MJ/ m3 of acetylene) ‘The heat is generat and hydrogen; it produces about one- (C2H2 + 02+ 2CO + H2+ Heat 448 KJ This reaction dissociates the acetylene in to carbon monoxide third of the total heat generated in the flame. The secondary combustion process is feat B12 KJ fmol (35.7 MiJ/ m3 of acetylene) 2CO + H2 + 15 02 2002 + H20 + H* This reaction consists of the further buming of the hydrogen and the carbon monoxide. + This second reaction produces about two-thirds of the total heat, + The temperatures developed in the flame as a result of these reactions can reach 3300°C. + Note that the reaction of hydrogen with oxygen produces water vapor Types of flame A certain amount of oxygen is required for complete combustion of fuel gases. The proportions of acetylene and oxygen in the gas ‘mixture are an important factor in oxy-fuel gas welding. When the oxygen supply varies, the flame appearance obtained would also vary. Thus, the flames are classified as: reducing flame, and 3. Oxidizing flame 1. Neutral flame 2. Carburizing oi. Neutral Flame: + At a ratio of 1:1 of oxygen and acetylene, that is, when there is no excess oxygen, it is considered to be a neutral flame : + In neutral flame all the acetylene present is completely burned and thus all the available heat jn the fuel gas is released « So this is the most desirable flame to be used in oxy-acetylene welding « Due to neutral flame no chemical change and no oxidation in molten metal occur Inner white cone \ nent / onter bine flame c1275 °C) Figure: 1 Neutral flame 34ii. Carburizing or Reducing Flame: + If the ratio of oxygen is deficient, the flame becomes a reducing flame + This flame has three distinct layers namely inner white cone, intermediate reddish zone and outer blue zone + The length of intermediate zone which is also called flame feather is an indication of the excess acetylene present. t among all the three flames. + The temperature of this flame is lowes! Mixture of acetylene 2900 °C | smeraeati ; flame feather36 iii. Oxidizing Flame: it/ecomes an oxidizing flame which is similar to the neutral flame + When oxygen is in excess, with the exception that thé inner white cone is smaller in size having high temperature of around 3300°C. « There is an excess smount of oxygen present in the flame which badly oxidizes the weld metal. /” » Because of bitning of metal, the weld pool foams, sparks and produces loud noise se it oxidizes the steel. + This flameis harmful. especially for steels. becaus 3300 °C Figure-3 Oxidizing flameMetals that can be welded: * Metals which can be weld with oxy-acetylene flame include iron, bronze, and many alloys; steel, copper and iron, brass and cast iron steel, cast iron, copper, brass, aluminum and itis possible also to join some dissimilar metals, e.g. steel and cast iron, brass and * The oxy-acetylene flame is also employed for cutting metal, case hardening and annealing, ‘Advantages 1. Rate of heat generation is less so thin sheets can be welded As the source of heat and filler metal are separated, the metal deposition can be easily controlled and heat properly adjusted giving rise to a satisfactory weld operated at remote places The cost of equipment is not so high 3. Welding equipment is portable and can be | 4 5. Heat affected zone (HAZ) is very narrow |® itation of gas we ig Heavy sections cannot be joined efficiently ‘Slower speed of welding compared to electric arc welding” Flux used in the filler metal provides fumes which are irritating to the eyes, nose, throat and lungs ‘More safety is recommended in gas welding Acetylene and oxygen are expensive gases Prolonged heating of the joint may results in large HAZOxy-Acetylene Welding Equipment * An oxy-acetylene welding outfit consists of supply units of oxygen, acetylene with associated regulators, welding torch and safety devices Regulatory, a Onyzen control i vale Tot set a ces te Aceiylene cslindor ‘Oxygen cylinder 3339 + The oxygen is normally stored in strong cylinders made up of stee! (black or blue color) at a pressure ranging from 13.8 MPa to 18.2 Mpa * The regulators have right hand screws and a safety cap is provided on the top of the cylinder to allow any leakage of oxygen Storage of Oxygen Storage of acetylene * Acetylene is normally available in two forms: acetylene storage cylinder and acetylene generator + Free acetylene if stored at a pressure more than 200 KPa becomes unstable and may explode. + This instability places special requirements on the storage of acetylene * A storage cylinder (maroon color) is filled with a mixture of calcium silicate, a material that is 92 percent porous * The cylinder is then filled with acetone, which is the solvent agent of acetylene gas and which has an absorptive capacity of up to 35 volumes of acetylene per volume of acetone per atmosphere of pressure.- Hoses( flexibled tube) + The common method of piping oxygen and acetylene is through cloth-reinforced rubber flexible hoses + The green hose is usually used to transport oxygen + The red hose is usually for fuel gas hose + Available lengths are from 5 to 20 m, with bore diameter 4.5 mm for maximum working pressure of 7 bar, 8 mm for a maximum of 12 bar and 10 mm for a maximum working pressure of 15 bar Welding Torch ‘A welding torch mixes oxygen and acetylene in the desired proportions, of the tip, and provides a means for moving and directing the flame Welding torches are classified as either igisssor type or positive pressure (equal pressure) type burns the mixture at the endWelding torch (contd.) + Equal pressure or high pressure blow pipe is simply a mixing device to supply approximately equal volumes of oxygen and acetylene to the nozzle, and is fitted with regulating valves to vary the pressure of the gases as required . + The low pressure or injector type blowpipe has an injector nozzle inside its body through which the high pressure oxygen streams. + The oxygen draws the low pressure acetylene into the mixing chamber and gives it the : necessary velocity to preserve a steady flame, and injector also helps to prevent backfiring * The torch may be of brass, aluminum, stainless steel etc.eee ae __Welding Technique + To light the flame, the acetylene valve on the torch is opened slightly and lighted with the help of a friction spark lighter «+ The flame draws the oxygen from the atmosphere and thus results in « reducing flame « Then the acetylene valve is opened to get the required flow of acetylene rhe oxygen valve is then slowly opened till the intermediate flame feather of the reducing flame recedes into the inner white cone « The choice of the torch size depends on the thickness of the metal to be joined += Larger torch tip sizes cause higher amount of oxygen and fuel to flow out causing the release of more heat + The torch tip should be positioned above the metal plate so that the white cone is at a distance of 1.5 to 3.0 mm from the plate « The torch should be held at an angle of 300 to 450 from the horizontal plane. 4?Welding Technique(contd.) Forehand Welding * The weld is started on the right-hand end of the joint and welding proceeds towards the left * The welding torch flame is directed towards the uncompleted joint or away from the finished weld * This tends to preheat before the white cone of the tip melts it Backhand Welding ‘The weld is started on the left-hand, but end of the joint and welding proceeds towards the right ‘The welding torch flame is directed towards the completed joint or towards the finished weld Welding rod Forehand welding Backhand weiding =46 4.3.2. Oxy-fuel Gas Cutting + It is possible to rapidly between 800 to 10000/- oxidize (burn) iron and steel when it is heated to a temperature + When a high pressué oxygen jet with a pressure of the order of 300 KPa is directed against a heated steel plate, “fhe oxygen jet bums the metal and blows it away causing the cut . Oxy-acetylene gs cutting outfit is similar to that of the oxy-acetylene welding except for the torch tip. «+ Here the tofh tip has a provision for preheating the plate as well as providing the oxygen jet. « Thus the sp has a central hole for oxygen jet with surrounding holes for preheating flames. + The cuttng tip should be chosen for the intended application. «The ge is normally dependent on the thickness ofthe plate which determines the amount of preleating as well as the oxygen jet flow required for cutting4.3.3. ARC Cutting * Arc cutting processes are based on the same principles as arc-welding processes. + A variety of materials can be cut at high speeds by arc cutting. * As in welding, arc-cutting processes also leave a heat-affected zone which needs to be taken in to account, particularly in critical applications 4.3.4. Plasma ARC Cutting + PAC is a thermal material removal process that is primarily used for cutting thick sections of electrically conductive materials + Plasma can be defined as a “superheated, electrically ionized gas.” + PAC uses a high velocity jet of plasma (Temperatures 10,000 to 14,000°C) to cut metal by melting it + The high gas flow rate facilitate the removal of molten metal43, i S i ea 5: Brazing-and-Soldering— Zing, Brazing is a meial-joining proc Pe in which two or more metal items are joined together by i ‘ing anc ii r metal i j | flowing a filler metal into the joint, the filler metal having a lower melting point than the | + Brazing di uae tn Geaet 3 razing differs from welding in that it does not involve melting the work pieces and from soldering in using higher temperatures for a similar process, while also requiring much more closely fitted parts than when soldering ' i | ' 1 | + During brazing, the oxy-acetylene flame first heats the base metal. | © Then, the brass filler rod is melted and drawn in to the. joint by the metals heat. | |. The brass seeps into the base metal’s joint gapes by capillary action. | | + The two pieces of metal are held together strongly when the liquid brass cools and becomes solid \ a 46 __Aff + In soldering, the filler metal (called solder) melts at a relatively low Soldering temperature. + As in brazing, the solder fills the joint by capillary action between closely fitting or closely placed components. * Two important characteristics of solders are lows surface tension and high wetting capability Solders traditionally have been tin-lead alloys in various proportions. For example, a solder of 61.9% Sn -38.1% Pb composition melts at 188°C, whereas tin melts at 232°C and lead at 327°C.Weld quality The major discontinuities that affect weld quality Porosity: Porosity in welds may be caused by Gases released during melting during solidification, Chemical reactions during welding Slag inclusions: Slug inclusions are compounds such as oxides, fluxes, and electrode coating materials that are trapped in the weld zone. If shielding gases are not effective during welding, contamination from the environment also may contribute to such inclusions Cracks: Due to temperature gradients that cause thermal stresses in the Weld zoneSurface Damage : Some of the metal may spatter during welding and be deposited as small droplets on adjacent surfaces Incomplete Fusion and Penetration: incomplete fusion produces poor weld beads. A better weld can be obtained by the use of the following practices: > Raising the temperature of the base metal, > Cleaning the weld area before welding. e work piece is weaker when tested in its thickness direction because of Lamellar Tears: Th the alignment of nonmetallic impurities and inclusions a9FHANK YoU VERY MUCH ae TF ee SL