UNDERSTANDING THE SELF (W1-W7) they cope and adjust through life, and how they respond to demands of
physical and social challenges.
WEEK 1: Introduction to Self Understanding
Understanding oneself is essential to understand behaviors and beliefs that
affects ourselves and others specifically in becoming effective and
successful person in life, work, and relationship. Moreover, self-
understanding (1) provides a sense of purpose; (2) leads to healthier
relationships; (3) helps harness your natural strength; and (4) promotes
confidence. This module will introduce you to the basic concepts of self and
personality, and how they are related with each other. Self and personality
characterized the way we define our existence, also these refers on how we
organized our experiences that are reflected to our behavior. On the other
hand, people have different ideas about themselves. These ideas represent
the self of the person. Moreover, we behave in different ways in a given
situation, but people also behave fairly stable in different circumstances.
The relatively permanent pattern of behavior represents personality of the
person. In details,
Personality
• The etymological derivative of personality comes from the word
“persona”, the theatrical masks worn by Romans in Greek and Latin drama.
Personality also comes from the two Latin words “per” and “sonare”, which
literally means “to sound through”.
• Personality has no single definition since different personality theories
have different views on how to define it. However, the commonly accepted
definition of personality is that it is a relatively permanent traits and unique
characteristics that give both consistency and individuality to a person’s
behavior (Roberts & Mroczek, 2008).
• Personality plays a key role in affecting how people shape their lives. It
involves the complex relationship of people with their environment, how
• Personality is the overall pattern or integration of a person’s structure,
modes of behavior, attitudes, aptitudes, interests, intellectual abilities, and
many other distinguishable personality traits. Personality is the
conglomeration of the following components: physical self, intelligence,
character traits, attitudes, habits, interest, personal discipline, moral values,
principles and philosophies of life.
Determinants of Personality
Personality refers to the total person in his/her overt and covert behavior.
The determinants of factors of personality are as follows:
• Environmental Factors of Personality. The surroundings of an individual
compose the environmental factors of personality. This includes the
neighborhood a person lives in, his school, college, university and
workplace. Moreover, it also counts the social circle the individual has.
Friends, parents, colleagues, co-workers and bosses, everybody plays a role
as the determinants of personality.
• Biological Factors of Personality. This further includes:
1) hereditary factors or genetic make-up of the person that inherited from
their parents. This describes the tendency of the person to appear and
behave the way their parents are;
2) physical features include the overall physical structure of a person:
height, weight, color, sex, beauty and body language, etc. Most of the
physical structures change from time to time, and so does the personality.
With exercises, cosmetics and surgeries, many physical features are
changed, and therefore, the personality of the individual also evolves; and
3) brain. The preliminary results from the electrical stimulation of the brain
(ESB) research gives indication that better understanding of human
personality and behavior might come from the study of the brain.
• Situational Factors of Personality. Although these factors do not literally The Five-Factor Model of Personality
create and shape up an individual’s personality, situational factors do alter a
person’s behavior and response from time to time. The situational factors Research that used the lexical approach showed that many of the
can be commonly observed when a person behaves contrastingly and personality descriptors found in the dictionary do indeed overlap. In other
exhibits different traits and characteristics. words, many of the words that we use to describe people are synonyms.
Thus, if we want to know what a person is like, we do not necessarily need
• Cultural Factors. Culture is traditionally considered as the major to ask how sociable they are, how friendly they are, and how gregarious
determinants of an individual’s personality. The culture largely they are. Instead, because sociable people tend to be friendly and
determinants what a person is and what a person will learn. The culture gregarious, we can summarize this personality dimension with a single term.
within a person is brought up, is very important determinant of behavior of Someone who is sociable, friendly, and gregarious would typically be
a person. Culture is complex of these belief, values, and techniques for described as an “Extravert.”
dealing with the environment which are shared among contemporaries and
Once we know she is an extravert, we can assume that she is sociable,
transmitted by one generation to the next.
friendly, and gregarious. The most widely accepted system to emerge from
_____________________________________________________________ this approach was “The Big Five” or “FiveFactor Model” (Goldberg, 1990;
McCrae & John, 1992; McCrae & Costa, 1987). The Big Five comprises five
Personality Traits major traits shown in the Figure 2 below.
Personality traits reflect people’s characteristic patterns of thoughts, A way to remember these five is with the acronym OCEAN (O is for
feelings, and behaviors. Personality traits imply consistency and stability— Openness; C is for Conscientiousness; E is for Extraversion; A is for
someone who scores high on a specific trait like Extraversion is expected to .
Agreeableness; N is for Neuroticism). The table below provides descriptions
be sociable in different situations and over time. Thus, trait psychology rests of people who would score high and low on each of these traits.
on the idea that people differ from one another in terms of where they
stand on a set of basic trait dimensions that persist over time and across
situations. The most widely used system of traits is called the Five-Factor
Model. This system includes five broad traits that can be remembered with
the acronym OCEAN: Openness, Conscientiousness, Extraversion,
Agreeableness, and Neuroticism. Each of the major traits from the Big Five
can be divided into facets to give a more fine-grained analysis of someone's
personality. In addition, some trait theorists argue that there are other traits
that cannot be completely captured by the Five-Factor Model. Critics of the
trait concept argue that people do not act consistently from one situation to
the next and that people are very influenced by situational forces. Thus, one
major debate in the field concerns the relative power of people’s traits
versus the situations in which they find themselves as predictors of their
behavior.
 procedures like wearing seat belts or bicycle helmets. Over the long term,
this consistent pattern of behaviors can add up to meaningful differences in
health and longevity. Thus, personality traits are not just a useful way to
describe people you know; they actually help psychologists predict how
good a worker someone will be, how long he or she will live, and the types
of jobs and activities the person will enjoy.

Who Am I?
Have you ever ask yourself the question, “Who am I?”? Answering the
question 'Who am I?' can lead to a solid self-concept and self-
understanding. For many people, answering this question isn't very easy.
Scores on the Big Five traits are mostly independent. That means
For others, a solid understanding of who they are is a big part of their lives.
that a person’s standing on one trait tells very little about their standing on
Understanding of who you are as a person is called self-concept and
the other traits of the Big Five. For example, a person can be extremely high
understanding what your motives are when you act is called self-
in Extraversion and be either high or low on Neuroticism. Similarly, a person
understanding. In definition, self-concept is generally thought of as our
can be low in Agreeableness and be either high or low in Conscientiousness.
individual perceptions of our behavior, abilities, and unique
Thus, in the Five-Factor Model, you need five scores to describe most of an
characteristics—a mental picture of who you are as a person. For example,
individual’s personality. In the exercises part of this module there is a short
beliefs such as "I am a good friend" or "I am a kind person" are part of an
scale to assess the Five-Factor Model of personality (Donnellan, Oswald,
overall self-concept. Self-concept tends to be more malleable when people
Baird, & Lucas, 2006). You can take this test to see where you stand in terms
are younger and still going through the process of self-discovery and
of your Big Five scores. Traits are important and interesting because they
identity formation. As people age, self-perceptions become much more
describe stable patterns of behavior that persist for long periods of time
detailed and organized as people form a better idea of who they are and
(Caspi, Roberts, & Shiner, 2005). Importantly, these stable patterns can have
what is important to them. According to the book Essential Social
broadranging consequences for many areas of our life (Roberts, Kuncel,
Psychology by Richard Crisp and Rhiannon Turner:
Shiner, Caspi, & Goldberg, 2007). For instance, think about the factors that
• The individual self consists of attributes and personality traits that
determine success in college. If you were asked to guess what factors
differentiate us from other individuals. Examples include introversion or
predict good grades in college, you might guess something like intelligence.
extroversion.
This guess would be correct, but we know much more about who is likely to
• The relational self is defined by our relationships with significant others.
do well. Specifically, personality researchers have also found the personality
Examples include siblings, friends, and spouses.
traits like Conscientiousness play an important role in college and beyond,
• The collective self reflects our membership in social groups. Examples
probably because highly conscientious individuals study hard, get their work
include British, Republican, African-American, or gay. At its most basic, self-
done on time, and are less distracted by nonessential activities that take
concept is a collection of beliefs one holds about oneself and the responses
time away from school work. In addition, highly conscientious people are
of others. It embodies the answer to the question "Who am I?". The lesson
often healthier than people low in conscientiousness because they are more
to follow will facilitate learning about the self, and self concept.
likely to maintain healthy diets, to exercise, and to follow basic safety

WEEK 2: THE SELF ACCORDING TO PHILOSOPHY
Philosophy
Philosophy is defined as the study of knowledge or wisdom from its Latin
roots, philo (love) and sophia (wisdom). This field is also considered as “The
Queen of All Sciences” because every scientific discipline has philosophical
foundations. Various thinkers for centuries tried to explain the natural
causes of everything that exist specifically the inquiry on the self
preoccupied these philosophers in the history. The Greek philosophers were
the ones who seriously questioned myths and moved away from them in
attempting to understand reality by exercising the art of questioning that
satisfies their curiosity, including the questions about self. The following
lecture will present the different philosophical perspectives and views about
self.
Socrates
• A philosopher from Athens, Greece and said to have the greatest influence
on European thought.
• According to the history he was not able to write any of his teachings and
life’s account instead, he is known from the writings of his student Plato
who became one of the greatest philosophers of his time. Socrates had a
unique style of asking questions called Socratic Method.
• Socratic Method or dialectic method involves the search for the
correct/proper definition of a thing. In this method, Socrates did not lecture,
he instead would ask questions and engage the person in a discussion. He
would begin by acting as if he did not know anything and would get the
other person to clarify their ideas and resolve logical inconsistencies (Price,
2000).
• The foundation of Socrates philosophy was the Delphic Oracle’s that
command to “Know Thyself”. Here, Socrates would like to emphasize that
knowing or understanding oneself should be more than the physical self, or
the body.
• According to Socrates, self is dichotomous which means composed of two
things: The physical realm or the one that is changeable, temporal, and
imperfect. The best example of the physical realm is the physical world. The
physical world is consisting of anything we sense – see, smell, feel, hear, and
taste. It is always changing and deteriorating. The ideal realm is the one that
is imperfect and unchanging, eternal, and immortal. This includes the
intellectual essences of the universe like the concept of beauty, truth, and
goodness. Moreover, the ideal realm is also present in the physical world.
One may define someone as beautiful or truthful, but their definition is
limited and imperfect for it is always relative and subjective. It is only the
ideal forms themselves that are perfect, unchanging, and eternal.
• For Socrates, a human is composed of body and soul, the first belongs to
the physical realm because it changed, it is imperfect, and it dies, and the
latter belongs to ideal realm for it survives the death.
Socrates also used the term soul to identify self.
• The self, according to Socrates is the immortal and unified entity that is
consistent over time. For example, a human being remains the same person
during their childhood to adulthood given the fact that they undergone
developmental changes throughout their lifespan.
Plato
• A student of Socrates, who introduced the idea of a threepart soul/self
that is composed of reason, physical appetite and spirit or passion. o The
Reason enables human to think deeply, make wise choices and achieve a
true understanding of eternal truths. Plato also called this as divine essence.
The physical Appetite is the basic biological needs of human being such as
hunger, thirst, and sexual desire. And the spirit or passion is the basic
emotions of human being such as love, anger, ambition, aggressiveness and
empathy.
• These three elements of the self works in every individual inconsistently.
According to Plato, it is always the responsibility of the reason to organize,
control, and reestablish harmonious relationship between these three
elements.
• Plato also illustrated his view of the soul/self in “Phaedrus” in his
metaphor: the soul is like a winged chariot drawn by two powerful horses: a
white horse, representing Spirit, and a black horse, embodying appetite. The
charioteer is reason, whose task is to guide the chariot to the eternal realm
by controlling the two independent-minded horses. Those charioteers who
are successful in setting a true course and ensuring that the two steeds
work together in harmonious unity achieve true wisdom and banquet with
the gods. However, those charioteers who are unable to control their horses
and keep their chariot on track are destined to experience personal,
intellectual, and spiritual failure.
• He is considered as the last of the great ancient philosophers whose ideas
were greatly Platonic. In melding philosophy and religious beliefs together,
Augustine has been characterized as Christianity’s first theologian.
• Like Plato, Augustine believed that the physical body is different from the
immortal soul. Early in his philosophical development he described body as
“snare” or “cage” of the soul and said that the body is a “slave” of the soul
he even characterized that “the soul makes war with the body”. Later on he
came to view the body as “spouse” of the soul, with both attached to one
another by a “natural appetite.” He concluded, “That the body is united
with the soul, so that man may be entire and complete, is a fact we
recognize on the evidence of our own nature.”
According to St. Augustine, the human nature is composed of two realms:
1. God as the source of all reality and truth. Through mystical experience,
man is capable of knowing eternal truths. This is made possible through the
existence of the one eternal truth which is God. He further added that
without God as the source of all truth, man could never understand eternal
truth. This relationship with God means that those who know most about
God will come closest to understanding the true nature of the world.
2. The sinfulness of man. The cause of sin or evil is an act of mans’ freewill.
Moral goodness can only be achieved through the grace of God.
He also stated that real happiness can only be found in God. For God is love
and he created humans for them to also love. Problems arise because of the
objects humans choose to love. Disordered love results when man loves the
wrong things which he believes will give him happiness. Furthermore, he
said that if man loves God first and everything else to a lesser degree, then
all will fall into its rightful place.
Rene Decartes
• A French philosopher, mathematician, and considered the founder of
modern philosophy.
• Descartes, famous principle the “cogito, ergo sum—“I think, therefore I
exist” established his philosophical views on “true knowledge” and concept
of self.
• He explained that in order to gain true knowledge, one must doubt
everything even own existence. Doubting makes someone aware that they
are thinking being thus, they exist. The essence of existing as a human
identity is the possibility of being aware of our selves: being self-conscious
in this way is integral to having a personal identity. Conversely, it would be
impossible to be self-conscious if we did not have a personal identity of
which to be conscious. In other words, the essence of self is being a thinking
thing.
• The self is a dynamic entity that engages in metal operations – thinking,
reasoning, and perceiving processes. In addition to this, self-identity is
dependent on the awareness in engaging with those mental operations.
• He declared that the essential self or the self as the thinking entity is
radically different from the physical body. The thinking self or soul is a non-
material, immortal, conscious being, independent of the physical laws of the
universe while the physical body is a material, mortal, non-thinking entity,
fully governed by the physical laws of nature.
• He also maintained that the soul and the body are independent of one
another and each can exist and function without the other. In cases in which
people are sleeping or comatose, their bodies continue to function even
though their minds are not thinking, much like the mechanisms of a clock.
He identified the physical self as part of nature, governed by the physical
laws of the universe, and available to scientific analysis and
experimentation, and the conscious self (mind, soul) is a part of the spiritual
realm, independent of the physical laws of the universe, governed only by
the laws of reason and God’s will. And because it exists outside of the
natural world of cause-and-effect, the conscious self is able to exercise free
will in the choices it makes.
John Locke
• An English philosopher and physician and famous in his concept of “Tabula
Rasa” or Blank Slate that assumes the nurture side of human development.
• The self, according to Locke is consciousness. In his essay entitled On
Personal Identity (from his most famous work, Essay Concerning Human
Understanding) he discussed the reflective analysis of how an individual
may experience the self in everyday living. He provided the following key
points:
1. To discover the nature of personal identity, it is important to find out
what it means to be a person.
2. A person is a thinking, intelligent being who has the abilities to reason
and to reflect.
3. A person is also someone who considers themself to be the same thing in
different times and different places.
4. Consciousness as being aware that we are thinking— always accompanies
thinking and is an essential part of the thinking process.
5. Consciousness makes possible our belief that we are the same identity in
different times and different places.
Although Locke and Descartes believed that a person or the self is a thinking
intelligent being who has the abilities to reflect and to reason, Locke was
not convinced with the assumptions of Plato, St. Augustine and Descartes
that the individual self necessarily exists in a single soul or substance. For
Locke, personal identity and the soul or substance in which the personal
identity is situated are two very different things. The bottom line of his
theory on self is that self is not tied to any particular body or substance. It
only exists in other times and places because of the memory of those
experiences.
David Hume
• He was a Scottish philosopher and also an empiricist.
• His claim about self is quite controversial because he assumed that there
is no self! In his essay entitled, “On Personal Identity” (1739) he said that, if
we carefully examine the contents of [our] experience, we find that there
are only two distinct entities, "impressions" and "ideas".
• Impressions are the basic sensations of our experience, the elemental
data of our minds: pain, pleasure, heat, cold, happiness, grief, fear,
exhilaration, and so on.
• On the other hand, ideas are copies of impressions that include thoughts
and images that are built up from our primary impressions through a variety
of relationships, but because they are derivative copies of impressions, they
are once removed from reality.
• Hume considered that the self does not exist because all of the
experiences that a person may have are just perceptions and this includes
the perception of self. None of these perceptions resemble a unified and
permanent self-identity that exists over time.
• He further added that there are instances that an individual is limited in
experiencing their perception like in sleeping. Similarly, when someone died
all empirical senses end and according to him, it makes no sense to believe
that self exists in other forms. As an empiricist, Hume provide an honest
description and analysis of his own experience, within which there is no self
to be found.
• Hume explained that the self that is being experienced by an individual is
nothing but a kind of fictional self. Human created an imaginary creature
which is not real. “Fictional self” is created to unify the mental events and
introduce order into an individual lives, but this “self” has no real existence.
Sigmund Freud
• A well-known Australian psychologist and considered as the Father and
Founder of Psychoanalysis. His influence in Psychology and therapy is
dominant and popular in the 20th to 21st century.
• The dualistic view of self by Freud involves the conscious self and
unconscious self.
• The conscious self is governed by reality principle. Here, the self is
rational, practical, and appropriate to the social environment. The conscious
self has the task of controlling the constant pressures of the unconscious
self, as its primitive impulses continually seek for immediate discharge.
• The unconscious self is governed by pleasure principle. It is the self that is
aggressive, destructive, unrealistic and instinctual. Both of Freud’s self
needs immediate gratification and reduction of tensions to optimal levels
and the goal of every individual is to make unconscious conscious.
• Freud proposed how mind works, he called this as provinces or structures
of the mind. By illustrating the tip of the iceberg which according to him
represents conscious awareness which characterizes the person in dealing
with the external world. The observable behavior, however, is further
controlled by the workings of the subconscious/unconscious mind.
• Subconscious serves as the repository of past experiences, repressed
memories, fantasies, and urges. The three levels of the mind are:
1. Id. This is primarily based on the pleasure principle. It demands
immediate satisfaction and is not hindered by societal expectations.
2. Ego. The structure that is primarily based on the reality principle. This
mediates between the impulses of the id and restraints of the superego.
3. Superego. This is primarily dependent on learning the difference between
right and wrong, thus it is called moral principle. Morality of actions is
largely dependent on childhood upbringing particularly on rewards and
punishments.
According to Freud, there are two kinds of instinct that drive individual
behavior – the eros or the life instinct and the thanatos of the death
instinct. The energy of eros is called libido and includes urges necessary for
individual and species survival like thrist, hunger, and sex.in cases that
human behaior is directed towards destruction in the form of aggression
and violence, such are the manifestations of thanatos.
Gilbert Ryle
• A British analytical philosopher. He was an important figure in the field of
Linguistic Analysis which focused on the solving of philosophical puzzles
through an analysis of language.
• According to Ryle, the self is best understood as a pattern of behavior, the
tendency or disposition for a person to behave in a certain way in certain
circumstances.
• He opposed the notable ideas of the previous philosophers and even
claimed that those were results of confused conceptual thinking he termed,
category mistake. The category mistake happens when we speak about the
self as something independent of the physical body: a purely mental entity
existing in time but not space.
______________________________________________________________
Immanuel Kant
• A German Philosopher who made great contribution to the fields of
metaphysics, epistemology, and ethics. Kant is widely regarded as the
greatest philosopher of the modern period.
• Kant maintained that an individual self makes the experience of the world
comprehensible because it is responsible for synthesizing the discreet data
of sense experience into a meaningful whole.
• It is the self that makes consciousness for the person to make sense of
everything. It is the one that help every individual gain insight and
knowledge. If the self failed to do this synthesizing function, there would be
a chaotic and insignificant collection of sensations. Additionally, the self is
the product of reason, a regulative principle because the self regulates
experience by making unified experience possible and unlike Hume, Kant’s
self is not the object of consciousness, but it makes the consciousness
understandable and unique.
• Transcendental apperception happens when people do not experience
self directly, instead as a unity of all impressions that are organized by the
mind through perceptions. Kant concluded that all objects of knowledge,
which includes the self, are phenomenal. That the true nature of things is
altogether unknown and unknowable (Price, 2000).
• For Kant, the kingdom of God is within man. God is manifested in people’s
lives therefore it is man’s duty to move towards perfection. Kant
emphasized that people should always see duty as a divine command (Price,
2000).
Paul and Patricia Churchland
• An American philosopher interested in the fields of philosophy of
mind, philosophy of science, cognitive neurobiology, epistemology,
and perception.
• Churchlands’ central argument is that the concepts and the
theoretical vocabulary that people us to think about the selves –
using such terms as belief, desire, fear, sensation, pain, joy –
actually misrepresent the reality of minds and selves. He claims that
the self is a product of brain activity.
• The behavior of the self can be attributed to the
neuropharmacological states, the neural activity in specialized
anatomical areas.
• Neurophilosopy was coined by Patricia Churchland, the modern
scientific inquiry looks into the application of neurology to age-old
problems in philosophy. The philosophy of neuroscience is the study of
the philosophy of science, neuroscience, and psychology. It aims to
explore the relevance of neurolinguistic experiments/studies to the
philosophy of the mind.
• Patricia Churchland claimed that man’s brain is responsible for the
identity known as self. The biochemical properties of the brain
according to this philosophy of neuroscience is really responsible for
man’s thoughts, feelings, and behavior.
• Paul Churchland is one of the many philosophers and psychologists
that viewed the self from a materialistic point of view, contending that
in the final analysis mental states are identical with, reducible to, or
explainable in terms of physical brain states. This assumption was made
due to the physiological processes of the body that directly affecting the
mental state of the person. The advent of sophisticated technology and
scientific research gives hope to understand the connection between
the physical body and the mind/brain relationship that integrated in the
self.
• Being an eliminative materialist, he believes that there is a need to
develop a new vocabulary and conceptual framework that is grounded
in neuroscience. This new framework will be a more accurate reflection
of the human mind and self.
Maurice Merleau-Ponty
• A French philosopher and phenomenologist. He took a very different
approach to the self and the mind/body “problem.” According to him,
the division between the “mind” and the “body” is a product of
confused thinking. The self is experienced as a unity in which the
mental and physical are seamlessly woven together. This unity is the
primary experience of selves and begin to doubt it when an individual
use their minds to concoct abstract notions of a separate mind and
body. Developed the concept of self-subject and contended that
perceptions occur existentially. Thus, the consciousness, the world, and
the human body are all interconnected as they mutually perceive the
world. According to him, the world and the sense of self are emergent
phenomena in the ongoing process of man’s becoming.
Phenomenology provides a direct description of the human experience
which serves to guide man’s conscious actions. He further added that,
the world is a field of perception, and human consciousness assigns
meaning to the world. Thus man cannot separate himself from his
perceptions of the world.
• Perception is not purely the result of sensations nor it is purely
interpretations. Rather consciousness is a process that includes sensing
as well as interpreting/reasoning.
WEEK 3: THE SELF ACCORDING TO SOCIOLOGY AND ANTHROPOLOGY
SOCIOLOGY AND ANTHROPOLOGY
Both disciplines contribute to understanding the self for sociology, self
is the product of modern society, since it is the science that studies the
development, structure, interaction and collective behavior of human
being. While anthropology is the study of humanity that looks at both
past and present of human culture.
GEORGE HERBERT MEAD AND THE SOCIAL SELF
• American philosopher, sociologist and psychologist
• Well known for his theory of self
• Self is the sum total of conscious perception of their identity as distinct
from others.
• Self is social emergent. Meaning, self is a product of social interaction and
not logical or biological in nature.
• Self is something that undergoes development because it is not present
instanly at birth.
• The self activates every encounter from other selves that results to
social experience and activity.
• One has to have others to experience themselves.
• Thus, self emergence of self that was developed through three forms
MEAD’S STAGES OF SELF-FORMATION
1. PREPARATORY STAGE- the self develops over time through social
interaction and experience. Children’s basis: imitation. Symbols are
used for communication.
2. PLAY STAGE- symbols are used for communications, children tend to
role play and pretend. The self begins to create roles at a given
situation.
3. GAME STAGE- the child does the role-take. He/she responds to a
given task. The child is aware of his social environment.
GEORGE HERBERT MEAD AND THE SOCIAL SELF
GENERALIZED OTHER- through the realizations of the person that the
society has cultural norms, beliefs and values, he/she has basis on how
to evaluate or asses him/herself.
Now, mead emphasized that self’s response is active since a person
responds to the attitude of others respectively.
THEREFORE, HE IDENTIFIED TWO PHASES OF SELF:
1. the phase which reflects the attitude of the generalized other or the
“me”; and
2. the phase that responds to the attitude of generalized other or the
“I”.

THE SELF AS A PRODUCT OF MODERN SOCIETY AMONG OTHER
CONSTRUCTION
Georg Simmel
• German sociologist, philosopher and critic
• his interest is on how the modern culture impacts to individual’s
subjective experience
• he believes that there is something called human nature that is innate
to the individual
• most of our interactions are individual motivations.
• Simmel as a social thinker made a distinction between
subjective and objective culture.
• The individual or subjective culture refers to the ability to
embrace, use, and feel culture.
• Objective culture is made up of elements that become
separated from the individual or group’s control and identified
as separate objects.
INTERRELATED FORCES IN MODERN SOCIETY THAT TEND TO INCREASE
OBJECTIVE CULTURE
• Urbanization is the process that moves people from country to city
living.
• This paved way to the organization of labor or increased division of
labor, which demands specializations wherein this creates more
objective culture.
• Consumption of products has an individuating and trivializing effect.
• Products used in the modernity to express and produced the self is also
changing which are separated from subjectivity (subjective culture) due
to division of labor and market economy.
• Money creates a universal value system wherein every commodity can
be understood. Money also increases individual freedom by pursuing
diverse activities and by increasing the options for self expression.
Money also makes the individual to be less attached to the commodities
because the individual tends to understand and experience their
possession less in terms of their intrinsic qualities and more of their
objective and abstract worth. Additionally, money also discouraged
intimate ties with people. Money comes to stand in the place of almost
everything – and this includes relationship! Money further discourages
intimate ties by encouraging a culture of calculation.
• Simmel observed that social networks also changed. Group affiliations
in urban is definitely different from rural settings wherein the
relationship are strongly influenced by family. An individual tends to
seek membership to the same group which makes the family as basic
socialization structure. This natural inclination to join groups is called by
Simmel as organic motivation and the grouping is called primary group.
This group is based on ties of affection and personal loyalty endure over
long periods of time, and involve multiple aspects of a person’s life.
• On the other hand, in the modern urban settings, group membership is
due to rational motivation or membership due to freedom of choice.
This characterized the secondary group which is goal and utilitarian
oriented, with a narrow range of activities, over limited time spans. As a
result, it is more likely that an individual will develop unique
personalities. Moreover, Simmel said that a complex web of group
affiliations produces role conflicts and blasé attitude. Role conflict is a
situation that demands a person of two or more roles that clash with
one another. Blasé attitude is an attitude of absolute boredom and lack
of concern. This is the inability or limited ability to provide emotional
investment to other people.
THE SELF AND PERSON IN THE CONTEMPORARY ANTHROPOLOGY
The Four Subfields of Anthropology
1. Archeology. Focus on the study of the past and how it may have
contributed to the present ways of how people conduct their daily lives.
Archeologists have so far discovered the unique ways in which human
beings adapted to the changes in their environment in order for them to
survive. Among their discoveries around the world is the species, homo
sapiens did not become extinct because of their ability to think, use
tools and learn from experience. In relating to the contemporary
 society, people still aim for survival, for their basic needs to be fulfilled
and to live legacy to their society.
2. Biological Anthropology. Focus on how the human body adapts to the
different earth environments. Among the activities of Anthropologists
are identification of probable causes of diseases, physical mutation, and
death, evolution, and comparison of dead and living primates. They are
interested in explaining how the biological characteristics of human
being affects their way of living. Accordingly, human beings at present
still share the same biological strengths and vulnerabilities. Like eating
balanced nutrients and minerals that are beneficial to all human beings
while being exposed to a virus in a pandemic might cause negative
implications to many.
3. Linguistic Anthropology. Focused on using language as means to
discover a group’s manner of social interaction and their worldview.
Anthropologists in this field want to discover how language is used to
create and share meanings, to form ideas and concepts and to promote
social change. Furthermore , they also study how language and modes
of communication changes over time.
4. Cultural Anthropology. Focused in knowing what makes one group’s
manner of living forms an essential part of the member’s personal and
societal identity. This encompasses the principles of Theory of Cultural
Determinism which suggests that the human nature is determined by
the kind of culture he is born and grew up in. Cultural diversities are
manifested in different ways and different levels of dept. The following
are the ways in which culture may manifest itself in people:
• Symbols. These are the words, gestures, pictures or objects that
have recognized or accepted meaning in a particular culture.
Example: colors have similar meaning across all cultures.
• Heroes. These are persons from the past or present who have
characteristics that are important in culture. They may be real of
work of fictions. Example: Fiction – Thor, Captain America; Real –
Jose Rizal, Apolinario Mabini.
• Rituals. These are activities participated by a group of people for
the fulfilment of desired objectives and are concerned to be socially
essential. Example: Wedding, fiesta, Christmas celebration,
graduation, etc.
• Values. These are considered to be the core of every culture. These
are unconscious, neither discuss or observed, and can only be
inferred from the way people act and react to situations. Example:
hospitality, respect for elders etc.
The field of Anthropology offers another way by which a person can view
themselves. As self is formed or determined by the past and present
condition, by biological characteristics, the communication and language
use, and the lifestyle we choose to live.
THE SELF EMBEDDED IN THE CULTURE CLIFFORD GEERTZ
Clifford Geertz was an Anthropology Professor at the University of Chicago.
He studied different cultures and explored on the conception of the self in
his writings entitled, “The Impact of the Concept of Culture on the Concept
of Man” (1966) in his fieldwork at Java, Bali and Morrocco. The analysis of
Geertz (1966) in his cultural study about the description of self in Bali is that
the Balinese person is extremely concerned not to present anything
individual (distinguishing him or her from others) in social life but to enact
exclusively a culturally prescribed role or mask. In one instance, Geertz
(1973) gave an example of the stage fright that pervades persons in Bali
because they must not be publicly recognizable as individual selves and
actors points precisely to the fact that agency or an ability to act in one’s
own account is an integral ability of human beings—an ability which
continually threatens the culturally established norm of non individuality.
Note: WE MUST ALWAYS CONSIDER OUR ENVIRONMENT BEFORE WE
MAKE DECISIONS. THAT REFLECTS TO WHAT WE ARE AS A PERSON AND
WHO WE BECOME.
WEEK 4: THE SELF ACCORDING TO PSYCHOLOGY
PSYCHOLOGY is a scientific study of mental processes and human
behavior. It aims to describe, analyze, predict, control human behavior
in general. Self is an essential construct in psychology because it fulfills
the goals of the discipline in studying human and the reason for their
action. Many psychologists tried to define the origin of mental
processes and behavior but they all settle down with numerous theories
and assumptions. The following descriptions on the formation of self
were presented for you to have a clear picture on the psychological
perspective of self.
THE SELF AS COGNITIVE CONSTRUCTION
• The cognitive aspect of the self is known as self-concept. Self-concept
is defined as self-knowledge, a cognitive structure that includes beliefs
about personality traits, physical characteristics, abilities, values, goals,
and roles, as well as the knowledge that an individual exist as
individuals. As humans grow and develop, self-concept becomes
abstract and more complex.
• According to the psychologist Dr. Bruce A. Bracken in 1992, there are
six specific domains that are related to self-concept these are:
1) the social domain or the ability of the person to interact with others;
2) the competence domain or the ability to meet the basic needs;
3) the affect domain or the awareness of the emotional states;
4) the physical domain or the feelings about looks, health, physical
condition, and overall appearance;
5) academic domain or the success or failure in the school; and
6) family domain or how well one function within the family unit
WILLIAM JAMES AND THE ME-SELF AND I-SELF
• William James is a well-known figure in Psychology who is considered
as the founder of functionalism. He brought prominence to U.S.
psychology through the publication of The Principles of Psychology
(1890) that made him more influential than his contemporaries in the
field.
• James made a clear distinction between ways of approaching the self
– the knower (the pure or the I – Self) and the known (the objective or
the Me – Self). The function of the knower (I-Self) according to James
must be the agent of experience. While the known (Me-Self) have three
different but interrelated aspects of empirical self (known today as
selfconcept): the Me viewed as material, the Me viewed as social, and
the Me viewed as spiritual in nature.
• The material self is consists of everything an individual call uniquely as
their own, such as the body, family, home or style of dress. On the other
hand, social self refers to the recognition an individual get from other
people. Lastly, spiritual self refers to the individual inner or subjective
being.
REAL AND IDEAL SELF
Carl Rogers
• Carl Rogers is best known as the founder of client-centered therapy
and considered as one of the prominent humanistic or existential
theorists in personality. His therapy aimed to make the person achieve
balance between their self-concept (real-self) and ideal self. The real
self includes all those aspects of one's identity that are perceived in
awareness. These are the things that are known to oneself like the
attributes that an individual possesses. The ideal self is defined as one’s
view of self as one wishes to be. This contains all the aspirations or
wishes of an individual for themselves. • A wide gap between the ideal
self and the self-concept indicates incongruence and an unhealthy
personality. Psychologically healthy individuals perceive little
discrepancy between their self-concept and what they ideally would like
to be.
MULTIPLE VERSUS UNIFIED SELF
• According to Multiple Selves Theory, there are different aspects of the
self exist in an individual. From here, we can say that self is a whole
consist of parts, and these parts manifest themselves when need arise.
• Gregg Henriques proposed the Tripartite Model of Human
Consciousness, wherein he described that self is consist of three related,
but also separable domains these are the experimental self, private self,
and public self.
o The experiential self or the theater of consciousness is a domain of
self that defined as felt experience of being. This includes the felt
consistency of being across periods of time. It is tightly associated with
the memory. This is a part of self that disappears the moment that an
individual enter deep sleep and comes back when they wake up.
o The private self consciousness system or the narrator/interpreter is a
portion of self that verbally narrates what is happening and tries to
make sense of what is going on. The moment that you read this part,
there is somewhat like a “voice” speaking in your head trying to
understand what this concept is all about.
o Lastly, the public self or Persona, the domain of self that an individual
shows to the public, and this interacts on how others see an individual.
Henriques’ Tripartite Model attempts to capture the key domains of
consciousness, both within the self and between others.
• Unified being is essentially connected to consciousness, awareness,
and agency. A well-adjusted person is able to accept and understood
the success and failure that they experienced. They are those kinds of
person who continually adjust, adapt, evolve and survive as an
individual with integrated, unified, multiple selves.
TRUE VS. FALSE SELF
Donald Winnicott
• Donald Winnicott was a pediatrician in London who studied
Psychoanalysis with Melanie Klein, a renowned personality theorist and
one of the pioneers in object relations and development of personality
in childhood.
• According to him, false self is an alternative personality used to
protect an individual’s true identity or one’s ability to “hide” the real
self. The false self is activated to maintain social relationship as
anticipation of the demands of others. Compliance with the external
rules or following societal norms is a good example of this. false self can
be a healthy self if it is perceived as functional for the person and for
the society and being compliant without the feeling of betrayal of true
self. On the other hand, unhealthy false self happens when an individual
feels forced compliance in any situation.
• On the contrary, true self has a sense of integrity and connected
wholeness that is rooted in early infancy. The baby creates experiences
of a sense of reality and sense of life worth living. Winnicott claimed
that true self can be achieved by good parenting that is not necessarily a
perfect parenting.
THE SELF AS PRO ACTIVE AND AGENTIC
• Albert Bandura is a psychologist and Professor Emeritus of Social
Science in Psychology at Stanford University. He is known for his theory
of social learning by means of modeling. He is famous for his proposed
concept of selfefficacy.
• His personality theory, The Social Cognitive Theory asserts that a
person is both proactive and agentic, which means that we have the
capacity to exercise control over our life. This theory emphasized that
human beings are proactive, self-regulating, self-reflective, and
selforganizing.
• Self as proactive means an individual have control in any situation by
making things happen. They act as agent in doing or making themselves
as they are. Agency is a defining feature of modern selfhood. Agents
assume some degree of ownership and control over things, both
internally (I control my own thoughts) and externally (I make things
happen in the environment). The ability of an individual to pursue their
goals in life is an example of agentic approach to self.
• According to Bandura (1989), self-efficacy beliefs determine how
people feel, think, motivate themselves and behave. Such beliefs
produce these diverse effects through four major processes. They
include cognitive, motivational, affective and selection processes. A
strong sense of efficacy enhances human accomplishment and personal
well-being in many ways.
• In contrast Bandura (1989) said that people who doubt their
capabilities shy away from difficult tasks which they view as personal
threats. They have low aspirations and weak commitment to the goals
they choose to pursue. When faced with difficult tasks, they dwell on
their personal deficiencies, on the obstacles they will encounter, and all
kinds of adverse outcomes rather than concentrate on how to perform
successfully. They fall easy victim to stress and depression.
*NOTE: YOU MAY NOT ALWAYS WIN BATTLES, BUT YOU WILL SURELY
LEARN GREATNESS FROM EVERY PART OF IT
WEEK 5: SELF IN THE WESTERN AND ORIENTAL/EASTERN THOUGHT
Cultural differences and environment creates different perceptions of
the self. The most common distinction between people and cultures is
the Eastern-Western distinction. Eastern are known as the Asian
countries, and Western represents the Europe and Northern America. It
must be noted that countries who are geographically closer to each
other my share commonalities, but factors that may create differences
must be considered.
INDIVIDUALISTIC VS. COLLECTIVE SELF
Understanding individualism and collectivism could help in the
understanding of the cross-cultural values of a person. Not every culture
is at one end or the other of the spectrum, but the majority tend to
favor one over the other in everyday life.
INDIVIDUALISTIC SELF
• Individualism is not the idea that individuals should live like isolated
entity, nor the idea that they should never get or give help from others,
nor the idea that an individual never owes anything to other people.
• Individualism is the idea that the fundamental unit of the human
species that thinks, lives, and acts toward goals is the individual. This
means that we can form our own independent judgments, act on our
own thoughts, and disagree with others. Each adult individual can
consider what is in his own best interests. Each can act on his own
private motivations and values and can judge other people as good
people to form relationships with, or as bad people to be avoided. Each
can decide whether to cooperate with others to solve problems. Each
can choose to think for himself about the conclusions that the majority
of others in a group come to, accepting or rejecting their conclusions as
indicated by his own thought.
INDIVIDUALISTIC SELF
• Example of the description would include an individual identifies
primarily with self, with the needs of the individual being satisfied
before those of the group. Looking after and taking care of ourselves,
being self-sufficient, guarantees the well-being of the group.
Independence and self-reliance are greatly stressed and valued.
• In general, people tend to distance themselves psychologically and
emotionally from each other. One may choose to join groups, but group
membership is not essential to one’s identity or success. Individualist
characteristics are often associated with men and people in urban
settings. Western cultures are known to be individualistic.
COLLECTIVE SELF
• Collectivism is the idea that the fundamental unit of the human
species that thinks, lives, and acts toward goals is not the individual, but
some group. In different variants, this group may be the family, the city,
the economic class, the society, the nation, the race, or the whole
human species. The group exists as a super-organism separate from
individuals: A group may make its own decisions, acts apart from the
actions of individuals, and has its own interests apart from those of the
individuals that compose it.
• Under collectivism, individuals are analogous to ants in the protection
of their queen ant. The individual ant doesn’t have minds of their own,
and generally cannot disagree with the hive. Any ant that acts in a way
contrary to the interests of the group is a malfunctioning ant. If an ant
does not follow the certain pattern of how they protect their queen, it
will be entirely unable to support itself, find other ants that support
other queen ant and will surely die in short order. If the malfunctioning
ant stays within the group, it will be a threat to the line appropriate to
protecting the queen ant.
• Examples of the collectivist thinking is when our identity is in large
part, a function of our membership and role in a group, e.g., the family
or work team. The survival and success of the group ensures the well-
being of the individual, so that by considering the needs and feelings of
others, one protects oneself. Harmony and the interdependence of
group members are stressed and valued. Group members are relatively
close psychologically and emotionally, but distant toward non-group
members. Collectivist characteristics are often associated with women
and people in rural settings.
• Asian countries are known to be collective in nature.
THE SOCIAL CONSTRUCTION OF THE SELF IN THE WESTERN LIFE
• Self has been an area of interest by French and English philosophers,
and evident in the ideas of Greek philosophers like Socrates and Plato.
• Descartes in 17th century emphasized the self in his dictum “I think
therefore I am” which claims that cognitive basis of the person’s
thoughts is proof for the existence of the self.
• Kant believed that the self is capable of actions that entitles it to have
rights as an autonomous agent.
QUALITIES IMPARTED TO THE SUBJECTIVE SELF
• Here are some qualities imparted to the Western subjective self. It
sketches some features on subjectivity and ways of thinking of western
persons. This provides an impressionistic profile through the use of a
few strokes characterizing some ways of being and thinking of many
western persons.
o Western self as analytic. Since analytic and inductive modes of
thinking were prominent for person in western cultures, to see objects
as divisible combinations of yet smaller objects. Real things are not only
visualized but immaterial things like thoughts, ideas and memories
would be given emphasis.
o Western self as monotheistic. Monotheism can be known as the rigid
consequence of the doctrine of normal human being. It is like forcing
the concentration of supernatural capabilities.
o Western self as individualistic. The emphasis on individualism has
direct and indirect effects on both the presentation of self (in public
ways) and the experience of the self (in private awareness).
o Western Self as materialistic and rationalistic. The western
accentuation of rational, scientific approach to reality has tended to
define spiritual and immaterial phenomena as potentially superstitious
and dangerous. In any society, belief system is stratified and composed
of a hierarchy of interrelated, causal-explanatory models.
The Self as Embedded in Relationships and through Spiritual
Development in Confucian Thought
• Confucius was born in the period of the Zhou Dynasty in 551 BCE in
the state of Lu. He grew up poor although he was descended from
scholarly family.
• Confucius philosophy is known as humanistic social philosophy which
focusses on human beings and the society in general.
Confucianism is centered on ren which can be manifested through the li
(propriety), xiao (filiality), and yi (rightness). For Confucius, ren reflects
the person’s own understanding of humanity. It is found within each
person and can be realized in one’s personal life and relationship. Ren
guides human actions that makes life worth living which can be realized
through li, xiao, and yi.
CONFUCIANISM
• Li the propriety. Rules of propriety should be followed to guide human
actions. These rules are the customs, ceremonies, and traditions that
forms the basis of li. According to Confucius, “to master oneself and
return to propriety is humanity” (Koller, 2007). Self mastery involves self
development. Self mastery is characterized by self-control and the will
 to redirect impulses to change these to socially accepted expression of
human nature. Li conforms to the norms of humanity, thus one must
fulfill their duties and responsibilities in this five (5) relationships: father
and son, ruler and subject, older and younger brothers, husband and
wife, friend and friend.
• Xiao the filiality. This is the virtue of reverence and respect for the
family. Parents should be revered for the life they and given. Children
show respect to their parents by exerting efforts to take care of
themselves. Reverence for parents and family is further demonstrated
by bringing honor to the family, making something of himself and to
earn respect of other. If, however, the person is having difficulty giving
his family the honor that they deserved, he should just do this best to
not disgrace the family. Relationship that exist in the family reflect hoe
the person relates to others in the community. The family is the
reflection of the person. How the person interacts socially and the
values they emulate can all be traced back to their family environment.
This forms the bases of the person’s moral and social virtues (Koller,
2007).
• Yi the rightness. The right way of behaving which is unconditional and
absolute. Right is right, and what is not right is wrong. Actions must be
performed and carried out because they are right actions. Confucius
emphasized that actions should be performed because they are right
and not for selfish benefits that they provide.
NOTE: BOTH QUALITIES OF A TEAM PLAYER AND STANDING ALONE ARE
TOUGH DECISIONS IN LIFE. IT IS NOT BAD TO ADMIT THAT YOU CAN’T DO
THING ALL BY YOURSELF. HENCE, IT’S BRAVERY IF YOU STOOD ALONE FOR
SOMETHING.
WEEK 6: THE CONCEPT OF PHYSICAL SELF
● The understanding of the Physical self is shaped by biological and
environmental factors.
● The Biological blueprint involves Heredity and its important factors.
Heredity is defined as the transmission of traits from parents to offspring.
The traits are made up of specific information embedded within one’s gene.
Genotype refers to the specific information embedded within one’s genes;
not all genotypes translate to an observed physical characteristic.
Phenotype is the physical expression of a particular trait. Each individual
carries 23 pairs of chromosomes, which are threadlike bodies in the nucleus
of the cell and the storage unit of genes. The 23rd pair, also known as sex
chromosomes, determines the sex of an individual. Within each
chromosome is the deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA), which is a nucleic acid that
contains the genetic instructions specifying the biological development of
every individual.
● Maturation is known as the completion of growth of a genetic character
within an organism or the unfolding of an individual’s inherent traits or
potential.
● As you grow up, you are exposed to environmental influences that shape
your physical self, including those from your social networks, societal
expectations, and cultural practices that will lead a person to understand
themselves.
● According to Santrock (2014), self-understanding is the individual’s
cognitive representation of self which consists of substance and the content
of self-conceptions. Self-understanding can be described as simple to
perplex and involve a number of aspects of the self. It also changes
throughout the life span as the person grows older.
● As children advance in age, their interests change and with these come
changes in their bodies. The changes are rapid and before parents notice it,
they are no longer babies but teenagers. An obvious change in teenagers
are the changes in Physical Self. The Physical Self refers to the concrete
dimensions of the body, it is the tangible aspect of the person which can be
directly observed and examined.
● Physical Characteristics are the defining traits or features of a person’s
body. This is also the first thing people see when they look at another
person that could include facial features, hairstyle, clothes, or figure. They
encompass everything that one can describe about a person or group of
people, by just looking.
● Erik Erikson believed in the importance of the body from early
development because the physical as well as intellectual skills will somehow
serve as a basis to whether a person has achieved a sense of competence
and be able to manage and face the demands of life complexities. William
James, on the other hand, considered the body as the initial source of
sensation and necessary for origin and maintenance of personality.
● A period of rapid physical changes is in Puberty. According to Santrock
(2016), puberty is not the same as adolescence because puberty ends prior
to the end of the adolescent period. But the recognized puberty as the most
essential marker of the beginning of adolescence. The changes experienced
during puberty are different from girls and boys. Girls reach puberty earlier
than boys and experience menarche which is her first menstrual flow. Boys,
two or three years later, experience spermarche or semenarche which is his
first ejaculation or nocturnal emission (wet dreams).
● Puberty is a brain neuroendocrine process occurring primarily in early
adolescence that triggers the rapid physical changes. The Pituitary gland is
the master endocrine gland that controls growth and regulates functions of
all the other endocrine glands including gonads. The chemical substances
secreted by the gonads promotes physical changes such as height, widening
of the hips and increase in fatty tissues in the breast of girls and responsible
for boy’s growth of facial and body hair, muscles, and changes in voice.
THE SELF AS IMPACTED BY THE BODY
● Different levels of connectedness characterize the relationship between
self and body. These connectedness may be in a positive or negative ways,
or in helpful or destructive ways. Nevertheless, it is between individuals as
well as across situations. The potential of the physical body to be regarded
as an object introduces the possibility of trait and state body as well as the
state of the self.
PERSPECTIVES IN UNDERSTANDING PHYSICAL SELF
1. Psychodynamic Perspective
Freud’s theory of the ego was primarily known as body ego, that
solidifies the importance of body in understanding the self. The body and its
evolving mental representations form the basis of a sense of self (Krueger,
2002). The development of a body self mainly has three stages: early
psychic experience of the body in which sensations like tactile like in infants
enable babies to discriminate bodies from their surroundings, which
contribute to the sense of self. Next is defining body surface boundaries
which is the stage of being awareness of body image in contrast to surface
boundaries. Last stage is the distinguishing of the body’s internal states
which is the stage of having cohesion of the body. In these images and
experiences of the body and the body, surfaces can be organized into
holistic understanding of the body.
2. Cognitive-Behavioral Perspective
Focuses on perceptual, cognitive, and affective aspects which is a
multidimensional experience that can aid a more precise understanding of
the body . The cognitive-behavioral perspective makes multiple distinctions
to facilitate precise conceptual and operational definitions of body-image
related variables. The cognitive behavioral model of body image recognizes
multiple determinants of body image with a distinction between those
determinants that are historical versus those determinants that are
proximal or concurrent that predispose or influence how people come to
think, feel, and act in relation to their body. Theory suggests that Physical
body both has objective and subjective components. Individual’s
conception and acknowledgment of their physical bodies substantiate their
assessment of the sense of totality which is an integral to his/her experience
of the physical world. Moreover, one’s experience of one’s physical body
may be a key predictor of a variety of behaviors.
3. Feminist Perspective
Relies on the social construction in which there is a possibility of
individuals to experience their bodies in distorted ways (especially, women).
women’s dissatisfaction with their bodies as a systematic social
phenomenon rather than a result of individual pathology (McKinley, 2002).
Specifically, the duality established between the mind and body in Western
societies and the pairing of men with the “mind” and women with the
“body” contribute to women experiencing their bodies differently than
men.
FACTORS THAT AFFECT PHYSICAL SELF
1. PERSONAL FACTORS
a. Introspection and Self-reflection.
Looking inward is one of the simplest ways to achieve self-knowledge.
According to Hewstone, et al., (2015) Introspection is the process is the
process by which one observes and examines one’s internal state (mental
and emotional) after behaving in a certain way.
b. Self-Perception Theory.
As stated by Hewstone and Bem (2015) Self-perception theory explains that
since one’s internal state is difficult to interpret, people can infer their inner
states by observing their own behavior – as if they are an outside observer.
Physical perception includes all aspects of a person’s perception of his
physical self.
c. Self-concept.
According to Hewstone, et al., (2015), self-concept is a cognitive
representation of self-knowledge which includes the sum total of all beliefs
that people have about themselves. It is a collection of all individual
experience involving one’s characteristics, social roles, values, goals and
fears. Physical concept is the individual’s perception or description of his
physical self, including his physical appearance.
d. Personal Identity.
This is the concept a person has about himself that develops over the
years. This includes aspects of his life that he was born into like family,
nationality, gender, physical traits as well as the choices he makes, such as
what he does for living, who his friends are and what he believes in.
2. SOCIAL FACTORS
a. Attachment Process and Social Appraisal. According to Bowlby (1969),
people learn about their value and lovability when they experience how
their mothers or caregivers care for them and respond to their needs.
b. Maintaining, Regulating and expanding the self in interpersonal
relationships .
c. The Looking-glass Self Theory. Charles Horton Cooley stated that a
person’s self grows out of society’s interpersonal interactions and the
perception of others. The view of oneself comes from a compilation of
personal qualities and impressions of how others perceive the individual.
Therefore, in a looking-glass self, the self-image is shaped and reflected
from the social world. Other people’s reactions would serve as a mirror in
which people see themselves particularly the way in which they are
perceived and judged by others.
d. Social Comparison. The work of Leon Festinger in 1954 introduced
another way of understanding oneself by comparing one’s traits, abilities, or
opinions to that of others. Social Comparison is a process of comparing
oneself with others in order to evaluate one’s own abilities and opinions.
There are two types of social comparison:
● Upward social comparison happens when an individual compares
themselves to others who are better than them.
● Downward social comparison happens when an individual compares
themselves to someone who is in a worse situation than they are in
especially when they are feeling low.
e. Social Identity Theory (Collective Identity). This was formulated by tajfel
and Turner 1973 which provides a framework about how people achieve
understanding about themselves by being a member of their group. This
idea assumes that as a member of the group they will not be discriminated
against by an out-group. It will enhance their self-esteem because they feel
secured with the shield of group membership where they belong. Social
groups include gender, ethnicity, religion, profession, political membership
and business organizations.
NOTE: BE YOURSELF. SHOW WHO YOU REALLY ARE BY NATURALLY GIVING
YOURSELF TO ALL YOUR ENCOUNTER IN LIFE, OR ELSE YOU’LL REGRET
EVERY MOMENT.
WEEK 7: THE PHYSICAL SELF: BODY IMAGE AND SELF ESTEEM
Understanding the self includes understanding the surroundings and what
influences our outlook in our beauty. Culture may seem to have an effect
also on how people view themselves and how they construct their images
and boost their self-esteem. Physical aspect of the self may also provide
understanding and the importance of beauty.
THE IMPACT OF CULTURE ON BODY AND SELF ESTEEM: THE IMPORTANCE
OF BEAUTY
● After going through all the concepts and theories that may affect the
person’s view of his physical self, there’s another factor that strongly
impacts this perception, his cultural milieu. Culture is defined as a social
system that is characterized by the shared meanings that are attributed to
people and events by its members.
● The makeup of a body is a collection of cells, combined into organs, which
themselves operate in systems. In humans, that body typically takes on a
form with two arms, two legs, a torso, and a head. But the question is, is
there such a thing as a universal decontextualized body? The answer is no.
bodies are shaped in countless ways by culture, by society, and by the
experiences that are shared with a social and cultural context. Since it is also
shaped by history, there are always changing ideas about it. It can be
assumed that the body is contingent – meaning molded by factors outside
the body, and internalized into the physical being itself.
● A significant aspect of culture that strongly influences adolescents who
are in a face-to-face encounter with their physical selves is how their culture
conceptualizes beauty. Young adolescents are forced to adhere to society’s
definition of beauty lest they be labelled ugly or “pangit” in local dialect.
● This is what is called the social constructionist approach to understanding
the physical self. This suggests that beauty, weight, sexuality, or race do not
simply result from the collection of genes one inherited from one’s parents.
Instead, these bodily features only take on the meaning that they have. A
person may have a certain set of facial features, or weigh a certain number
of pounds and attractiveness will come from the time and place in which
they live.
● This is what is called the social constructionist approach to understanding
the physical self. This suggests that beauty, weight, sexuality, or race do not
simply result from the collection of genes one inherited from one’s parents.
Instead, these bodily features only take on the meaning that they have. A
person may have a certain set of facial features, or weigh a certain number
of pounds and attractiveness will come from the time and place in which
they live.
● These meanings occur within a set of culturally constructed power
relations which suggest that, for example, women must be attractive in
order to be valuable. But this process does not just happen after we enter
culture. How those features will be interpreted will then be shaped by
culture, but the features themselves will already be present. Meaning what
occurs is that once something comes to take on cultural meaning, it
becomes naturalized: people think that things are the way that they are
because they have always been that way. These meanings have been
created, and that they can change, and that there’s nothing natural at all.
Even something that seems to be rooted in the body as disability is partially
socially constructed.
● This differs from what might be called an essentialist view of the body.
Essentialism means that bodies are defined entirely by their biological
make-up – bones, muscles, hormones, and the like. Much of human
behavior can also be reduced to many of those biological functions, it is
referred to by social scientists call a reductionist idea that complex human
behaviors can be reduced to something as simple as, for example,
hormones. This simply means that we cannot understand the biological
organism without first understanding social, cultural, and historical context
in which it exists
● Another example of how norms of masculinity and femininity shape not
just behavior, but public perceptions are those people who did activities of
the other gender. They were praised at the same time and criticized just by
doing what is not expected to their gender. With this, the idea that the body
is marked with culture and society is the term social skin to refer to the
ways in which social categories become inscribed onto physical body.
Through the social skin, the body becomes the symbolic stage on which
dramas of society are enacted. This idea is from the anthropologist Terence
Turner (1980).
● Another anthropologist, Mary Douglas (1973) said that the body is the
most natural symbol for and medium of classification, and thus rules
associated with controlling the body and its processes emerge as a powerful
means of social control. She is the one who centralized the analysis of the
body focused on traditional societies. Therefore, the physical body is a
threat to the social body. Further, she finds that societies with strict social
limits would regard boundaries with caution including bodily boundaries.
In sociology, how the body operates as a focus and symbol has been
understood as well. In the fourteenth to the seventeenth centuries, the
civilization process includes the beginning of Europeans to internalize many
of the external forms of social control; however, shame and embarrassment
took place, controlling their behaviors from within. This control of behavior
from within was made as theory by Erving Goffman (1982) which is called
the Dramaturgical theory. The theory suggests that we are all actors on a
stage, and much of what we do is engage in impression management during
which we must monitor and adjust our own behavior in accordance with
how people want others to perceive them. A woman is what she wears –
this statement is from the work of Janes Gaines on fashion (1990) which
implies that women are often defined completely by their clothing –. In this
study, it suggests that people have body images. Body image can be
described as a representation of how individuals think and feel about their
own physical attributes. Body image is both internal (personal) and external
(society).
● This includes (1) how a person perceives his body, (2) how a person feels
about their physical appearance, (3) how a person thinks and talks to
themselves about their bodies, and (4) a sense of how other people view
their bodies. Though sometimes how a person looks has possibly never held
as much as societal importance or reflected so significantly on our perceived
self-worth.
● Body image is the mental representation one creates, but it may or may
not bear close relation to how others actually see you. Body image is subject
to all kinds of distortion from internal elements like our emotions, moods,
early experiences, attitudes of our parents, and much more. The mass
media has increasingly become a platform that reinforce cultural beliefs and
projects strong views on how we should look, that we as individuals often
unknowingly validate. With such strong societal scrutiny, it is easy to see
how the focus is on negative body image. Nevertheless, it strongly
influences behavior. Preoccupation with and distortions of body image are
widespread among American women (and to a lesser extent, among males),
but they are driving forces in eating disorders, feeding severe anxiety than
can be assuaged only by dieting.
● Having a sense of understanding that healthy attractive bodies come in
many shapes and sizes, and that physical appearance says very little about
the character or value of a person, a person can have a positive body image.
How to get to this point depends on the acceptance and esteem that a
person has for himself. This can be related to the meaning of self-esteem. In
which, it is related to how much a person likes himself, how they recognize
or appreciate their individual character, qualities, skills, and
accomplishments. Like body image, self-esteem can also be based on how a
person thinks other people look at them as a person.
● Self-esteem is the overall evaluation that a person has of himself which
can be positive or negative, high or low. Self esteem is a measure of the
person’s self-worth based on some personal or social standard. It is a global
evaluative dimension of the self.
● Self-esteem is how valuable to himself and others he person perceives These misconceptions strongly affect how the young form their body image
himself to be. Needless to say, people with positive or high self-esteem are and its influence on their self-esteem. Knowing that adolescence is the
happier, have a sense of accomplishment and purpose and relate well with period where self-identity is formed, it is important for adults in the
others. The impact of culture on body image and self-esteem has been very environment to listen to these young people and provide proper guidance
crucial for sometimes people depend on this as when they define beautiful. and support.
It has been assumed that preferences for beauty are gradually learned
through cultural transmission and exposure to contemporary media. ● Yes, beauty is important. But being beautiful still depends how a person
defines beauty and the standards he sets to meet this definition. It is a big
● Charles Darwin in 1871 became one of the first persons, if not the first, to mistake to base beauty on some else’s standard. People are different and
think and write extensively about human beauty from a biological point of each one is uniquely beautiful.
view, concluding that there is no universal standard of beauty with respect
to the human body and attempts to determine underlying dimensions of NOTE: THE LAST PERSON TO UNDERSTAND ALL YOUR SUCCESS AND
FAILURES IS YOURSELF NO MATTER HOW LONG YOUR JOURNEY WILL BE.
beauty are futile. However, in 1985, contrary to Darwin’s beliefs, Samuels
and Ewy showed that both 3-month-old and 6-month-old infants looked LOVE YOURSELF! APPRECIATE YOUR BEAUTY
longer at male and female faces previously rated as attractive by adults,
suggesting that infants have the cognitive ability to discriminate
attractiveness. These findings have been further supported, and it has even
been shown that young infants show preferences for attractive faces,
measured by looking time, that transcends gender, race, and age. Problems
and other issues will arise when a person’s definition of body image is
different from the understanding of beauty.

● Young people put so much pressure on themselves to attain unrealistic

ideals to the point of risking mental and physical health is unacceptable. The
following are some aspects in culture that may have led to some
misconceptions:

1. Society’s ideal for the perfect physical form for men and women.

2. Images of perfection brought by all types of media i.e print, television,

film, and internet.

3. Since a standard has been set by society and reinforced by the media, any
characteristic that does not conform to the standard is labelled as ugly.
Body diversity in size and structure due to genetic heritability is not
tolerated.