Wireless Communication and

Computing [ICT 3272]

SIXTH SEMESTER B.TECH COMPUTER AND COMMUNICATION
ENGINEERING
MARCH 04, 2022
Link Margin
The receiver power
where
Pt : Transmitted Power,
Gt and Gr : Transmitting & Receiving antenna gain
Lp : path loss between the Tx and Rx

Thermal Noise: N = kTBw Noise Spectral Density N0 = N / Bw =kT

k : Boltzmann’s constant (1.38 x 10 -23 W/Kelvin-Hz)
T : temperature in Kelvin
Bw : receiver bandwidth
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Link Margin
• Noise Figure

• Link Margin

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Link Margin
• in dB

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Given a flat rural environment with a path loss of 140 dB, a
frequency of 900 MHz, 8 dB transmit antenna gain and 0 dB
receive antenna gain, data rate of 9.6 kbps, 12 dB in antenna
feed line loss, 20 dB in other losses, a fade margin of 8 dB, a
required Eb /N0 of 10 dB, receiver amplifier gain of 24 dB,
noise figure total of 6 dB, and a noise temperature of 290 K.
find the total transmit power required of the transmitter in
watts for a link margin of 8 dB

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Example

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Modulation Techniques

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Amplitude Shift Keying
• encode 0/1 by different carrier amplitudes
• usually have one amplitude zero
• susceptible to sudden gain changes
• inefficient
• used for
• up to 1200bps on voice grade lines
• very high speeds over optical fiber

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Binary Frequency Shift Keying
• most common is binary FSK (BFSK)
• two binary values represented by two
different frequencies (near carrier)
• less susceptible to error than ASK
• used for
• up to 1200bps on voice grade lines
• high frequency radio
• even higher frequency on LANs using co-ax

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 Multiple FSK (MFSK)
• each signalling element represents
more than one bit
• more than two frequencies used
• more bandwidth efficient
• more prone to error

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Multiple FSK (MFSK)

Source: Data and Computer communication, William Stallings, Ed8

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Multiple FSK (MFSK)

Source: Data and Computer communication, William Stallings, Ed8

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Phase Shift Keying
• phase of carrier signal is shifted to represent data
• binary PSK
• two phases represent two binary digits
• differential PSK
• phase shifted relative to previous transmission rather than
some reference signal

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Quadrature PSK
• get more efficient use if each signal element
represents more than one bit
• eg. shifts of /2 (90o)
• each element represents two bits
• split input data stream in two & modulate onto carrier &
phase shifted carrier
• can use 8 phase angles & more than one amplitude
• 9600bps modem uses 12 angles, four of which have two
amplitudes

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QPSK and OQPSK Modulators

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Performance of Digital to Analog Modulation
Schemes
• bandwidth
• ASK/PSK bandwidth directly relates to bit rate
• multilevel PSK gives significant improvements
• in presence of noise:
• bit error rate of PSK and QPSK are about 3dB superior to ASK and FSK
• for MFSK & MPSK have tradeoff between bandwidth efficiency and error
performance

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Quadrature Amplitude Modulation
• QAM used on asymmetric digital subscriber line (ADSL) and some
wireless
• combination of ASK and PSK
• logical extension of QPSK
• send two different signals simultaneously on same carrier frequency
• use two copies of carrier, one shifted 90°
• each carrier is ASK modulated
• two independent signals over same medium
• demodulate and combine for original binary output

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QAM Modulator

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QAM Variants
• two level ASK
• each of two streams in one of two states
• four state system
• essentially QPSK
• four level ASK
• combined stream in one of 16 states
• have 64 and 256 state systems
• improved data rate for given bandwidth
• but increased potential error rate

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Spread Spectrum
• important encoding method for wireless communications
• analog & digital data with analog signal
• spreads data over wide bandwidth
• makes jamming and interception harder
• two approaches, both in use:
• Frequency Hopping
• Direct Sequence
General Model of Spread Spectrum System
Spread Spectrum Advantages
• immunity from noise and multipath distortion
• can hide / encrypt signals
• several users can share same higher bandwidth with little
interference
• CDM/CDMA Mobile telephones
Pseudorandom Numbers
• generated by a deterministic algorithm
• not actually random
• but if algorithm good, results pass reasonable tests of randomness
• starting from an initial seed
• need to know algorithm and seed to predict sequence
• hence only receiver can decode signal
Frequency Hopping Spread Spectrum (FHSS)
• signal is broadcast over seemingly random series of frequencies
• receiver hops between frequencies in sync with transmitter
• eavesdroppers hear unintelligible blips
• jamming on one frequency affects only a few bits
Frequency Hopping Example
FHSS (Transmitter)
Frequency Hopping Spread Spectrum System
(Receiver)
Slow and Fast FHSS
• commonly use multiple FSK (MFSK)
• have frequency shifted every Tc seconds
• duration of signal element is Ts seconds
• Slow FHSS has Tc  Ts
• Fast FHSS has Tc < Ts
• FHSS quite resistant to noise or jamming
• with fast FHSS giving better performance
Slow MFSK FHSS
Slow MFSK FHSS
M=4
• Four different frequencies are used to encode the data input 2 bits at a time.
Each signal element is a discrete frequency tone.
The total MFSK bandwidth is Wd = Mfd.
Used an FHSS scheme with k = 2.
• there are 4 = 2k different channels, each of width Wd.
The total FHSS bandwidth is Ws = 2kWd.
Every 2 bits of the PN sequence are used to select one of the four channels.
• Channel is held for a duration of two signal elements, or four bits (Tc = 2Ts = 4T).

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Fast MFSK FHSS
Direct Sequence Spread Spectrum (DSSS)
• each bit is represented by multiple bits using a spreading code
• this spreads signal across a wider frequency band
• has performance similar to FHSS
Direct Sequence Spread Spectrum Example
Direct Sequence Spread Spectrum System
DSSS Example Using BPSK
Approximate
Spectrum of
DSSS Signal
Code Division Multiple Access (CDMA)
• It is a multiplexing technique used with spread spectrum

Working:
• Assume given a data signal rate D: bit data rate or bits per second
• Uses fixed chipping code specific to each user called the user’s code, or
chipping code
• Break each bit in signal to k chips according to a fixed chipping code
specific to each user
• Results in a new channel with chip data rate kD chips per second
• Multiple channels can be superimposed
CDMA Example : Message 1101 Encoded
CDMA for DSSS
Non-Coherent Detection in Fading Channel
• simple detection problem in a fading channel using non-coherent
detection using Maximum Likelihood
• Assume: Flat fading model
• The output of Non-coherent detection
where

• Also, let us not specify the dependence between fading coefficients

h[m] at different discrete times m.
• In addition, not making any assumption on the prior knowledge the
receiver might have about h[m].
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Non-Coherent Detection in Fading Channel

• Under any signal modelling scheme such as BPSK, MPSK, MFSK, QAM,
it can be shown that error probability or bit error probability can be
represented by

In general, to achieve Pe = 10−3 required SNR  500 or (27 dB)

i.e. Stupendous amounts of power would be required for more reliable
communication
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Coherent detection
Why is the performance of the non-coherent maximum likelihood (ML) receiver on a fading
channel so bad?
To Compare with AWGN channel without fading

AWGN Channel

For BPSK: , where

to achieve Pe = 10−3 required SNR  7 dB

the detection error probability decays exponentially in SNR in the AWGN channel while it
decays only inversely with the SNR in the fading channel.
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Non-Coherent Vs Coherent
Compared to detection in the AWGN channel, the detection problem in
the Non-coherent detection has two differences:
• the channel gains h[m] are random and
• the receiver is assumed not to know them.

Solution:
• track the channel gains at the receiver (so that they are known at the
receiver) [but still random].
• Pilot or training sequences
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Detection of BPSK
Knowing channel gains

For BPSK
Error probability:

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Performance of Coherent Vs non-Coherent
(AWGN vs Rayleigh fading channel)

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Poor performance in Fading Channel
Causes:
• The channel gain is random and there is a significant probability that
the channel is in a “deep fade”.
• Instantaneous receiver SNR is =

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Principle of Diversity
Can you tolerate if your call disconnects when you are discussing
important matter on call while you travel?
• Deep fade : strong destructive interference that results in temporary
failure of communication due to severe drop in SNR.
• This happens in Single link between TX and RX.
WHAT DO WE DO?
AN ALTERNATE SOLUTION IS DIVERSITY
• Provide multiple link such that receiver gets redundant copy of same
signal and selects the best signal with greater power.
• Achieved at higher cost – needs more antenna
• Ensure information reaches receiver on statistically independent
channels
Modification in the receiver system
 If one radio path undergoes a deep fade another
independent path may have a strong signal.
Types OF DIVERSITY
Diversity

Micro Macro
Diversity Diversity

Spatial Time Polarization Angular Frequency

diversity diversity diversity diversity diversity
MACRO-DIVERSITY
• Prevents Large Scale fading.

• Large Scale fading is caused by shadowing due to variation in both the

terrain profile and the nature of the surroundings.

• This fading is prevented by selecting an antenna which is not shadowed

when others are, this allows increase in the signal‐to‐noise ratio.
• Simulcast is used to implement this. In simulcast, the same signal is
transmitted simultaneously from different BSs. In cellular applications
the two BSs should be synchronized, and transmit the signals intended
for a specific user in such a way that the two waves arrive at the RX
almost simultaneously.
MICRO - DIVERSITY
• Prevents Small Scale fading.

• Small Scale fading is caused by multiple reflections from the

surroundings. It is characterized by deep and rapid amplitude
fluctuations which occur as the mobile moves over distances of a few
wavelength.

• This fading is prevented by selecting an antenna which gives a strong

signal that mitigates this small signal fading effect.
Spatial DIVERSITY
• A method of transmission (transmit diversity)
or reception (reception diversity), or both, in
which the effects of fading are minimized by
the simultaneous use of two or more
physically separated antennas, ideally
separated by a distance to ensure
independent fading.
• Ex: Site based Diversity where receiving
antennas are located at different sites.
(vehicle mounted and hand held radios
communicate with base station)
TIME DIVERSITY

• The signals representing the

same information are sent over
the same channel at different
times with significant time
difference between different
transmissions.
FREQUENCY DIVERSITY

• The same information signal is

transmitted and received
simultaneously on two or
more independent fading
carrier frequencies.
Polarization Diversity
 Polarization diversity
uses antennas of
different polarizations
i.e. horizontal and
vertical.
 The antennas take
advantage of the
multipath propagation
characteristics to receive
separate uncorrelated
signals
ANGLE DIVERSITY
• Involves multiple antennas with different antenna patterns (
Received Signal arrives at different paths each with different
angle of arrival).