Stephen Bailey - Academic Writing For University Students-Routledge (2021)

Praise for Stephen Bailey’s Academic Writing: A Handbook for International Students, 5th edition
(2018)
‘Academic Writing is organized in a way that makes sense for teaching writing skills. The content
covers a diverse body of samples from various fields, so it works wonderfully for my undergrad
or graduate students. I especially like the section on common language errors, which includes
extra practice for students; there is a good balance between writing instruction and discrete skills
practice. It isn’t easy to find a text that addresses plagiarism in a way that is clear for students to
understand, and this text does the job!’
Ixchell Reyes, University of Southern California, USA
‘This book is an excellent example of inclusive teaching. It is aimed primarily at international stu-
dents, but reaches further, as it is equally useful for British students and students who come from
a more practice-focused background. It is also a strong companion to books on research methods
that need a solid basis for academic skills. The clear structure, accessible content, and well thought
through activities in this book all give students the confidence to write effective academic work
without the fear of breaking rules of plagiarism or academic malpractice. This is the book I recom-
mend to all my students at the beginning of each academic year, independent of the subject I teach
and the composition of my cohort.’
Maria Lonsdale, University of Leeds, UK
‘Academic Writing is simply organised, allowing ease of access for beginner writers and specifi-
cally introducing them to the language needed to enter the conversation on academic writing.’
Djuddah Leijen, University of Tartu, Estonia
‘The 5th edition of Academic Writing includes many new features which are extremely useful for
all university students who are inexperienced in writing for academic purposes. The book pro-
vides both information on important aspects of academic writing and practice exercises which all
students will find invaluable. It is a useful book for anyone who is new to writing for academic
purposes, regardless of her level of proficiency in English.’
Radhika Jaidev, Singapore Institute of Technology, Singapore
‘An excellent book that, although aimed at international students, would also benefit UK students
who come from a more practice-focused background. Study skills tutors can use it to strengthen
particular issues or areas of study that students might be struggling with.’
Jan Beechey, Dyslexia Review
Academic Writing for University
Students
Academic Writing for University Students is designed to help all students succeed in writing essays,
reports and other papers for coursework and exams effectively. Academic writing is often the big-
gest challenge facing college and university students, but this book provides all the tools needed to
master the necessary skills.
The book is divided into four parts to help teachers and students easily find the help they need,
both in the classroom and for self-study:
● The Writing Process: From finding suitable sources, through to editing and proofreading
● Writing Types: Practice with common assignments such as reports and cause–effect essays
● Writing Tools: Skills such as making comparisons, definitions, punctuation and style
● Lexis: Academic vocabulary, using synonyms, nouns, adjectives, verbs and adverbs
This key handbook breaks down and practises every stage of essay writing. All units are fully
cross-referenced, and a complete set of answers to the practice exercises is included. In addition,
the companion website hosts comprehensive teaching notes as well as more challenging exercises,
revision material and links to other sources.
Designed for self-study as well as classroom use, this book uses authentic academic texts from
a range of sources and provides models for common writing tasks such as case studies, while
progress checks are included for each part to enable students to assess their learning. Academic
Writing for University Students is an invaluable guide to all aspects of academic writing in English.
Stephen Bailey taught English for Academic Purposes at the University of Nottingham in the
UK. Previously he taught in Barcelona, Tokyo, Johor Bahru and Prague. His other books include
Academic Writing: A Handbook for International Students, Academic Writing for International
Students of Business and Economics and The Essentials of Academic Writing for International
Students, all published by Routledge.
Academic Writing for
University Students
Stephen Bailey
First published 2022
by Routledge
2 Park Square, Milton Park, Abingdon, Oxon OX14 4RN
and by Routledge
605 Third Avenue, New York, NY 10158
Routledge is an imprint of the Taylor & Francis Group, an informa business
© 2022 Stephen Bailey
The right of Stephen Bailey to be identified as author of this work has been
asserted by him in accordance with sections 77 and 78 of the Copyright,
Designs and Patents Act 1988.
All rights reserved. No part of this book may be reprinted or reproduced or

utilised in any form or by any electronic, mechanical, or other means, now
known or hereafter invented, including photocopying and recording, or in
any information storage or retrieval system, without permission in writing
from the publishers.
Trademark notice: Product or corporate names may be trademarks or

registered trademarks, and are used only for identification and explanation
without intent to infringe.
British Library Cataloguing-in-Publication Data

A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library
Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data

Names: Bailey, Stephen, 1947- author.
Title: Academic writing for university students/Stephen Bailey.
Description: Abingdon, Oxon; New York, NY: Routledge, 2022. |
Includes index. |
Identifiers: LCCN 2021026203 (print) | LCCN 2021026204 (ebook) |
ISBN 9780367445386 (hardback) | ISBN 9780367445393 (paperback) |
ISBN 9781003010210 (ebook)
Subjects: LCSH: Academic writing–Handbooks, manuals, etc. |
Report writing–Handbooks, manuals, etc. |
English language–Rhetoric–Problems, exercises, etc.
Classification: LCC LB2369 .B236 2022 (print) | LCC LB2369 (ebook) |
DDC 808.02–dc23
LC record available at https://lccn.loc.gov/2021026203
LC ebook record available at https://lccn.loc.gov/2021026204
ISBN: 978-0-367-44538-6
ISBN: 978-0-367-44539-3
ISBN: 978-1-003-01021-0
DOI: 10.4324/9781003010210
Typeset in Times New Roman

by Deanta Global Publishing Services, Chennai, India
Access the companion website: www.routledge.com/cw/bailey
Contents
Acknowledgements xvii
Introduction for Tutors and Lecturers xviii
Introduction for Students xxi
Academic Writing Quiz xxiv
Part 1
The Writing Process 1
1.1 Writing Basics 3

1 The purposes of academic writing 3
2 How is academic writing different from other writing genres? 4
3 Common types of academic writing 4
4 The format of written assignments 5
5 Common text features 7
6 Writing clear sentences 7
7 Writing in paragraphs 9
8 Practice 10
1.2 Understanding Essay Questions and the Planning Process 11

1 The planning process 11
2 Analysing essay questions 12
3 Practice: key words 13
4 Evaluation criteria 13
5 Brainstorming 15
6 Essay length 15
7 Outlines 16
8 Practice 17
x Contents
1.3 Reading: Finding Suitable Sources 19

1 Types of text 19
2 Academic resources 19
3 Assessing texts 20
4 Using reading lists 22
5 Searching library catalogues 23
6 Using library websites to search journals and bibliographic databases 25
7 Reading abstracts 26
8 Practice: varying search terms 27
9 Assessing text features 27
10 Reading strategies 28
11 Practice 29
1.4 Reading: Developing Critical Approaches 31

1 Critical thinking 31
2 Fact and opinion 31
3 Assessing internet sources critically 33
4 Domain name suffxes 34
5 Practice A 34
6 Practice B 36
1.5 Finding Key Points and Note-making 39

1 Why make notes? 39
2 Finding key points 39
3 Finding relevant points 40
4 Practice A 41
5 Effective note-making 43
6 Practice B 43
7 Practice C 44
1.6 Avoiding Plagiarism 46

1 Acknowledging sources 46
2 What is plagiarism? 47
3 Basic plagiarism 48
4 Degrees of plagiarism 48
5 Avoiding plagiarism by summarising and paraphrasing 49
6 Avoiding plagiarism by developing good study habits 51
7 Practice A 51
8 Practice B 52
9 Research 52
Progress Check A 53
Contents xi
1.7 References and Quotations 57

1 Why give references? 57
2 Citations and references 58
3 Reference verbs 58
4 Practice A 59
5 Referencing systems 60
6 Using quotations 61
7 Practice B 62
8 Abbreviations in citations 63
9 Secondary references 64
10 Internet references 64
11 Organising the list of references 64
1.8 Summarising and Paraphrasing 67

1 What makes a good summary? 67
2 Stages of summarising 68
3 Practice A 68
4 Practice B 69
5 Practice C 70
6 Paraphrasing 71
7 Practice D 72
8 Techniques for paraphrasing 72
9 Practice E 73
10 Practice F 75
1.9 Contrasting Sources 76

1 Referring to sources 76
2 Practice A 77
3 Contrasting sources 77
4 Balancing different sources 80
5 Practice B 81
1.10 Organising Paragraphs 83

1 Paragraph structure 83
2 Practice A 84
3 Practice B 85
4 Practice C 85
5 Introducing paragraphs and linking them together 86
6 Practice D 87
7 Practice E 88
xii Contents
1.11 Introductions and Conclusions 89

1 Introduction components 89
2 Introduction structure 90
3 Opening sentences 92
4 Conclusions 93
5 Conclusion structure 94
6 Practice 94
1.12 Editing and Proofreading 95

1 Editing 95
2 Practice A 96
3 Practice B 97
4 Proofreading 97
5 Practice C 97
6 Practice D 98
7 Practice E 99
8 Practice F 99
9 Summary 100
Progress Check B 101
Part 2
Writing Types 103
2.1 Argument and Discussion 105

1 Discussion vocabulary 105
2 Organisation 106
3 Practice A 107
4 The language of discussion 107
5 Argument and counter-argument 108
6 Practice B 108
7 Providing evidence 109
8 Practice C 110
9 Practice D 110
2.2 Cause and Effect 111

1 Causes and effects 111
2 The language of cause and effect 112
3 Practice A 113
4 Practice B 114
5 Practice C 114
6 Practice D 115
Contents xiii
2.3 Problems and Solutions 116

1 Vocabulary 116
2 Paragraph structure 117
3 Alternative structure 117
4 Practice A 118
5 Practice B 118
6 Practice C 119
7 Practice D 119
2.4 Case Studies 120

1 Using case studies 120
2 Planning a case study 121
3 Background research 121
4 Model case study 122
2.5 Literature Reviews 125

1 What is a literature review? 125
2 Examples of literature reviews 126
3 Writing a literature review 127
4 Model literature review 127
2.6 Writing Longer Papers 130

1 Introduction 130
2 Planning your work 130
3 Formatting the paper 132
2.7 Reports 134

1 Essays and reports 134
2 Writing reports 134
3 Scientifc reports 136
4 Practice 137
2.8 Reflective Writing 141

1 The purpose of refective writing 141
2 Example 142
3 Structure 143
4 Style 143
5 Practice A 144
6 Practice B 144
Progress Check C 145

xiv Contents
Part 3
Writing Tools 149
3.1 Cohesion 151
1 Reference words 151
2 Practice A 152
3 Preventing confusion 152
4 Practice B 153
5 Implied language 153
6 Practice C 154
7 Practice D 154
8 Practice E 154
3.2 Comparison 156

1 Comparison structures 156
2 Practice A 157
3 Using superlatives (e.g. the largest/ smallest) 158
4 Practice B 158
5 Forms of comparison 159
6 Practice C 159
7 Practice D 160
8 Practice E 160
9 Practice F 161
3.3 Definitions 162

1 Simple defnitions 162
2 Category words 162
3 Complex defnitions 164
4 Practice A 164
5 Practice B 165
3.4 Examples 166

1 Using examples 166
2 Phrases to introduce examples 167
3 Practice A 168
4 Practice B 169
5 Restatement 169
3.5 Generalisations 171

1 Using generalisations 171
2 Structure 172
3 Practice A 172
4 Practice B 172
5 Building on generalisations 173
6 Practice C 173
Contents xv
3.6 Numbers and Visual Information 175

1 The language of numbers 175
2 Percentages 176
3 Simplifcation 176
4 Further numerical phrases 177
5 Practice A 179
6 Visual information: Types of visuals 179
7 The language of change 182
8 Describing visuals 183
9 Labelling visuals 184
10 Practice B 184
11 Practice C 185
3.7 Punctuation 186

1 Capital letters 186
2 Full stops (.) [US: period] 187
3 Commas (,) 187
4 Apostrophes (’) 188
5 Semi-colons (;) 188
6 Colons (:) 189
7 Quotation marks/ inverted commas (“ ”/ ‘ ’) 189
8 Others 190
9 Practice A 190
10 Practice B 191
3.8 Style 192

1 Developing an academic style 192
2 Guidelines 193
3 Practice A 195
4 Avoiding repetition and redundancy 195
5 Varying sentence length 196
6 The use of caution 197
7 Using modifers 198
8 Practice B 198
Progress Check D 199
Part 4
Lexis 201
4.1 Approaches to Vocabulary 203

1 Vocabulary issues 203
2 Dealing with new vocabulary 204
3 Language features 205
xvi Contents
4 Confusing pairs 206

5 Words and phrases from other languages 207
6 Practice A 208
7 Abbreviations 208
8 Common abbreviations 209
9 Punctuation 209
10 Duplicate abbreviations 210
11 Abbreviations only found in writing 210
12 Practice B 210
4.2 Academic Vocabulary: Nouns and Adjectives 212

1 Introduction 212
2 Nouns 212
3 Nouns and adjectives 214
4 Similar adjectives 215
5 Academic adjectives 215
6 Practice A 216
7 Practice B 216
4.3 Academic Vocabulary: Verbs and Adverbs 217

1 Understanding main verbs 217
2 Common academic verbs 218
3 Using adverbs 220
4 Practice A 221
5 Practice B 221
4.4 Prefixes and Suffixes 223

1 How prefxes and suffxes work 223
2 Prefxes 224
3 Practice A 225
4 Suffxes 226
5 Practice B 227
4.5 Synonyms 228

1 How synonyms work 228
2 Common synonyms in academic writing 230
3 Practice A 230
4 Practice B 231
5 Practice C 231
Progress Check E 232
Written British and American English – A Short Guide 235

Glossary 238
Answers 242
Index 296
Acknowledgements
I would like to thank the many people who have helped me develop these materials during my
teaching career. My colleagues, at home and abroad, have been a constant source of inspiration and
advice, and of course my students have contributed massively to my ideas about teaching academic
writing.
My editors at Routledge, Sarah Hyde and Nicole Salazar, have been extremely supportive
throughout the development of this course. Closer to home, my wife Rene, who has a profound
knowledge of the vagaries of academic style, has been an invaluable adviser, while my daughter
Sophie has provided timely feedback from the student perspective.
Introduction for
Tutors and Lecturers
Aims
Academic Writing for University Students has been designed to help students successfully complete
their written academic work. Many students find the transition from school to university difficult in
terms of their teachers’ expectations: they are required to work more independently and critically.
In addition, many students taking courses in English-language institutions, both in the UK and
abroad, speak English as a second language and find the vocabulary in some reading and writing
tasks quite challenging. This course is specifically aimed at their needs, whether they are in a class,
studying one-to-one with a tutor or entirely by themselves: due to its flexible structure this book
can be used in all these situations.
This course is aimed at both undergraduate and postgraduate students, since although they are
studying at different levels, their tutors’ requirements are basically similar: written work that is
clear, objective, accurate and correctly referenced. The structure of the book allows for a flexible
mixture of classroom teaching and self-study. Each unit aims to involve students in completing a
variety of exercises, which can be analysed and discussed in the classroom. Depending on time
available and tutor preference, most of the exercises can be done either individually or in pairs and
groups, and students can check their work using the answer key.
The book is designed for ease of access and simplicity of reference, which is achieved via the
format shown below.
Structure
Part Topic Main application

1 The Writing Process Classroom use
from understanding questions to proofreading
2 Writing Types Classroom and self-study
from argument to reflective writing
Introduction for Tutors and Lecturers xix
3 Writing Tools Classroom, self-study and reference

from cohesion to style
4 Lexis Classroom, self-study and reference
from abbreviations to synonyms
Using the book
Part 1 The Writing Process guides students through the entire procedure of writing essays,
reports and other papers, and is best taught as a progressive series of lessons, with feedback from
the practice exercises.
Part 2 Writing Types presents the main kinds of writing students are asked to produce, often as
subsections (e.g. case studies or literature reviews) of a longer paper.
Part 3 Writing Tools practises some of the skills needed for academic writing, such as giving
definitions or making comparisons.
Part 4 Lexis deals with vocabulary issues, in particular the more formal vocabulary generally
found in academic work, and suggests that the understanding of prefixes and suffixes can help both
reading and writing.
All the units in Parts 2 to 4 can be taught in conjunction with units from Part 1, or can be sug-
gested to individual students on a remedial basis for self-study. It should be stressed that the exer-
cises can be used selectively: not every student needs to complete all of them, but a comprehensive
set is provided if extensive practice is needed in that area.
The first two units in Part 1 are designed as a basic introduction to the subject and assume a fairly
low level of writing ability. With stronger students tutors may choose to progress rapidly through
these to more difficult materials starting with Unit 3, Reading: Finding Suitable Sources. At the end
of every part of the book there are Progress Checks to allow assessment of students’ work.
Note that Academic Writing for University Students uses authentic reading texts taken from a
range of relevant sources, but selected to be of interest to students in all disciplines.
Instructions are printed like this:
■ Read the following text
Cross-referencing to relevant sections in other units is provided like this:
► See Unit 3.4 Examples
Answers to most exercises are provided in the answer key at the end of the book. If there is no
definite answer, a model answer is usually given.
The glossary on page 240 explains academic terms.
The index on page 299 can be used to find specific information.

xx Introduction for Tutors and Lecturers
The companion website provides a full set of teaching notes, as well as relevant web
links for each unit in the Teachers’ Area. Further practice exercises for certain units
plus web links and quizzes can be found in the Students’ Area. See www.routledge.com/
cw/bailey
While the materials in this course have been thoroughly tested in the classroom, improvement is
always possible, and so I would be grateful for any comments or suggestions from teachers for
future editions.
Stephen Bailey
stephen.bailey@w3z.co.uk
Introduction
for Students
Discuss the following questions with a partner.
a) What experience do you have of academic writing?

b) What is the longest piece of writing you have done to date?
c) What do you find most challenging about academic writing?
d) How do you plan to improve your academic writing?
The challenge of writing at university
Going to university should be an exciting time, when you have the chance to function as an inde-
pendent adult. With so many experiences to enjoy, dealing with your academic workload may be a
low priority. But as the assessment of many courses depends on your performance as an academic
writer, it’s not a topic that can be ignored. That’s why this book is designed to help you cope more
effectively with your writing tasks.
There are several reasons why many first-year university students find it difficult to meet their
lecturers’ requirements for writing essays and reports:
● University students are expected to work more independently, with less supervision than at
school. As a result, for instance, you may be required to find your own sources.
● Another issue can be the expectation that students should approach their sources in a critical
fashion, and be ready to interrogate them if necessary. This means that you are expected to
question and evaluate everything you read, asking whether it is reliable and relevant.
● There is also the question of vocabulary, since in most academic subjects students are expected
to use a semi-formal vocabulary which is different from normal idiomatic language.
● In addition, you need to be familiar with the conventions of academic writing such as referenc-
ing, as well as adopting an appropriate style. Following these conventions will allow you to
express yourself clearly, and your tutor will find it easier to assess your work.
xxii Introduction for Students
During your university course you may be asked to write a variety of assignments, such as reports,
case studies, proposals, essays or a dissertation. These will vary in length, format and complexity,
but all should be written in academic English, as explained in the four parts of this book.
At first, writing may seem the most difficult and demanding aspect of your work, but these writ-
ing tasks provide a great opportunity to improve your writing skills both for your studies and for
future employment. This gives you a number of benefits:
● Writing about a topic helps you to understand the subject better.

● Writing enables you to organise and examine your ideas clearly.
● Writing allows you to show your knowledge in tests and exams.
● Writing is the conventional method for expressing your ideas and presenting your knowledge
and ideas to tutors and others in your field.
● Most companies and other organisations value employees who are able to communicate effec-
tively in writing.
The aim of the book
The main purpose of Academic Writing for University Students is to help you succeed in the writing
tasks which you may be asked to complete on your course. The kind of writing you are asked to do
at this level could be different from the work you have done before, and this may be the first time
you have had to write longer essays and reports.
The book is designed for ease of access and simplicity of reference, so that you can find the help
you need as quickly as possible. This table explains the format:
Part Topic Main application

1 The Writing Process Classroom use
from understanding questions to proofreading
2 Writing Types Classroom and self-study
from argument to reflective writing
3 Writing Tools Classroom, self-study and reference
from cohesion to style
4 Lexis Classroom, self-study and reference
from abbreviations to synonyms
Using the book
The book can be used either with a tutor or by yourself for self-study and reference, with the help of
the answer key. To help you get the most out of the course, note the following points:
Introduction for Students xxiii
Instructions are printed like this:
■ Read the following text
Cross-referencing to relevant sections in other units is provided like this:
► See Unit 3.4 Examples
Answers to most exercises are provided in the answer key at the end of the book. If there is no
definite answer, a model answer is usually given.
The glossary on page 240 explains academic terms you may not be familiar with.
The index on page 299 can be used to find specific information.
The Students’ Area of the companion website provides further practice exercises for some
units, plus web links and quizzes. See www.routledge.com/cw/bailey
I hope you find this course helpful in progressing your studies, and I would be glad to receive your
comments and suggestions about any part of the book to support the development of future editions.
Stephen Bailey
stephen.bailey@w3z.co.uk
Academic
Writing Quiz
■ How much do you know about academic writing? Find out by doing this quiz.
1 The main difference between academic writing and other writing is that academic writing:
a) uses longer words
b) tries to be precise and unbiased
c) is harder to understand
2 Italics are used for two of the following reasons:

a) to emphasise a word
b) to show words from other languages
c) with idioms
3 Teachers frequently complain about students:

a) not answering the question given
b) not writing enough
c) writing in pencil
4 The best time to write an introduction is usually:

a) before writing the main body
b) after proofreading
c) after writing the main body
5 The purpose of an introduction is:

a) to give your aims and methods
b) to amuse the reader
c) to summarise your ideas
6 Making careful notes is essential for:

a) writing essays
b) revising for exams
c) all academic work
Academic Writing Quiz xxv
7 An in-text citation looks like:

a) (Manton, 2008)
b) (Richard Manton, 2008)
c) (Manton, R. 2008)
8 Paraphrasing a text means:

a) making it shorter and simpler
b) changing both vocabulary and structure
c) adding more detail
9 Paragraphs always contain:

a) six or more sentences
b) an example
c) a topic sentence
10 Proofreading means:
a) getting a friend to check your work
b) checking for minor errors
c) rewriting the text
11 Teachers expect students to adopt a critical approach to their sources:

a) sometimes
b) only at postgraduate level
c) always
12 This punctuation mark (’) is called:

a) a comma
b) a colon
c) an apostrophe
13 A suitable synonym for ‘a business’ is:

a) a firm
b) an organisation
c) an outfit
14 ‘Progress’ and ‘research’ are both nouns. What kind of noun?

a) countable
b) uncountable
c) proper
15 An abstract is normally found:

a) on the back cover of books
b) before journal articles
c) in exam questions
16 The word ‘unreliable’ contains:
a) a prefix
b) a suffix
c) both
xxvi Academic Writing Quiz
17 When making notes you should always include:

a) your own ideas
b) a full reference
c) the date
18 A pie chart is used to show:

a) changes in time
b) proportion
c) the structure of an organisation
19 Acknowledgements are generally used:

a) to admit possible errors
b) to suggest more research
c) to thank people who helped
20 The conclusion to an article usually includes:

a) results of the study
b) additional data
c) references
Answers on p. 246.
PART
The Writing
1
Process
This section explains and practises all the
stages of producing a piece of academic writ-
ing, from analysing the title, reading the
sources, note-making and referencing through
to rewriting and then proofreading the final
draft.
DOI: 10.4324/9781003010210-1
The Writing Process
■ Study the fowchart below, which illustrates the process of academic writing.
Each stage is fully explained in the relevant units.
UNIT
1.1
Writing Basics
Most courses assess students through written assignments of various kinds. These tasks
include both coursework, which may take weeks to write, and exam answers, which often
have to be written in an hour. This unit deals with:
●● The purpose of academic writing
●● The main features of academic writing
●● The names of different writing tasks
●● The format of short and long writing tasks
●● Sentences and paragraphs
1 The purposes of academic writing
Most university students will be asked to write various types of assignments. In every case they
should be clear about why they are writing. Academic writing can have various purposes; some of
the most common reasons for writing are:
●● to report on a piece of research the writer has conducted

●● to answer a question the writer has been given or chosen
●● to discuss a subject of common interest and give the writer’s view
●● to synthesise research done by others on a topic
■■ Ask a partner if they can suggest any other reasons.
●●
●●
DOI: 10.4324/9781003010210-2
4 Part 1: The Writing Process
2 How is academic writing different

from other writing genres?
i) j Working with a partner, name as many writing genres as you can. Then suggest
answers to the question above (2).
ii) j Compare these two extracts from longer texts. What are the main differences
between the two genres?
a) Carrying their few possessions in bags and shopping trolleys, hundreds of
desperate storm victims in the Bahamas gathered at a port in Grand Abaco
yesterday, hoping to get off the hurricane-blasted island amid rising frustra-
tion about the speed of the relief effort. ‘It’s chaos here’, said Gee Rolle, who
was waiting with his wife for a boat to the capital, Nassau. ‘It’s not livable for
nobody. Only animals can live here’.
b) Despite the reputation of ‘engineering’ as a politically innocent, technocratic
kind of expertise that is above partisan wrangles, the modern engineering
profession has from its inception been bound up with power-infused pro-
cesses of socio-spatial and material transformation. As Andrew Barry (2005:
94) argues, ‘far from having anti-political effects the calculations of engineers
[have] had political resonances’.
The first extract is from a newspaper, reporting an event in vivid language and emotional phrases
(desperate storm victims), and using personal reports from local people. The second is from an
academic article, and illustrates several common features of academic writing:
● rather formal words and phrases are used to explain complex ideas:
(power-infused processes of socio-spatial and material transformation)
● citation and quotation to support the writer’s argument:
(As Andrew Barry (2005: 94) argues …)
● tendency to use the passive:
(has been bound up with …)
Although there is no fixed standard of academic writing, and the style may vary from subject to
subject, academic writing is clearly very different from the style of newspapers or novels.
3 Common types of academic writing
These are the most common types of written work produced by students.
■ Discuss the differences between them with a partner.
1.1: Writing Basics 5
■ Match the defnitions below to the types above.

a) The longest piece of writing normally done by a student, often for a higher degree
(20,000+ words).
b) A general term for any extended piece of academic writing.
c) A description of a situation or process, often with suggestions for dealing with a
problem.
d) The answer to a question or task set by the teacher, often on a theoretical subject.
e) A detailed account of a particular situation or organisation.
f) A piece of writing in which students critically examine how they dealt with a situ-
ation or task and what they learned from it.
g) A condensed summary of something read or listened to, for a student’s own use.
h) A persuasive text written to convince a potential customer to adopt a new prod-
uct or service.
4 The format of written assignments
There is no standard format for written work, but in most subjects the following sections are com-
monly included in shorter essays and reports (1,000–5,000 words).
■ Discuss the meaning of these terms with a partner and then arrange the sections in
the most suitable order using the framework below.
Appendices
Conclusion
Discussion
Literature review
References
Case study
Introduction
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
Longer papers such as dissertations and journal articles may have the following format:
Abstract
List of contents
List of tables
Introduction
Main body
Literature review
Case study
Findings
Discussion
Conclusion
Acknowledgements*
References
Appendices
* May be placed before the introduction
Business reports and proposals often have a short section at the beginning called:
Executive summary
In addition, books may also include:
Foreword*
Preface
Bibliography/Further reading
*Short introduction usually written by a well-known authority
■ Match the following defnitions to terms in the lists above:

a) A short initial summary which explains the article’s purpose and main fndings.
b) A list of all the sources the writer has mentioned in the text.
c) A section, at the end, where additional information is included.
d) A short section where people who have helped the writer are thanked.
e) Part of the main body in which the views of other writers on the topic are discussed.
f) A section where one particular example is described in detail.
g) A preliminary part of a book in which the author often explains her reasons for
writing.
► See Unit 2.7 Reports
5 Common text features
a) Use of titles and subtitles. The title is often short and may be more eye-catching; the subtitle
tends to contain more detail:
The Engineer and the Plumber: Mediating Mumbai’s Conflicting Infrastructural Imaginaries
b) Reference to sources using citation:

… while the second (Karlan and Zinman, 2009) compared borrowers and non-borrowers.
c) The use of abbreviations for convenience:

Massachusetts Institute of Technology (MIT)
d) Italics are used to show words from other languages, to highlight examples or to add emphasis:
… proposals that all players prefer to the status quo
e) Brackets are used to give extra information or to clarify a point:

… the means by which the circulation of vital substances (such as water) is achieved.
f) Inverted commas are used to draw attention to a word or phrase:

Despite the reputation of ‘engineering’ as a politically innocent …
g) The use of footnotes or endnotes to give extra information. Footnotes are found at the bottom
of the page, while endnotes are listed at the end of the chapter or paper.
… the local Community Empowerment Network (CEN)4
► See Unit 4.1.8 Common abbreviations
6 Writing clear sentences
Sentences are the basic component of all types of writing. Sentences generally have a subject and
a verb:
Robin Hood (subject) is (verb) a legendary figure in English history.

Sentences generally contain one main idea (legendary figure), but can have two or more clauses
containing extra information:
Robin Hood, who is the hero of many tales, is a legendary figure in English history.
■ Study the table below.
Analysis of writing assignments by student level in the Business School
Type Undergraduate Graduate Total

Case study 22 57 79
Article/book report 13 43 56
Business report 11 19 30
Business proposal 7 6 13
Refection paper 7 4 11
Research proposal 1 4 5
Simple sentences such as:
More graduates than undergraduates wrote case studies.
are easier to read and write, but longer sentences are necessary to explain more complex ideas:
Articles and book reports are more commonly required from graduates, who were given about
three quarters of the total set.
Students should make clarity a priority and avoid writing very lengthy sentences with several
clauses until they feel confident in their ability.
Sentences containing two or more clauses use conjunctions, relative pronouns or punctuation
to link the clauses:
Undergraduates were rarely asked to write research proposals, but business proposals were
more common. (conjunction)
Reflection papers, which were written by both student groups, were less common. (relative
pronoun)
Business reports were commonly required at both levels: 11 on the undergraduate programme
and 19 for the postgraduates. (punctuation)
► See Glossary for conjunctions and relative pronouns

► See Unit 3.7 Punctuation
► See Unit 3.8.5 Style – Varying sentence length
■ Write two simple and two longer sentences using data from the table below.
a)
b)
c)
d)
East Wessex Business School: gender balance by programme, 2020 (%)
Accounting Finance Marketing Economics Human

Resources
Male 69 71 43 52 27
Female 31 29 57 48 73
7 Writing in paragraphs
■ Discuss the following questions with a partner:

What is a paragraph?
Why are texts divided into paragraphs?
How long are paragraphs?
Do paragraphs have a standard structure?
► For answers see Unit 1.10 Organising Paragraphs
■ Read the text below and divide it into a suitable number of paragraphs.
The unpredictable effects of energy effciency
It has often been argued that by raising standards of energy efficiency, for example making cars
more fuel efficient, both consumers and the planet would benefit. In other words, drivers would
spend less on petrol, and less fossil fuel would be burnt. In fact, the International Energy Agency
recently claimed that if the world’s GDP doubled by 2040, higher standards of fuel efficiency would
only cause a small increase in demand for energy. However, some economists have disputed this
claim. They point out that as countries get richer, their energy use rises. A new study (Rausch and
Schwerin, 2018) explores the example of the USA since 1960. As efficiency gains made energy
cheaper, demand for energy rose: people drove further, but also had spare money for other energy-
demanding products. Described as ‘rebound effects’, these unexpected results mean that energy
savings are often reduced or eliminated. But this effect is likely to vary in relation to a country’s
level of economic development. In more developed countries there is less appetite for driving extra
distances, while in developing economies there may be more latent demand, resulting in a larger
potential increase in total energy use. The macro-economic model created by Rausch and Schwerin
relates energy use to efficiency-increasing technological development, and aims to predict energy
consumption by relating energy consumption to changes in the cost of capital and energy. Their
conclusion was that gains in fuel efficiency in America between 1960 and 2011 resulted in higher
energy use overall, resulting in no benefit for the environment.
8 Practice
■ Write two simple and two longer sentences on energy effciency.

a)
b)
c)
d)
UNIT
1.2
Understanding
Essay
Questions and
the Planning
Process
In both exams and coursework it is essential for students to understand what an essay
title is asking them to do. A plan can then be drawn up, which should prevent time being
wasted, while ensuring the question is answered fully. This unit looks at:
● Key words in titles
● Essay length and organisation
● Methods of essay planning
1 The planning process
■ Discuss these questions with a partner.

What’s the frst stage in the planning process?
What’s the best way of preparing an outline?
Teachers frequently complain that students do not answer the question they were given, but this
can be avoided by taking care at the planning stage. Planning is necessary in all academic writing,
but clearly there are important differences between planning in exams, when time is short, and for
coursework, when preparatory reading is required. However, in both cases the process of planning
should include these four steps:
a) analyse the title wording

b) study the evaluation criteria
DOI: 10.4324/9781003010210-3
c) decide how long each section should be

d) prepare an outline using your favourite method
Note that when writing coursework over a period of weeks or even months, your first outline will
be quite basic, but as you develop your ideas and do more reading it will probably be revised and
become more detailed. This is a useful process and you should always try to be flexible and adjust
your perspective as your understanding increases.
► See Unit 2.6 Writing Longer Papers
2 Analysing essay questions
Titles contain key words which tell the student what to do. They also indicate the main subject. Note
that titles often have two (or more) parts:
What is meant by a ‘disruptive technology’? Illustrate your explanation with two examples.
In this case, ‘what’ is asking for a definition and ‘illustrate’ requires examples.
Many essay titles also include a context, such as a time period or geographical area:
Instruction Subject Context

Discuss the growth of nationalism in nineteenth-century Western
Europe
Compare the effects of privatisation on of Poland and Hungary 1990–2000
the economies
Clearly, it is important to limit your answer to the given context. You will lose marks if you ignore
this limitation.
■ Underline the key words in the following titles and consider what they are asking you
to do. Then decide if any context is given.
a) Summarise the main reasons for the growth of e-commerce since 2010, and dis-
cuss the likely results of this.
b) Describe some of the reasons why patients do not always take their medication
as directed. Suggest possible methods of remedying this situation.
c) What are the benefts of learning a second language at primary school (age 6–10)?
Are there any drawbacks to early language learning?
d) What are the most signifcant sources of renewable energy? Evaluate their contri-
bution to the reduction of carbon emissions in the last ffteen years.
e) Discuss the response of buildings and soil to earthquakes, indicating what meas-
ures can be used to ensure structural stability.
f) To what extent can government policy (e.g. taxation) persuade people to adopt a
healthier lifestyle?
1.2: Essay Questions and the Planning Process 13
3 Practice: key words
■ Match the key words on the left to the defnitions on the right.
Analyse Explain a topic briefy and clearly

Assess/Evaluate Divide into sections and discuss each critically
Describe Break down into the various parts and their relationships
Discuss Make a proposal and support it
Examine/Explore Look at various aspects of a topic, compare benefts and
drawbacks
Illustrate Give a detailed account of something
Outline/Trace Give examples
Suggest/Indicate Decide the value or worth of a subject
Summarise Deal with a complex subject by reducing it to the main
elements
► See Unit 2.1 Argument and Discussion
4 Evaluation criteria
It is always worth spending time finding out exactly what your teacher is looking for. When set-
ting an assignment, your teacher will often give you a very clear picture of how the work will be
assessed. This example explains how the mark scheme is organised. It is worth noting, for instance,
that 30% of the mark is given for the conclusion(s) – which should give you a guide to how much
time to spend on this part.
Section Criteria to be assessed

Overall structure The written work is structured clearly and coherently
(5%) without any spelling errors, the language and grammar are
appropriate.
Part 1: The objectives are clearly stated, as are the main sources of
Introduction information and the focus of the work.
(20%)
Part 2: Theoretical framework(s) and/ or model(s) are adequately
Theoretical stated, described and applied with a clear discussion and
framework/models interpretation of the analysis of a chosen subject. A critical
(40%) analysis of the topic should be carried out.
Part 3: Key fndings are clearly presented and discussed with

Conclusions evidence of critical thinking.
(30%)
Referencing The work contains academic references and/ or citations.
(5%) Please consult the specifc reference style in the module
handbook or follow the Harvard referencing system.
You may also be given grade descriptors, as in the following example. These tell you what is
expected at different marking levels:
Indicator The presentation will often demonstrate some of the

% following features
90–100 An exceptional level of analysis, showing deep critical engagement
with a comprehensive range of contextual material. Demonstration
of independent thought resulting in creative and original responses
to the assignment brief. Clear evidence of understanding of current
scholarship and research based on an extensive range of relevant
sources. Clarity of structure demonstrating complete focus of
argument. Virtually no errors in referencing, grammar and/ or syntax.
80–89 Excellent links between relevant ideas, theories and practice.
Clear evidence of independent scholarship and the ability to
engage critically and analytically with a range of contextually
relevant resource material. Demonstration of insights supported
by extremely well-structured overall argument. Very few errors in
referencing, grammar and/ or syntax.
70–79 Very good links between a range of different ideas and theories.
Places issues in a wider context. Clear evidence of a critical
understanding of a range of relevant theories and application of
these appropriately. Independent ideas, well-argued and supported.
Few errors in referencing, grammar and/ or syntax.
60–69 Clear links between theory and practice. Good coverage of
assignment issues. Full understanding of core issues. Evidenced
level of understanding of appropriate theory and concepts. Some
small repeated errors in referencing, grammar and/ or syntax.
50–59 Identifes main issues and relevant theory. Coverage of most of
assignment issues. Competent application of relevant theory and
states obvious links to practice. Some repeated errors in grammar
or syntax. Failure to apply Harvard referencing standard correctly in
places.
NB: In the UK it is common for students’ essays and reports to be marked either as a percentage
(e.g. 67%) or rated for a future degree (e.g. 2:1). Other countries, e.g. Australia, may have different
marking systems, and students must be clear about this at the start of their course.
5 Brainstorming
In an exam, it is often helpful to start thinking about a topic by writing down the ideas you have, in
any order. Taking the example from 2a) above:
‘Summarise the main reasons for the growth of e-commerce, and discuss the likely results of this’.
you might collect the following points:
Growth of e-commerce and likely results

Main reasons
● Businesses can offer a wider range of products via internet
● Delivery service more convenient for customers than travelling to shops
● Businesses can reduce overheads by centralising distribution centres
● Prices can often be lower, reflecting lower costs
Likely results
● Decline in conventional shops
● Growth in delivery businesses
● Shopping centres become entertainment areas
■ Working with a partner, brainstorm ideas for the title below:
What are the benefts of single-sex schools at secondary level? What are the
drawbacks?
6 Essay length
Coursework essays and reports usually have a required length, normally between 1,000 and 5,000
words. You must keep to this limit, although differences of 5% more or less are generally accept-
able. However, at the planning stage you need to consider what proportion of the essay to allocate
to each part of the question. As a basic guide, 20% is usually sufficient for the introduction and
conclusion together (references are not normally included in the word count). Therefore, in a 2,000-
word essay the main body would have 1,600 words.
If this was the length given for title 2a) above, you might decide to give 65% of the main body to
part 1 of the question (the main reasons) and 35% to part 2 (likely results):
Reasons that beneft businesses: reduced overheads/ wider 600 words

range
Reasons that beneft customers: convenience and lower prices 450 words
Likely results: fewer shops/ change in use/ more deliveries 550 words
Total 1600 words
This calculation is useful since it can guide the amount of reading you need to do, as well as provid-
ing the basis for an outline. Moreover, it prevents you from writing an unbalanced answer, in which
part of the question is not fully developed.
Essays in exams do not usually have a word limit, but it is equally important to plan them in
similar terms e.g. part 1, 40%; part 2, 60%.
■ Identify the key words in the following titles and decide what percentage of the main
body to give to each part.
Title Part 1 (%) Part 2 (%)

a) Describe the typical social,
cultural and environmental
impacts experienced by tourist
destinations in developing
countries. How can harmful
impacts be reduced or avoided?
b) How can schools make
better use of IT (information
technology)? Illustrate your
answer with examples from one
country.
c) Outline the main diffculties in
combating malaria in Southeast
Asia. Suggest possible
strategies for more effective
anti-malaria campaigns.
7 Outlines
An outline should help the writer to answer the question as effectively as possible. Care at this stage
will save wasted effort later. The more detail you include in your outline, the easier the writing
process will be.
Note that for coursework it is usually better to write the main body first, then the introduction and
finally the conclusion. Therefore you may prefer to outline just the main body at this stage.
There is no fixed pattern for an outline; different methods appeal to different students.
For example, with the first part of title 2a) above:
‘Summarise the main reasons for the growth of e-commerce …’
a) The outline might be a list:

1. Benefits for buyers
● greater convenience in shopping by internet at any time
● lower prices
● better choice
2. Benefits for sellers

● cost saving by centralising distribution
● global customer base
● 24/7 trading
b) An alternative is a mind map:
c) What are the advantages and drawbacks of each method?
8 Practice
■ You have to answer the second part of the title above (… and
discuss the likely results of this). In preparation read the following
text, and then prepare an outline using either method.
BRITISH SHOPPERS GO ONLINE
People in Britain do more of their shopping (currently 20%) through the internet than in
most other countries. This figure, which is increasing rapidly, is having significant effects on
many industries. Britain’s geography makes it ideal for the spread of e-commerce, due to it
being a small and densely populated country, so that most households can be easily reached
from giant warehouses in the Midlands. The popularity and convenience of smartphones is
also encouraging internet shopping.
The result is that retailers have had to focus on logistics to compete for trade. The efficient
management of parcels is the key to success: over a billion packages were sent out in 2018.
One effect has been a revival in the fortunes of Royal Mail, which had been suffering from
a decline in its letter business. Most internet orders are sent from huge ‘fulfilment centres’
in central England; these structures now cover 40 million square metres. However, intense
competition on delivery times has recently led to a trend to build warehouses on the edge
of cities, especially London, to be near customers. As a result, the cost of rents for these has
risen sharply, since this land is also in demand for housing.
Another concern for internet retailers is the legal obligation to accept returned goods within
two weeks of sale. This amounts to about 6% of sales overall, but as much as 40% with
items of clothing. This increases costs for the seller, but has also created a new niche busi-
ness in dealing with these goods. The volume of parcel deliveries, coupled with the food
delivery services run by the major supermarkets, has led to more traffic on the roads. In
addition, there is a shortage of drivers for the trucks and vans involved, since this work is
demanding and low-paid. One solution may be to use driverless vehicles, and trials of these
have begun.
At the moment about 3 million people work in UK shops, but the increase in e-commerce
and the inevitable closure of many shops may lead to the loss of about a third of these jobs
within the next ten years. Some of the closed stores may re-open as cafes, bars or restaurants,
others may develop into ‘shopping experiences’ which give customers a taste of the product
instead of just selling it. In any case it is likely that Britain’s high streets will drastically
change their character in the years to come.
(Source: Kuyper, J. (2018) Tomorrow’s Cities, p. 232)
Outline: … discuss the likely results of this.

UNIT
1.3
Reading
Finding Suitable
Sources
The ability to find relevant and suitable sources is a key academic skill. Although students
often underestimate the importance of effective reading, on any course it is vital to be able
to locate and process the most valuable sources quickly. This unit:
●● Examines the most appropriate types of texts for academic work
●● Explores ways of locating relevant material in the library
●● Explains the use of electronic resources
●● Demonstrates effective reading methods
1 Types of text
■■ With a partner, list in the table the most common types of sources students may use.
Then discuss their likely advantages and disadvantages.
Text type Advantages Disadvantages

Textbooks Written for students May be too general or outdated
2 Academic resources
It is useful to think of three levels of academic resources, all of which will be needed by under-
graduate and postgraduate students:
DOI: 10.4324/9781003010210-4
Primary resources such as journal articles often contain the latest research and ideas. Unpublished
PhD theses and other ‘grey’ material can also be useful, but care must be taken with all these
resources as they may be controversial or represent a minority opinion.
Textbooks and other books, especially if they have had several editions, are likely to be more reli-
able and probably easier to read, particularly as textbooks are usually specially written for students.
Tertiary material such as dictionaries and encyclopaedias are the most thoroughly edited
resources, and should be consulted when necessary.
The type of resource that students use will clearly depend on their subject: law students will
need case reports while history students may require newspaper archives. Librarians often organ-
ise introductory sessions or provide advice online: it is well worth carefully exploring your library
website.
3 Assessing texts
■ What factors should you consider when searching for useful sources?
With most modules your teacher will give you a reading list, but in other situations you will have
to identify the most suitable texts and recognise their features, which will help you to assess their
value.
■ You are studying Water Management. Read the following text extracts A–C and dis-
cuss with other students if they are suitable for academic use, and why.
Text Suitability?
A
B
C
A. Worldwide pressures
The global nature of the crisis is underlined in reports from many regions. In south Asia,
there have been huge losses of groundwater, which has been pumped up with reckless
lack of control over the past decade. About 600 million people live on the 2,000 sq. km.
area that extends from eastern Pakistan, across the hot dry plains of northern India and
into Bangladesh, and the land is the most intensely irrigated in the world. Up to 75% of
farmers rely on pumped groundwater to water their crops and water use is intensifying –
at the same time that satellite images show that supplies are shrinking alarmingly.
1.3: Reading: Finding Suitable Sources 21
Changing precipitation and melting snow and ice are already altering hydrological sys-
tems in many areas. Glaciers continue to shrink worldwide, affecting villages and towns
downstream. The result, says the Intergovernmental Panel for Climate Change, is that
the proportion of the global population experiencing water scarcity is bound to increase
throughout the twenty-frst century. More and more, people and nations will have to
compete for resources. An international dispute between Egypt and Ethiopia over the
latter’s plans to dam the Nile has only recently been resolved. In future, far more serious
conficts are likely to erupt as the planet dries up.
Even in high latitudes, the one region on Earth where rainfall is likely to intensify in com-
ing years, climate change will still reduce water quality and pose risks due to a number
of factors: rising temperatures; increased levels of sediments, nutrients, and pollutants
triggered by heavy rainfall; and disruption of treatment facilities during foods. The world
faces a water crisis that will touch every part of the globe, a point that has been stressed
by Jean Chrétien, former Canadian prime minister and co-chair of the InterAction
Council. ‘The future political impact of water scarcity may be devastating’, he claimed.
‘Using water the way we have in the past simply will not sustain humanity in future’.
B. A drying world?
It is easy to think that water will always be plentiful, as it covers 70% of our planet.
However, freshwater – the stuff we drink, bathe in, irrigate our farm felds with – is
extremely rare. Only 3% of the world’s water is fresh water, and two-thirds of that is
tucked away in frozen glaciers or otherwise unavailable for our use.
As a result, some 1.1 billion people worldwide lack access to water, and a total of 2.7
billion fnd water scarce for at least one month of the year. Inadequate sanitation is also
a problem for 2.4 billion people – they are exposed to diseases such as cholera and
typhoid fever and other water-borne illnesses. Two million people, mostly children, die
each year from diarrheal diseases alone.
Many of the water systems that keep ecosystems thriving and feed a growing human
population have become stressed. Rivers, lakes and aquifers are drying up or becoming
too polluted to use. More than half the world’s wetlands have disappeared. Agriculture
consumes more water than any other source and wastes much of that through ineffcien-
cies. Climate change is altering patterns of weather and water around the world, causing
shortages and droughts in some areas and foods in others. This situation will only get
worse at the current rate of consumption. By 2025, two-thirds of the world’s population
may face water shortages, and ecosystems around the world will suffer even more.
C. Measuring scarcity
It is surprisingly diffcult to determine whether water is truly scarce in the physical
sense at a global scale (a supply problem) or whether it is available but should be used
better (a demand problem). Rijsberman (2006) reviews water scarcity indicators and
global assessments based on these indicators. The most widely used indicator, the
Falkenmark indicator, is popular because it is easy to apply and understand, but it does
not help to explain the true nature of water scarcity. The more complex indicators are
not widely applied because data are lacking to apply them and the defnitions are not
intuitive.
Water is defnitely physically scarce in densely populated arid areas, such as Central
and West Asia, and North Africa, with projected availabilities of less than 1000 m³/
capita/year. This scarcity relates to water for food production, however, and not to
water for domestic purposes that are minute at this scale. In most of the rest of the
world water scarcity at a national scale has as much to do with the development of the
demand as the availability of the supply. Accounting for water for environmental require-
ments shows that abstraction of water for domestic, food and industrial uses already
has a major impact on ecosystems in many parts of the world, even those not consid-
ered ‘water scarce’.
■ Some of the main features of academic texts are listed in the table below. Find exam-
ples of each feature in the texts above.
Feature Examples
Formal or semi-formal vocabulary
Sources are cited
Objective, impersonal style
4 Using reading lists
Your teacher may give you a printed reading list, or it may be available online through the library
website. The list will usually include books, journal articles and websites. If the list is electronic there
will be links to the library catalogue to let you check on the availability of the material. If the list is
printed, you will have to use the library catalogue to find the texts. You do not have to read every word
of all the books on the list: your teacher will probably suggest which sources should be prioritised.
On reading lists you will often find the following formats:
Books Griffn, R.C. (2016). Water Resource Economics: The Analysis of Scarcity,
Policies, and Projects. 2nd ed. MIT Press.
Journal Falkenmark, M., Lundqvist, J. and Widstrand, C. (1989). ‘Macro-scale

articles water scarcity requires micro-scale approaches.’ Natural Resources
Forum 13: 258–267.
Websites http://www.un.org/waterforlifedecade/scarcity.shtml
■ What are the differences between the formats of books and journal articles?
5 Searching library catalogues
University and college libraries usually have online catalogues. These allow you to search for the
materials you want in various ways. If the title and author’s name are known it is easy to check if
the book is available. But if you are making a search for material on a specific topic you may have
to vary the search terms. For instance, if you want information about exploration for oil, you might
try:
● oil exploration
● exploring for oil
● hydrocarbon exploration
● exploring for hydrocarbons.
■ You have been given an essay title: ‘Outline the current state of global
exploration for oil, and relate this to future levels of production’. You have
entered the term ‘oil exploration’ in the library catalogue search engine,
and these are the nine results. Which would you select to borrow? Give
your reasons.
Full Title Edition/ Year Location Holdings

details
1 History, Exploration & 2019 Science Availability
Exploitation of Oil and Library
Gas/ Silvia Fernanda
Figueirôa (Ed.),
Gregory A.
Good (Ed.), Drielli
Peyerl (Ed.).
2 Upstream: Oil and 2015 Main Library Availability
Gas Exploration and
Production: An Overview/
Levonne Louie.
Full Title Edition/ Year Location Holdings

details
3 Oil exploration and 2013 Main Library Availability
human rights violations
in Nigeria’s oil producing
communities / Olubayo
Oloduro.
4 Oil and gas exploration 3rd ed. 2011 Main Library Availability
and production [electronic
resource]: Reserves, costs
contracts / Nadine Bret-
Rouzaut and Jean-Piere
Favennec.
5 Deepwater petroleum 2011 Main Library Availability
exploration &
production [electronic
resource]: a nontechnical
guide / William L. Leffer,
Richard Pattarozzi, Gordon
Sterling.
6 Hydrocarbon exploration 2nd ed. 2008 Science Availability
and production / Frank Library
Jahn, Mark Cook and Mark
Graham.
7 China and the global 2007 Main Library Availability
energy crisis: development
and prospects for China’s
oil and natural gas / Tatsu
Kambara, Christopher
Howe.
8 Operational aspects 2000 Main Library Availability
of oil and gas well
testing [electronic resource]
/ Stuart McAleese.
9 Geophysical exploration: an 1970 Science Availability
outline of the principal Library
methods used in the
search for minerals, oil, gas
and water supplies / F.W.
Dunning.
Full details
If you click on this you will get more information about the book, including the number of pages
and a summary of the contents. If a book has more than one edition it suggests that it is a successful
title. This may help you to decide whether to borrow it.
Year
The most recent books are listed first; always try to use the most up-to-date sources.
Location
Many large universities have more than one library. This tells you which one the book is kept in.
Holdings
If you click on availability, it will tell you how many copies the library holds and if they are avail-
able to borrow or out on loan.
6 Using library websites to search journals

and bibliographic databases
E-journals and other electronic resources such as subject databases are vital tools for all university
students. Their advantage is that they can be accessed online, saving the need to visit the library
to find a book. Most library websites have a separate portal or gateway for searching electronic
resources. This allows you to enter the name of a specific journal, or look for possible journals in
your subject area by entering a term such as ‘international business law’. In this case, the database
may offer the following titles:
European Business Law Review

European Business Organisation Law Review
International Trade and Business Law Review
With each journal, you can access a list of issues available. In the case of European Business
Organisation Law Review, which has four issues per year, the list would include:
Dec 2019 Vol. 20 Issue 4

Sep 2019 Vol. 20 Issue 3
Jun 2019 Vol. 20 Issue 2
Mar 2019 Vol. 20 Issue 1
By clicking on any of these issues you can read a full list of articles. It is usually sufficient to read
the abstract to find out if the article will be relevant to your work. Note that most journal websites
contain a search engine to allow you to search all back issues by subject. They may also offer links
to articles in other journals on the same topic.
Another useful tool is Google Scholar. This will let you read abstracts of thousands of articles in
every discipline, and in some cases you can read the full article, or access it through your university
library.
7 Reading abstracts
Abstracts are normally found in journal articles, where they act as a kind of summary to allow
researchers to decide if it is worth reading the full article. Students do not normally have to write
abstracts, but it is important to be able to read them effectively.
■ Study the example below and underline the following features of an

abstract.
a) Background to study
b) Purpose/ aim of research
c) Method of research
d) Findings/ results of research
e) Implications of study
Politics of the ring: limits to public participation in

engineering practice
How engineering in the context of urban socio-economic challenges is practically and effectively
mobilized has been the subject of some debate. Numerous professional bodies have encouraged
engineers to approach socio-environmental issues through increased engagement with, and
accountability to, the public through effective participatory practices. This article presents a close
empirical analysis of a major engineering project in London to argue that engineering has a more
complex relationship with social, political and environmental conditions than the idealistic par-
ticipatory conception supposes. In fact, the spatial, technical and economic arrangements of engi-
neering practice may limit the potential for public participation. Through a detailed analysis of the
London Water Ring Main (from around 1988 to 1994), this article shows how myriad sometimes
conflicting engineering issues and responsibilities interfered with key elements of effective partici-
pation. Therefore, although increased public engagement in engineering may be desirable in theory,
substantial professional, institutional and political change may have to occur before this is possible
in practice.
(Source: Hillier, J. (2018). International Journal of
Urban and Regional Research 42 (2): 334–356)
8 Practice: varying search terms
■ As part of your Environmental Science course you are researching the largest rivers
in North America. But your initial search terms:
Major North American river systems
do not provide many useful results. How could you vary the terms?
a) Finding synonyms: major = large/ principal
river systems = waterways
a) Use abbreviations: American = US/ USA
b) Use wild cards (*): Americ* = America or American
c) Use quotation marks: ‘river systems’ = keeps these words linked together
■ You are researching ‘changing rainfall patterns in Southeast Asia’. How could you
vary these terms?
■ Select a specifc topic from your subject area.
a) Use the library catalogue to search for relevant books. Write down the most
useful titles.
b) Look for a few relevant journal articles using the library portal. Write a reference
for each article.
9 Assessing text features
These features should help you find texts relevant to your studies.
Author
Is the writer well-known in their field? What else have they published?
Publication date and edition

How old is the book? Do not use a first edition if there is a (revised) second or later edition available.
Abstract
See section 7 above.
Contents
A list of the main chapters or sections. This should tell you how much space is given to the topic
you are researching.
Introduction or preface
This is where authors often explain their reasons for writing, and also describe how the text is
organised.
References
This list shows all the sources used by the author and cited in the text. It should give you some sug-
gestions for further reading.
Bibliography
These are the sources the author has used but not specifically referred to. A bibliography is not
required for short writing tasks.
Index
This is an alphabetical list of all the topics and names mentioned in a book. If, for example, you are
looking for information about a person, the index will tell you whether that person is mentioned,
and how often.
10 Reading strategies
Reading academic texts in the quantity required for most courses is a demanding task. It is clearly
quite different from reading a magazine or novel for entertainment. Yet students will not benefit
from attending lectures and seminars unless the preparatory reading is done promptly, while most
writing tasks require extensive reading.
Academic texts often contain new vocabulary and phrases, and may be written in a rather formal
style. This means that special methods have to be learnt to cope with the volume of reading needed,
and students must be clear about exactly what they are reading for. You do not have time to read
irrelevant texts, so you must adopt a two-stage process of selection:
● carefully choose which texts you read

● only read the sections of the texts which are relevant to your task.
The chart below illustrates the best approach to assessing texts for suitability.
■ Complete the empty boxes in the chart with the following techniques:
● Read intensively to make notes on key points
● Survey text features (e.g. abstract, contents, index)
● Ask yourself how this relates to your own knowledge of the subject and reasons for reading
■ Can you suggest any other reading skills to add to the chart above?
11 Practice
■ You are writing a report on the impact of the internet on wage levels. Using
the reading skills discussed above, decide if the following text is worth
reading intensively by:
a) skimming quickly for relevance b) scanning for useful sources.
The internet gap: the effect of the world

wide web on wage inequality
A recent study of the adoption of broadband by Brazilian companies (Poliquin, 2018) looked at
the results of this process between 2000 and 2009. Employees of adopting companies enjoyed a
2.3% rise in real wages compared to those in companies which failed to adopt, while managers’
pay increased by 8% and directors gained 18%. These results suggest that the internet boosted
productivity throughout the companies. Poliquin’s research duplicates the result of a Norwegian
study (Akerman, Gaarder and Mogstad, 2015) which stresses the benefits which were gained by
skilled workers, while the work of unskilled employees was often automated.
Research which compares the situation of companies in different sectors (Song et al., 2019) sug-
gests the emergence of a high-wage sector such as technology, and a low-wage sector, for example
in retail. A contributing factor may be the development of outsourcing, by which functions such
as catering are moved to low-wage businesses. It seems that there may be a shortage of workers
with digital skills, which may be surprising, given the prominence of social media platforms such
as Facebook in everyday life. But a 2016 study by the OECD found that less than half of all adults
were capable of doing more than writing a simple email.
(Source: Jacobson, Y. (2020). ‘A less equal world: Wage differentials
in practice.’ Journal of Econometrics 8: 143–151)
UNIT
1.4
Reading
Developing Critical
Approaches
Students are expected to take a critical approach to their sources, which means challenging
what they read, rather than passively accepting it as reliable. This is particularly important
when dealing with internet sources. The approach first requires a thorough understanding
of the text, using the skills developed in the previous unit. This unit explores and practises
the critical analysis of texts.
1 Critical thinking
Critical thinking means not accepting without question what you hear or read, but instead actively
questioning and assessing it. Even when you feel that a text is reliable and that you can safely use
it as a source, it is still important to adopt a critical attitude towards it. This approach is perhaps
easiest to learn when reading, but is important for all other academic work (i.e. listening, discussing
and writing). As you read you should ask yourself the following questions:
a) What are the key ideas in this?

b) Does the argument of the writer develop logically, step by step?
c) Are the examples given helpful? Would other examples be better?
d) Does the author have any bias (leaning to one side or the other)? If so, it must be taken into
account.
e) Does the evidence presented seem reliable, in my experience and using common sense?
f) Do I agree with the writer’s views, based on my own knowledge?
2 Fact and opinion
When reading, it is important to distinguish between facts:
Kuala Lumpur is the capital of Malaysia.
DOI: 10.4324/9781003010210-5
and opinions:
Kuala Lumpur is a welcoming, bustling city.
NB: Opinions are often expressed by using adjectives (welcoming, bustling). Be wary of texts con-
taining frequent opinions.
In addition, the reader needs to decide if the facts given are true:
Singapore lies near the equator. (true)

Singapore was an ancient trading port. (false)
In some cases, facts and opinions are mixed in the same sentence:
The island state of Singapore, home to nearly six million people, is a lively, thriving place.
(= fact + fact + opinion)
You need to be careful with texts that contain unsupported opinions or ‘facts’ that you think are
wrong.
A) j Read the following and underline what is presented as a fact (_______) or opinion
( ). Then decide if the ‘facts’ are true.
Example: Sydney is the capital of Australia. Not true – the capital is Canberra.
a) Australia is a dynamic, prosperous and enterprising country.

b) The majority of Australians live on sheep farms.
c) Most Australians are open-minded and friendly.
d) Australia is the largest island in the world, and has extensive mineral deposits.
e) Among the 22 million Australians are some of the world’s best cricket players.
B) j Read the paragraph on New Zealand and underline facts and opinions as above.
Then rewrite the paragraph in an objective style, correcting the ‘facts’ where needed.
New Zealand is a proud island nation in the northern Pacific Ocean, consisting of three main
islands. Nearly 1,000 miles west of Australia, it was one of the last places on Earth to be
settled by man: by the Polynesians who arrived in about 1250 CE, and who developed the
fascinating Maori culture. In the eighteenth century enterprising European settlers started
to land, and in 1941 New Zealand became part of the British Empire. Due to its long period
of isolation many distinctive plants and animals evolved, such as the kiwi fruit, now the
nation’s symbol. Today the country is famous for its successful cricket team, the All Blacks,
and is a popular holiday destination.
1.4: Reading: Developing Critical Approaches 33
3 Assessing internet sources critically
Internet sources are plentiful and convenient, but you cannot afford to waste time on using websites
which are unreliable or out of date. Anyone can set up and run a website, and so web sources must be
approached with great caution. If you are using material that is not on the reading list you must assess
it critically to ensure that the material is trustworthy by asking several questions about each site:
● Who is responsible for this website? Is it controlled by an academic body, or is it run commer-
cially to sell a product? Does it have a political or religious bias?
● Is the name of the author given, and is she well-known in the field?
● Is the language of the text in a suitable academic style?
● Are there any obvious errors in the text, e.g. factual mistakes, or incorrect spelling, which sug-
gest a careless approach?
● Is the material up-to-date?
● Is there advertising on the website?
■ Compare these two texts about a pharmaceutical company, Evergreen.

Underline facts and opinions as before. Discuss with a partner which
seems more reliable.
A. Our success is based on a commitment to discovery, finding new ideas that are inspired by
life and which in turn help to inspire the lives of our stakeholders. We discover new medicines
that are designed to improve the health and quality of life of patients around the world – medi-
cines which are innovative, effective and which offer added benefits such as reduced side effects
or better ways of taking the treatment. We also focus on getting the best from every medicine
we make by exploring all the ways it can be used or improved. With a global business comes a
global responsibility for consistently high standards of behaviour worldwide. We aim to effec-
tively manage that responsibility and help to find new ways of bringing benefit to society to
ensure that Evergreen continues to be welcomed as a valued member of the global community.
B. Recent trading results from Evergreen show an apparently healthy position, with pre-tax
profit rising by 24% and total revenues up 5%. These figures, however, were inflated by
some one-off gains, such as a $152 million sale of swine flu vaccine to the US government.
Sales of the ZX high blood pressure drug also increased sharply due to its main rival being
temporarily off the market due to safety concerns. Costs were very significantly lower in the
last quarter, falling 14% due to productivity improvements. The anti-cholesterol drug Hixx
also sold very well, becoming the market leader, but there are concerns that a pending US
court case may soon challenge Evergreen’s patent on this product. There are also worries that
re-organisation of the American healthcare system may affect Evergreen’s long-term profits,
and the company’s shares have recently fallen by 6%.
The first text contains little or no precise information about the company’s performance and is full
of statements that cannot be checked (medicines that are innovative, effective). It appears to be
taken from the company website. By contrast the second seems to be based on a recent independent
financial report and contains both facts (profits rising by 24%) and some comment or opinion (may
affect Evergreen’s long-term profits). The first text is of little use to a student, the second could be
used, with care, for analysis of the company’s current state.
4 Domain name suffxes
These are some of the domain name suffixes you will meet:
.ac.uk UK academic .edu US academic

.gov.uk UK government .gov US government
.co.uk UK company .org US organisation
.org.uk UK organisation .com US or UK company
.edu.au Australian academic .edu.sg Singapore academic
■ You are researching the health benefts of being a vegetarian, so you Google ‘health
benefts vegetarian’. Below are some of the sites you fnd listed. Which ones are likely
to have a bias?
https://www.nhs.uk
https://www.vegsoc.org
http://www.meatismurder.com
https://www.vegansociety.com
https://academic.oup.com/
https://www.meatlessfarm.com
http://health.harvard.edu
http://vegetariantimes.com
5 Practice A
■ Read critically the two articles below on universities, using the questions in 3) above.
A. College concerns
Despite their dominance of global league tables (e.g. Shanghai Rankings Consultancy)
American universities currently face significant criticism. The American Enterprise Institute
(AEI) and the Goldwater Institute have recently published negative reports on US universi-
ties, while a highly critical book Higher Education? (Hacker and Dreifus) was published
in 2010. The critics focus on the rising costs of American higher education, which have
increased at a much faster rate than inflation, resulting in a situation where even middle-class
families are finding the expense unsupportable.
In the past, many American students paid for their education by working part-time while
studying, but now the higher fees mean that students finish their education with significant
levels of debt. This debt can be a serious burden at the start of their working lives, when they
may be hoping to get married or buy a property.
Another target of criticism is the focus on research at the expense of teaching. Students
rarely meet the ‘star’ professors, being taught instead by badly paid graduate students, who
work on short-term contracts. It is claimed that in one year nearly half of Harvard’s his-
tory professors were on sabbatical leave. As a consequence, students work less; according
to the AEI they currently study for 14 hours per week, whereas 50 years ago the figure was
24 hours per week. Despite this the proportion of students gaining a first or 2:1 degree has
increased significantly: a situation described by the critics as ‘grade inflation’. It seems
incredible that working less should really be rewarded by better grades.
(Source: Atlantic Digest, July 2014, p. 119)
B. A brighter tomorrow?
There is little doubt that a university degree is the key to a better future for any student.
Despite the costs involved in terms of fees, it has been calculated that the average UK
university graduate will earn £400,000 ($600,000) more over their lifetime compared to a
non-graduate. Possession of a degree will also assist a graduate to find a satisfying job more
quickly and give greater prospects for promotion inside the chosen career. A degree from a
British university is recognised all over the world as proof of a high-quality education.
A university course will not only provide students with up-to-date knowledge in their subject
area, but also provide practice with the essential skills required by many employers today,
such as the ability to communicate effectively using ICT, or the skills of team working and
problem solving. In addition, living away from home in an international atmosphere gives
the opportunity to make new friends from all over the world, and build networks of contacts
that may be invaluable in a future career.
Studying at university is a unique opportunity for many young people to develop individu-
ally by acquiring independence, free from parental control. They will learn to look after
themselves in a secure environment, and gain useful life skills such as cooking and budget-
ing. Most graduates look back at their degree courses as a valuable experience at a critical
period of their lives.
(Source: East Wessex University Prospectus, 2018, p. 5)

■ List any statements from the articles that you fnd unreliable and add comments to
explain your doubts in the table below. Then decide which article you fnd more reli-
able overall.
Statements Comments
A. College concerns
B. A brighter tomorrow?
6 Practice B
■ You are researching for a report on the economic and social impact of electric cars.
Read the following texts critically and, working alone or with a partner, assess their
value for your research by completing the box below.
A. Volkswagen plugs in
Herbert Diess, the tough-talking CEO of Volkswagen (VW) recently promised to develop
70 new models of electric vehicles (EVs) in the next ten years, significantly increasing the
company’s commitment to this exciting new technology. Diess moved to VW from BMW
three years ago, promising to confront the powerful labour unions which many shareholders
feel have held back VW’s profitability for far too long. Despite producing nearly 11 billion
vehicles per year the company’s productivity and profitability are poor, so that the group
depends on its upmarket brands, Audi and Porsche, for earnings.
The unions are strongly represented on the company’s board and resist any attempt to move
production away from Wolfsburg, VW’s base, to cheaper locations outside Germany. Their
sole priority is preserving the roughly 300,000 VW jobs inside the country, and they have
even opposed plans to sell off subsidiary companies such as Ducati, a motorbike business.
Officially, VW claims that the new focus on EVs will help reduce global emissions of carbon
dioxide, and also meet stringent new European regulations. But the emphasis on EVs can
also be seen as a welcome move to weaken union power, since EVs, having fewer compo-
nents, are simpler to make and thus require a smaller workforce. However, the unions point
out that VW’s involvement in the recent exhaust emissions scandal, which cost the company
over £1 billion and damaged its reputation, was more harmful than their labour practices.
(Source: European Business Weekly, 8 February 2019)
B. How electric cars will change the world
There is a clear global shift away from petrol and diesel cars. China, the world’s largest
car market, is working on a timetable to stop the production and sale of vehicles powered
by fossil fuels. India has declared its intention to make all new vehicles electric by 2030.
Like Britain and France, these two markets are planning to phase out the sale of petrol and
diesel vehicles over the next 20 years or so.
Vehicle manufacturers, the oil industry and governments are starting to wake up to the dis-
ruption that vehicle electrification could bring about. Automakers recognise that they cannot
afford to be legislated out of these lucrative markets. Volvo, Jaguar and Land Rover,
Volkswagen, Mercedes, Audi and BMW have all promised to roll out electric models over
the next decade. Electro-mobility now seems inevitable, but the impact this shift will have on
jobs, the oil economy and even national tax systems will be profound.
The global impact on jobs

Electric vehicles, including their batteries, generally require less manufacturing labour than
ones that run on petrol. For this reason, among others, a phase-out of combustion engines by
2030 could cost an estimated 600,000 jobs in Germany alone, according to one report from
that country’s Ifo Economic Research Institute.
Going all-electric by 2030 will place considerable budgetary stress on major oil-producing
countries, and change the geopolitical map. Stanford economist Tony Seba and his team
push the vision of an electric vehicle revolution a step further, and predict that the disrup-
tion will come earlier, during the 2020s. They argue that oil demand will peak at 100 million
barrels per day by 2020 and fall to 70 million barrels per day by 2030. According to
their 2017 study, net exporting countries like Venezuela, Nigeria, Saudi Arabia and Russia
will feel the greatest impact.
They also claim that the geopolitics of lithium, which along with nickel, cobalt and cadmium
is key to electric vehicles, are entirely different from oil politics. Although there is potential
for supply disruption, lithium is not as critical as oil in the life of a car.
The impact on government coffers
By 2030, revenues from petrol taxes could be reduced significantly, with the shift from
individual ownership of petrol vehicles to shared (and ultimately autonomous) electric vehi-
cle fleets. Governments whose budgets rely on this revenue stream could find themselves
shifting to road pricing, such as charging per kilometre of travel or congestion charging.
Modelling by Seba and his team shows that US$50 billion from petrol taxes could disappear
from the American economy.
(Source: Dia, H. (2020). ‘Jobs, tax and politics: three ways electric vehicles will change
our world’. The Montrose Review, January 2020)
A. Volkswagen plugs in B. How electric cars will

change the world
Negative points
Positive points
1.5
UNIT
Finding Key
Points and
Note-making
After finding a suitable source and identifying relevant sections of text, the next step
is to select the key points that relate to your topic and make notes on them. This unit
explains and practises this process, which also involves skills further developed in Unit
1.8 Summarising and Paraphrasing.
1 Why make notes?
Note-making is a common everyday activity which is often used to assist our memory.
In academic work making effective notes is a critical skill in various situations.
■ What are the main academic uses of note-making? Add to the list below.
a) To summarise the relevant points of an article or book
b)
c)
d)
e)
2 Finding key points
Before making notes, you need to find the main ideas in a text. These are often in the first sentence
of a paragraph, and tend to be followed by re-statements or examples.
► See Unit 1.10 Organising Paragraphs
DOI: 10.4324/9781003010210-6
■ Read the following article about fnancial fraud, underline the key points and then
choose a title for the article.
Title:_____________________________________________________________________
Despite its benefits, the worldwide web has created many new opportunities for criminals to
steal money through fraudulent emails and websites. It is difficult to make an accurate esti-
mate of the cost of internet scams, but the fraud research centre at Stanford University gives
a total of more than $50bn per year in the USA. The scammers are steadily becoming more
sophisticated and may clone authentic websites, or make phone calls that seem to come from
real banks or the tax authorities.
Many of the victims are wealthier retired people, who are deceived by fake websites offering
tax refunds or fraudulent dating profiles. Such people may be well-educated, but often they
overestimate their financial ability, and they may be especially vulnerable if suffering from a
recent emotional trauma such as divorce. Many people find it hard to admit, even to them-
selves, that they have been swindled out of their savings, and some never report their losses.
Normally banks refuse to compensate people who have lost money through these schemes,
although many victims argue that the banks are partly responsible for the functioning of
some of the scams. In turn, the banks maintain that some responsibility lies with the internet
companies that give a platform to the fraudsters. In Britain a voluntary code has been pre-
pared, which would compensate some victims who made bank payments after getting fake
messages from the ‘police’ or other authorities. But the question remains: who will fund the
compensation scheme?
3 Finding relevant points
When preparing to write an essay you have to search for information and ideas relevant to your
subject. Therefore, the key points that you select must relate to that topic.
■ You are given this essay title: ‘Can changes in social behaviour contribute to a reduc-
tion in global carbon emissions? Illustrate your answer with specifc examples’.
Read the following article and underline the key points that link to the essay topic.
CAN SHAME MAKE PEOPLE CHANGE THEIR BEHAVIOUR?
The last few years have seen the rise of environmental activists using shame as a weapon
against polluting businesses. This includes flygskam (a Swedish word meaning ‘flight
shame’) and campaigns against animal-based products, such as milk. Although the
1.5: Finding Key Points and Note-making 41
campaigners are relatively few in number they appear to be having a significant effect on
certain companies, for instance the Dutch airline KLM is suggesting that customers should
take a train on some routes. This appears to be a worldwide movement, so that many Chinese
consumers are also aware of the environmental dimension to their shopping. New startup
businesses seek to make a brand out of sustainability, as has been done by the car maker
Tesla.
Investors are also becoming concerned about the long-term outlook for polluting businesses
like airlines, which account for about 2% of total global carbon emissions. In Sweden pas-
sengers numbers were falling before the Covid-19 outbreak, a growing trend which casts
doubts on the airline industry’s forecast of steadily increasing demand.
Fashion is another industry in which companies are becoming concerned about the opinions
of young buyers. Causing considerably more carbon emissions than aviation, businesses
such as H&M have been producing dozens of new collections of garments every year, thus
contributing to a throwaway culture. In 2019 many of the leading fashion houses agreed to
clean up their practices, probably due to the threat from clothes rental or recycling startups.
Pressure on the food industry from vegetarians and vegans has been growing for some time.
As their numbers steadily increase, both McDonalds and Burger King have introduced burg-
ers made from plants, while many more restaurants have started to offer a better choice for
non-meat eaters. While reduced demand for meat products should reduce carbon emissions,
it is not clear how reducing consumption of locally sourced dairy products in favour, for
example, of imported soya milk is going to help the planet.
There are many historical precedents for this type of protest. In the late eighteenth century
American revolutionaries boycotted English tea, while at the same time British abolitionists
refused to buy sugar from the slave plantations of the West Indies, and in the apartheid years
South African products were widely avoided. Although presently only a minority concern,
firms should be aware that many of these campaigns have been successful in the past.
(Source: Radickova, E. (2020). International Perspectives 5: 89)
4 Practice A
■ You are looking for information on the everyday effects of technological change.
Study the text below (key points underlined) and the notes in the box. What do you
notice about the language of the notes?
●
●
A CASHLESS CONTINENT?
There are significant differences between payment methods among European countries. In
Scandinavia many shops and cafes no longer accept cash: all payments are made with credit
or debit cards. By contrast, in Italy and other southern states the majority of transactions are
still made in cash. The reasons for the variations are both historical and cultural.
Sweden is the leader in the ‘plastic revolution’, with about 95% of all payments (by value)
made by card. This method is seen as quicker and more convenient for both customers and
businesses, and also cheaper for the latter, since bank notes need to be sorted, checked and
protected. It is also thought that the use of cash encourages tax avoidance, while banks are
forced to maintain a large branch network to provide ATM facilities and also accept cash
deposits. A further argument against cash use is that cashless shops are less likely to be
robbed, so that the staff feel more secure.
In contrast, people in both Italy and Germany are far less enthusiastic about a cashless
society: here more than 75% of transactions are still made in cash. Their banks charge more
to handle card payments, so that shop keepers are less keen to accept them. In Germany
there also seem to be fears about security and privacy, perhaps as a legacy of state control
in the past, while some Italians apparently prefer to keep their transactions hidden from the
government.
Everywhere there are poorer people who have no bank account and consequently need to
operate in cash, and ultimately cash provides security in case the system breaks down. But
despite these considerations, cultural as well as economic, the benefits of a cashless economy
seem likely to result in a steady shift towards the use of plastic cards across Europe.
(Source: East-West Monthly, December 2017, p. 112)
EUROPEAN PAYMENT TRENDS
1. Wide variation in methods of payment in Europe – cultural & historical causes

2. In Scandinavia (esp. Sweden) most payments by card:
Reasons
a) fast and convenient + saves outlets money
b) prevents tax evasion
c) safer for shops
d) banks need fewer branches
3. In Germany & Italy most payments in cash:
a) higher bank charges for cards
b) security concerns
c) worries re: govt. interference
4. Cash needed by poor (no bank accounts) and for back-up but general trend
> cashless economy
(Source: East-West Monthly, December 2017, p. 112)
5 Effective note-making
Notes are for your personal use and you need to create your own style. But some general considera-
tions apply to all types of notes:
a) To avoid the risk of plagiarism you should use your own words and not copy phrases from the
original.
b) The quantity of notes you make depends on your task: you may only need a few points, or a lot
of detail.
c) Always record the source of your notes, which will save time when you have to write the list of
references.
d) Notes are written quickly, so keep them simple. Do not write sentences. Leave out articles (a/
the) and prepositions (of/to).
e) If you write lists, it is important to have clear headings (underlined) and numbering systems (a,
b, c, or 1, 2, 3,) to organise the information. Do not crowd your notes.
f) Use symbols (+, >, = ) to save time.
g) Use abbreviations (e.g. = for example). You may need to make up your own abbreviations for
your subject area. But do not abbreviate too much, or you may find your notes hard to under-
stand in the future!
6 Practice B
■ Complete the set of notes made from the relevant underlined points of ‘Can shame
make people change their behaviour?’ in 3) above.
IS SHAME AN EFFECTIVE BEHAVIOUR CHANGER?
a) Recent growth in environmental campaigns to shame custom-

ers of polluting companies
b)
c)
d)
e)
f)
7 Practice C
You have to write an essay titled: ‘How effective are methods of comparing the value of national
educational systems?’.
■ Read the following text, underline the relevant key points and make notes on them.
THE LEARNING TOWER OF PISA?
The Organisation for Economic Cooperation and Development (OECD) publishes the results
of the PISA (Programme for International Student Assessment) tests every three years. These
tests attempt to measure the ability of 15- and 16-year-olds in reading, maths and science in
all the member countries of the OECD (which are mainly richer states), so that by compar-
ing PISA scores a measure of the effectiveness of each country’s educational system can be
reached.
When these figures were first published 20 years ago Finland was shown to have the high-
est scores, and consequently many educationalists visited the country to learn the secrets
of its success. (In fact, so many went that the Finnish government began charging $1,300
per visit). They found a well-funded system of state schools with teachers who were highly
respected by society, but without the intense pressure on children found in places such as
South Korea or Japan.
However, the latest test results show that Finland’s scores have fallen since then, while
China, Singapore and Estonia have overtaken it. Yet overall, there has been little change in
the average scores over all the member countries, despite a 15% increase in spending per
pupil in the last decade. It is increasingly appreciated that schools and their teachers can only
have a limited effect on student achievement. Cultural norms, especially the national work
ethic, and rates of adult literacy are important. Another factor is immigration, since many
immigrant children do not speak the language of school at home, and tend to perform poorly
in tests.
Another consideration in evaluating the PISA results may be distinct local circumstances.
Estonia, for instance, has had significant emigration, resulting in a drop of nearly 30% in
the school population since 2000. The resulting small class sizes may well be a factor in the
success of its students in the tests. This suggests that trying, for example, to replicate the
Estonian model of education in another country may be of limited value.
UNIT
1.6
Avoiding
Plagiarism
Plagiarism is a concern for both teachers and students, but it can be avoided by clearly
understanding the issues involved. In the English-speaking academic world it is essential
for students to use a wide range of sources in their written work, and to acknowledge these
sources following academic conventions – otherwise there is a risk of plagiarism. This
unit introduces the techniques needed to do this. Further practice is provided in Units 1.7
References and Quotations and 1.8 Summarising and Paraphrasing.
1 Acknowledging sources
If you borrow from or refer to the work of another person, you must show that you have done this
by providing the correct acknowledgement.
■ Read this paragraph from an article called ‘The morale effects of pay inequality’ by
Emily Breza, Supreet Kaur and Yogita Shamdasani (2018).
We find evidence that relative pay enters workers’ utility function, with the potential for siz-
able negative impacts on labor supply and group cohesion. However, our findings indicate
that pay inequality in itself is not necessarily problematic – at least not if it is clearly justified
in the workers’ eyes.
There are two ways to use this idea in your work and acknowledge the source:
1. Summary and citation

Breza et al. (2018) found that pay inequality could have a negative effect on employees,
unless it could be justified in their terms.
DOI: 10.4324/9781003010210-7
1.6: Avoiding Plagiarism 47
2. Quotation and citation

According to Breza et al.: ‘relative pay enters workers’ utility function, with the potential
for sizable negative impacts on labor supply and group cohesion. However, our findings indi-
cate that pay inequality in itself is not necessarily problematic’ (Breza et al., 2018:623).
These in-text citations are linked to a list of references at the end of the main text which includes
the following details:
Author(s) Date Title Journal title Details

Breza, E., Kaur, 2018 The morale The Quarterly Volume 133,
S., Shamdasani, effects of pay Journal of Issue 2, May
Y. inequality Economics 2018, pp. 611–663
The citation makes it clear to readers that you have read Breza, Kaur and Shamdasani and borrowed
this idea from them. This reference also gives readers the necessary information to find the source
if they want to study the original article.
NB: There are various styles of referencing in the academic world, and different subjects tend
to use different styles. The example here uses Harvard, but more details are given in Unit 1.7
References and Quotations.
2 What is plagiarism?
Essentially plagiarism means taking ideas or words from a source (e.g. a book or journal article)
without giving credit (acknowledgement) to the author. It is seen as a kind of theft, and is consid-
ered to be an academic crime. In academic work, ideas and texts are thought of as private property
belonging to the person who first thought or wrote them. Therefore it is important for all students
to understand the meaning of plagiarism and learn how to prevent it in their work.
This situation may appear confusing, since students are expected:
to show that they have read the to explain these ideas in their own
relevant sources on a subject (by but words, and come to their own
giving citations) conclusions.
Understanding this requirement and being able to follow the rules is vital to achieving success in
the academic community. Reasons why students must avoid plagiarism include:
● copying the work of others will not help them develop their own understanding
● plagiarism is easily detected by teachers and computer software, such as Turnitin*
● it shows a lack of respect for classmates who have worked independently
● plagiarism may lead to failing a course or even having to leave college
* This software can also be used by students who want to check that their written work does not
contain plagiarism before they submit it for marking. See: https://www.turnitin.com/regions/uk
3 Basic plagiarism
■ Study the following sentence on early feminist movements:
What is more remarkable, however, is the way the breakdown of royal government in 1640,
the prolonged political crisis between King and parliament of 1640–42, the Civil Wars of
1642–48, and the emergence of many extremist independent sects and of a genuinely radical
political party, stimulated the women of London and elsewhere to unprecedented political
activity.
(Source: Stone, L. (1979). The Family, Sex and Marriage in England. Harmondsworth:
Penguin)
■ Working with a partner, decide if the following, written by a student, is plagiarised

from the previous extract:
A series of events: the 1640 collapse of royal government, the lengthy political crisis between
parliament and the King, the 1642–48 Civil Wars, followed by the appearance of extreme
sects and a genuinely radical party, caused women in London to become politically active
for the first time.
Not only does the above text lack citation, it also retains some phrases from the original and follows
exactly the same structure. So avoiding plagiarism involves more than changing some vocabulary:
ideas must be expressed in the writer’s own voice and correct citation must be included.
4 Degrees of plagiarism
Although plagiarism essentially means copying somebody else’s work, in some situations it can be
difficult to decide if plagiarism is involved.
■ Working with a partner, consider the following academic situations and decide if they
are plagiarism or not.
Situation Plagiarism?
1 Copying a paragraph, but changing a few words, and not Yes
giving a citation.
2 Cutting and pasting a short article from a website, with no
citation.
Situation Plagiarism?
3 Taking two paragraphs from a classmate’s essay, without
citation.
4 Taking a graph from a textbook, giving the source.
5 Taking a quotation from an article, giving a citation but not
using quotation marks.
6 Using something that you think of as general knowledge,
e.g. the earth’s climate is getting warmer.
7 Using a paragraph from an essay you wrote and had marked
the previous semester, without citation.
8 Using the results of your own unpublished research, e.g.
from a survey you did, without citation.
9 Discussing an essay topic with a group of classmates and
using some of their ideas in your own work.
10 Giving a citation for some information but misspelling the
author’s name.
This exercise shows that plagiarism can be accidental. For example, situation (10) above, when the
author’s name is misspelt, is technically plagiarism but really carelessness. In situation (9) your
teacher may have told you to discuss the topic in groups, and then to write an essay on your own,
in which case it would not be plagiarism. Self-plagiarism is also possible, as in situation (7). It can
be difficult to decide what is general or common knowledge (situation 6), but you can always try
asking colleagues.
However, it is not a good excuse to say that you didn’t know the rules of plagiarism, or that you
didn’t have time to write in your own words. In general, anything that is not common knowledge or
your own ideas and research (published or not) must be cited and referenced.
5 Avoiding plagiarism by summarising and paraphrasing
Quotations should not be overused, as they may give the impression that you are ‘padding out’ your
work. So in order to include other writers’ ideas in your work you must learn to paraphrase and
summarise. This will demonstrate your understanding of a text to your teacher.
● Paraphrasing involves rewriting a text so that the language is significantly different while the
content stays the same.
● Summarising means reducing the length of a text but retaining the main points.
► See Unit 1.8 Summarising and Paraphrasing

Normally both skills are used at the same time, as can be seen in the examples (a–e) below.
■ Read the following text and then compare the fve paragraphs below which use ideas
and information from it. Decide which are plagiarised and which are acceptable, and
give your reasons in the table below.
The Z Generation
Researchers have recently been studying the behaviour of ‘Generation Z’, who are defined as young
people born since 1997. This group appear to have different concerns compared with their predeces-
sors, the so-called ‘Millenials’ or ‘Generation Y’. The youngest group (i.e. Z), who now comprise
about 25% of the population of the USA, cannot imagine living without smartphones or social media.
Pew Research Center’s 2018 report, which surveyed nearly 1,000 young Americans aged between
13 and 17, finds that they are lonelier but better behaved than previous groups, and their prime concern
is with mental health issues such as depression. These youngsters feel little pressure to use drugs or
get drunk, but more than half mention bullying on social media as a worry. Doing well at school is the
leading issue for nearly 90% of those questioned, far more important than finding a sexual partner.
However, it appears that anxiety and depression increasingly affect people of all ages, and the
WHO reckons that the cost to the global economy is roughly $1 trn annually. At the moment the
US only spends 0.05% of its total health budget on psychiatric care, and increasing this total would
have positive results in terms of greater happiness and productivity.
(Source: Carroll, J. (2019). The New Consumers. Harlow: The Turnstile Press, p. 15)
a) A recent study by Pew Research Center of the concerns of teenage Americans shows that this
generation is surprisingly different from older groups. Instead of using drugs and alcohol,
these youngsters are mainly worried about academic success and bullying on social media.
Mental health is an important issue for them, but this appears to be something that increasingly
affects young and old, globally.
b) Academics have recently been studying the behaviour of ‘Generation Z’: young people born
since 1997, who now comprise about 25% of the population of the USA. A 2018 report, which
surveyed nearly 1,000 young Americans, finds that they are lonelier but better behaved than
previous groups, and their main concern is with mental health issues like depression. These
youngsters feel little pressure to use drugs or get drunk, but more than half mention bullying
on social media as a worry. Doing well in college is the leading issue for most of those ques-
tioned, far more important than finding a sexual partner (Carroll, 2019: 15).
c) Generation Z is the name given to people born since 1997, who have grown up with smart-
phones and social media. A report by Pew Research Center in 2018 identifies this cohort as
mainly concerned with success at school and abuse on social media sites. They seem less inter-
ested in sex, drink or drugs, but more concerned with mental health, although apparently this
is a growing concern for people all over the world (Carroll, 2019: 15).
d) Recent research on American youngsters (age 13–17) reveals that their dominant concerns are
with school grades and mental health issues, such as depression. According to Carroll: ‘These
youngsters feel little pressure to use drugs or get drunk, but more than half mention bullying
on social media as a worry’ (Carroll, 2019: 15).
e) The main issues for young Americans appear to be doing well academically, bullying on social
media sites and dealing with mental health problems. This has been revealed by research car-
ried out by Pew Research Centre, published in 2018. This contrasts markedly with the behav-
iour of older groups, who were more likely to be concerned with alcohol or drug taking, or
finding a partner (Carol, 2019: 15).
Plagiarised or Reason
acceptable?
a
6 Avoiding plagiarism by developing good study habits
Few students deliberately try to cheat by plagiarising, but some develop poor study habits which
result in the risk of plagiarism.
■ Working with a partner, add to the list of positive habits.

• Plan your work carefully so you don’t have to write essays at the last minute.
• Take care to make notes in your own words, not copying from the source.
• Keep a full record of all the sources you use (e.g. author, date, title, page num-
bers, place of publication, publisher).
• Remember that charts, graphs and tables also need citation.
• Oral presentations should include references to your sources and should make it
clear when you are quoting.
► See Unit 1.5 Finding Key Points and Note-making
7 Practice A
■ Read this text on the link between Olympic success and national prosperity.
Wealth is an important advantage in pursuing Olympic medals. Clearly, a large population also
has benefits, since this is more likely to include people with sporting abilities. But countries must
be able to mobilise their human resources: in the London Olympics in 2012 India, with its huge
population, only won six medals, while New Zealand (with just 4 million) won 13. When many
people are affected by poverty and illness it is not easy to be ordinarily healthy, let alone be an
Olympic athlete. In fact richer countries have both healthier populations and can also spend more
on encouraging sport. China won only 58 medals in 2000, when its GDP per person was under
$4,000. But at the 2012 London Olympics, when its GDP figure had risen to $16,000, China won
a total of 88. Governments are also finding that there are benefits in focusing efforts on a limited
number of sports in which there is less competition: this was the tactic that led to British success in
the cycling events in 2016.
(Source: Kaufman, S. (2017). Gold, Silver, Bronze. New York: Avery Newbold, p. 3)
■ Add a citation to the summary and quotation below.

(Summary)
Kaufman argues that wealth (expressed as GDP per head) rather than size of population is the
key to national success in the Olympics.
(Quotation)
Large populations alone do not guarantee good national results at the Olympics. Countries
must also be wealthy enough to have healthy citizens and be able to provide resources for train-
ing. As Kaufman points out: ‘When many people are affected by poverty and illness it is not easy
to be ordinarily healthy, let alone be an Olympic athlete’.
8 Practice B
■ Revise the contents of this unit by matching the words on the left with the defnitions
on the right.
a. Source Full publication details of a text or other source
b. Citation The origin of ideas or information
c. To summarise To reduce the length of a text while keeping the main points
d. Quotation Short in-text note giving the author’s name and publication date
e. Reference Using different words or word order to restate a text
f. Paraphrase Using the exact words of the original text in your work
9 Research
Look on your college or university website to find out the policy on plagiarism. It may raise some
issues that you want to discuss with colleagues or your teachers.
If you can’t find anything for your particular institution, try one of these sites:
http://owl.english.purdue.edu/owl/resource/589/01/
http://www.uefap.com/writing/plagiar/plagfram.htm
Progress
Check A
These exercises will help you assess your understanding of Units 1–6 in Part 1: The Writing Process.
1 Decide if the following statements are true or false.

a) Academic writing aims to be accurate and impersonal.
b) A case study looks at the views of other writers on the same topic.
c) Academic journals are usually peer-reviewed.
d) Students should read every page of the books on their reading lists.
e) When searching library catalogues it is better to use very specific terms.
f) Abstracts generally have a four- or five-part structure.
g) Plagiarism often means copying another writer’s words without acknowledgement.
h) Introductions are normally about 30% of the essay’s length.
i) Note-making should always include the source of the notes.
j) Websites are often less reliable sources than books.
k) The best kind of outline is a mind map.
2 Study the table below and write two simple and two longer sentences about the data.
Results of Student Satisfaction Surveys: Bullbridge College 2017–2020
2017 2018 2019 2020

Quality of teaching 86% 81% 75% 92%
Facilities 58% 65% 50% 47%
Overall 72% 73% 62.5% 69.5%
a)
b)
c)
d)
DOI: 10.4324/9781003010210-8
3 Read the abstract below and underline the following sections:
a) Aim
b) Method
c) Findings
d) Conclusions
Complementary and alternative medicine use in

Australia: a national population-based survey
Charlie C.L. Xue, Anthony L. Zhang, Vivian Lin, Cliff Da Costa and David F. Story
Abstract
The objective of this study was to investigate the use of and expenditure on 17 of the most popular
forms of complementary and alternative medicine (CAM) by adult Australians, the sociodemo-
graphic characteristics of CAM users, and communication between CAM users and their doctors.
In May–June 2005, a sample of 1067 adults, 18 years and older, from all Australian states and
territories, was recruited by random-digit telephone dialling and interviewed about their CAM use
in the previous 12 months. In the 12-month period, 68.9% of those interviewed used at least one
of the 17 forms of CAM and 44.1% visited a CAM practitioner. The estimated number of visits to
CAM practitioners by adult Australians in the 12-month period (69.2 million) was almost identical
to the estimated number of visits to medical practitioners (69.3 million). The annual ‘out of pocket’
expenditure on CAM, nationally, was estimated as 4.13 billion Australian dollars (US $3.12 bil-
lion). Less than half of the users always informed their medical practitioners about their use of
CAM. The most common characteristics of CAM users were: age, 18–34; female; employed; well-
educated; private health insurance coverage; and higher-than-average incomes. CAM use nation-
ally in Australia appears to be considerably higher than estimated from previous Australian studies.
This may reflect an increasing popularity of CAM; however, regional variations in CAM use and
the broader range of CAM included in the current study may contribute to the difference. Most
frequently, doctors would not appear to be aware of their patient’s use of CAM.
(Source: (2007). The Journal of Alternative and Complementary Medicine 13 (6), pp. 643–650)
4 Critically read the text below and decide if it is a reliable source by completing the table.
How green is the greenbelt?
Five large English cities contain about 100,000 acres of land which are officially classified as
‘greenbelt’, meaning that they cannot be built on. This would provide enough space for 2.5 million
new homes at average densities. Although lots of people think that ‘greenbelt’ means a park-like
landscape full of grazing animals, in reality much of the land is semi-derelict. For many years this
Progress Check A 55
land has been seen as sacred, but politicians are now calling for it to be released for constructing
homes that young people can afford.
As the cost of housing increases in many parts of the rich world, other countries are revising their
land-planning rules. Germany made new building easier in 2017, as did California in 2019, in both
places due to pressure from millennials unable to get on the housing ladder. Academic research has
compared housing costs in the expensive south-east of England with the cheaper north-east and
found that in 2008 prices in the south would have been 25% lower if controls had been as lax as in
the north.
However, other research claims that the cause of rocketing property prices is cheaper borrowing.
As interest rates have fallen globally it has become easier for landlords and owner occupiers to pay
high mortgage costs. This was the case in both Spain and Ireland before the property crash of 2008:
house building was booming yet at the same time prices were accelerating. Clearly both factors (i.e.
supply and demand) may have contributed to the situation.
Positive points Negative points
Imprecise: ‘Five large English

cities’ – which?
UNIT
1.7
References and
Quotations
Academic work depends on using the research and ideas of others, so it is vital to show
which sources you have used in your work and to do so in an acceptable manner. This
unit explains:
● The format of in-text citation
● The main referencing systems
● The use of quotations
● How to format lists of references
1 Why give references?
There are three principal reasons for providing citations and references:
a) to show that you have read some of the previous studies of the subject, which will add weight
to your writing;
b) to allow readers to find the sources you have used, if they wish to examine the topic in more
detail;
c) to avoid plagiarism, and show that you understand the rules of the academic community.
► See Unit 1.6 Avoiding Plagiarism
■ Since not every idea in your writing requires referencing, decide if you need to give a
reference in the following cases.
Reference needed? Yes/No

a) Data you found from your own primary research
b) A graph from an internet article
DOI: 10.4324/9781003010210-9
c) A quotation from a book

d) An item of common knowledge e.g. exercise is good for you
e) A theory from a journal article
f) An idea of your own based on reading several sources
g) A comment made by a person you interviewed for your research
2 Citations and references
It is important to refer correctly to the work of other writers which you have used. You may present
these sources as a summary or paraphrase, as a quotation, or use both. In each case a citation needs
to be included to provide a link to the list of references at the end of your paper:
Smith (2009) argues that the popularity of the Sports Utility Vehicle (SUV) is irrational, as
despite their high cost most are never driven off-road. In his view ‘they are bad for road safety, the
environment and road congestion’ (Smith, 2009: 37).
Reference
Smith, M. (2009). Power and the State. Basingstoke: Palgrave Macmillan
■ Underline the citations in the example above. Which is for a summary

and which a quotation? What are the advantages of each?
Giving citations
A quotation Author’s family name, date of publication, (Smith, 2009: 37)

page no.
A summary Author’s family name, date of publication Smith (2009)
3 Reference verbs
a) Summaries and quotations are usually introduced by a reference verb:
Ganghof (2019) argues that …

Janovic (1972) claimed that …
1.7: References and Quotations 59
These verbs can be either in the present or the past tense. Normally the use of the present tense sug-
gests that the source is recent and still valid, while the past tense indicates that the source is older
and may be out-of-date, but there are no hard-and-fast rules about this.
If the source is contributing to an on-going debate then the present tense is appropriate even if
the publication date is not recent:
George Tsebelis (2002) uses the concept of ‘veto player’ to theoretically unify the comparative
analysis of political systems.
NB: In some disciplines (e.g. History, Politics) older sources may still be relevant. Also note that
some writers choose to give the full name of a source (e.g. George Tsebelis) when mentioned for
the first time.
The choice of reference verb depends on its function. Referring verbs are commonly used to
summarise another writer’s ideas:
Bakewell (1992) found that most managers tended to use traditional terms.
They may also be used to introduce a quotation.
As Scott observed: ‘Comment is free but facts are sacred’.
Most of the verbs below are followed by a noun clause beginning with ‘that’.
a) The following mean that the writer is presenting a case:

argue claim consider hypothesise suggest believe think state
Melville (2017) suggests that eating raw eggs can be harmful.
b) A second group describe a reaction to a previously stated position:

accept admit agree with deny doubt
Handlesmith doubts Melville’s suggestion that eating raw eggs could be harmful.
c) Others include:
assume conclude discover explain imply
indicate maintain presume reveal show
Patel (2013) assumes that inflation will remain low.
4 Practice A
■ Write a sentence referring to what the following writers said, using a verb from 3)
above (more than one verb may be suitable).
Example: Z: ‘My research shows that biofuels are environmentally neutral’.
Z claimed/argued that biofuels were environmentally neutral.
a) Allison: ‘I may have made a mistake in my calculations on energy loss’.

b) Becher: ‘I did not say that women make better doctors than men’.
c) Curanovic: ‘Small frms are more dynamic than large ones’.

d) De Haas: ‘I support Curanovic’s views on small frms’.
e) Eden: ‘I’m not sure, but most people probably work to earn money’.
f) Freire: ‘After much research, I’ve found that allergies are becoming more common’.
g) Gvosdev: ‘I think it unlikely that electric cars will replace conventional ones’.
h) Heisbourg: ‘There may be a link between crime and sunspot activity’.
5 Referencing systems
There are various systems of referencing employed in the academic world, each used by different
subjects. Some disciplines, e.g. law, have their own special system (OSCOLA). Your teachers will
normally give you guidelines about which system you are expected to use, or you may find these on
your library website. With any system, the most important point is to be consistent, e.g. to use the
same punctuation rules throughout your work.
Each system specifies how to reference a wide variety of sources; not only books and journals
but also sources such as films, music, blogs and oral testimony. Referencing is a complex subject
and students should use an online referencing guide for detailed information.
Sussex University provides a convenient guide to the different systems at: http://www.sussex.ac.
uk/skillshub/?id=451
These are some of the principal systems:
a) Harvard, generally used in the UK for Social Sciences and Business, illustrated in 2) above.
b) MLA is similar to Harvard but more common in the USA for the Arts and Humanities. In this
the year of publication comes at the end of the reference.
c) APA is widely used in the USA in the Social Sciences.
d) Vancouver is commonly employed in Medicine and Science. Numbers in brackets are inserted
after the citation and these link to a numbered list of references:
Jasanoff (5) makes the point that the risk of cross-infection is growing.
(5) Jasanoff, M. Tuberculosis: A Sub-Saharan Perspective. New York: Schaffter (2001)
e) Footnote/endnote systems are commonly used in the Humanities. Here sources are listed
either at the bottom of the page or at the end of the paper. The numbers in superscript run con-
secutively throughout the paper.
The effects of the French Revolution were felt throughout Europe.³
3. Karl Wildavsky, The End of an Era: Spain 1785–1815 (Dublin: University Press, 2006)
p. 69
6 Using quotations
■ Discuss with a partner reasons for using quotations in your written work.
Using a quotation means bringing the original words of a writer into your work. Quotations are
effective in some situations, but must not be overused. They can be valuable:
● when the original words express an idea in a distinctive way

● when the original is more concise than your summary could be
● when the original version is well known (e.g. Friedman below)
All quotations should be introduced by a phrase which shows the source, and also explains how this
quotation fits into your argument:
Introductory Source Reference Quotation Citation

phrase verb
This view is as stated: ‘Infation is the one (Friedman,
widely shared; Friedman form of taxation 1974: 93).
that can be imposed
without legislation’
a) Short quotations (1–2 lines) are shown by single quotation marks. Quotations inside quotations
(nested quotations) use double quotation marks:
As Kauffman remarked: ‘his concept of “internal space” requires close analysis’.
b) Longer quotations (3 or more lines) are either indented (given a wider margin) and/or printed
in smaller type. In this case quotations marks are not needed:
Similarly, she says:
One of the many things that people need to be able to do, if their life is to be worthy of human
dignity, is to have access to the legal system on terms of equality with other people. …The due
process rights … are also fundamental opportunities to act and be treated as a fully equal
citizen. (Nussbaum, 2011a: 28)
c) Page numbers should be given after the date.
d) Care must be taken to ensure that quotations are the exact words of the original. If it is neces-
sary to delete some words which are irrelevant, use ellipsis (…) to show where the missing
section was:
‘Few inventions … have been as significant as the mobile phone’.
e) It may be necessary to insert a word or phrase into the quotation to clarify a point. This can be
done by using square brackets [ ]. This indicates that you have added to or changed the original:
‘… modern ideas [of freedom] differ radically from those of the ancient world’.
f) If you are quoting something which you are aware contains a grammatical or factual mistake,
show this by inserting [sic] immediately after the incorrect word or error:
He claimed that ‘the company was to [sic] big to fail’.
g) If a writer has published more than one book or article in a year it is necessary to add a/b/c to
the date to differentiate between works in the reference list:
(Nussbaum, 2011a: 28)
h) The quotation you are using may contain conventions differing from those you are following
(e.g. US spellings such as labor). It is important to reproduce the original in exactly the
same form as it was written.
7 Practice B
■ Read the following text from an article called ‘Dealing with transition’ in the journal
Education Review (Autumn 2016, pp. 45–47) by A. Kelman.
Students entering Higher Education (HE, i.e. degree-level study) often find the transition
from school to university difficult to manage. This can be especially true of the demands
of essay writing, a skill required in the majority of subjects. A study by McEwan (2015)
explored the reasons for difficulties at this stage by comparing the expectations of staff and
students towards writing essays. He found significant differences between the two, and sug-
gested ways in which the differences could be reduced.
It often takes time for new students to adjust to the learning culture of HE, and much
depends on their previous academic experience. Teaching staff at degree level expect stu-
dents to study independently and not to need regular supervision, although recently universi-
ties have begun to provide more support for first-year students to help them adjust to these
expectations.
■ Compare the following. Discuss which you prefer with a partner.
a) Summary
Kelman (2016) maintains that the transition from school to university study is particularly hard in
terms of writing essays. She refers to McEwan’s research on the mis-match between student and
teacher expectations, and highlights the need to give students time to adapt to a new academic
culture.
b) Quotation
Kelman discusses McEwan’s research on the gap between the expectations of staff and students
with regard to essay writing at first-year university level:
It often takes time for new students to adjust to the learning culture of HE, and much depends
on their previous academic experience. Teaching staff at degree-level expect students to
study independently and not to need regular supervision.
(Kelman, 2016: 45)
c) Summary and quotation
Kelman (2016) points out that one area of serious concern for first-year university students is writ-
ing essays. She looks at the study done by McEwan on the differences between teachers’ and stu-
dents’ perceptions of essay writing, which highlighted one distinct difficulty: ‘Teaching staff at
degree-level expect students to study independently and not to need regular supervision’ (Kelman,
2016: 45).
■ Read the next part of the same text, also from p. 45.
McEwan argues that student success at university level is partly dependent on narrowing the
difference between student and staff expectations. This is particularly important now that
the student body includes an increasing proportion of international students, who may take
longer to adapt to the university culture. The same is also true of the increasingly diverse
university staff, who often come from very different academic cultures.
The two most significant findings of the study concerned plagiarism and essay focus. In
both cases there was a substantial difference between staff and student opinion. While all the
students claimed to understand the meaning of plagiarism, a majority of teachers (over 60%)
felt that they didn’t. Similarly, nearly all the students claimed to focus on answering the
question in the essay title, but only one fifth of the teachers thought that they did.
■ a) Write a summary of the main point, including a citation.

b) Introduce a quotation to show the key point, referring to the source.
c) Combine the summary and the quotation, again acknowledging the source.
8 Abbreviations in citations
In-text citations use the following abbreviations, derived from Latin and printed in italics:
et al.: used when three or more authors are given. The full list of names is given in the reference list:
Many Americans fail to vote (Hobolt et al., 2006: 137)
ibid.: taken from the same source (and the same page) as the previous citation:
Older Americans are more likely to vote than the young (ibid.)
Note that journal articles increasingly tend to use full citations at each occurrence, but students
should still use the above in their work. Note also that the use of op. cit. seems to be reducing, and
that ibid. is used more in its place.
► See Unit 4.1 Approaches to Vocabulary: Abbreviations
9 Secondary references
It is quite common to find a reference to an original source in the text you are reading.
For instance, in the text by Kelman in 6) above she says:
A study by McEwan (2015) explored the reasons for difficulties at this stage by comparing the
expectations of staff and students towards writing essays.
You may wish to use this information from the original (i.e. McEwan) in your writing, even if you
have not read the whole work. This is known as a secondary reference. If it is not possible to locate
the original, you can refer to it thus:
McEwan (2015), cited in Kelman (2016: 45) compared the expectations of …
You must ensure that you include the work you have read, i.e. Kelman, in the list of references.
10 Internet references
Note that references to websites should include the hyperlink to the website and the date at which it
was accessed in square brackets. If no author is given use the title of the publication. For example:
Higher Education Funding Council for England (HEFCE) (2010) Research Impact. Available
from http://www.hefce.ac.uk/rsrch/REFimpact/ [Accessed 21 July 2016].
11 Organising the list of references
There are many software systems available, e.g. RefWorks or Endnote, which automate the
making of a list of references. Using one of them not only saves time, but may also help to
produce a more accurate result. Some are free and others require payment, but if you search
your library website you may find one which you can access without charge.
At the end of an essay or report there must be a list of all the sources cited in the piece of writing.
In some reference systems there may be a bibliography, which also includes sources read but not
mentioned.
In the Harvard system, illustrated here, the list is organised alphabetically by the family name
of the author. You should be clear about the difference between first names and family names. On
title pages the normal format is first name, then family name:
Sheila Burford, Juan Gonzalez
But in citations usually only the family name is used:
Burford (2001), Gonzalez (1997)
In reference lists use the family name and the initial(s):
Burford, S., Gonzalez, J.
If you are not sure which name is the family name, ask a classmate from that cultural background.
■ Study the reference list below from a paper about the transition
from school to university and answer the questions which follow.
REFERENCES
Bryman, A. (2004). Social Research Methods. 2nd ed. Oxford: Oxford University Press.
Carroll, J. (2007). A Handbook for Deterring Plagiarism in Higher Education. 2nd ed.
Oxford: Oxford Centre for Staff and Learning Development.
Cook, A. and Leckey, J. (1999). ‘Do expectations meet reality? A survey of changes in first‐
year student opinion’. Journal of Further and Higher Education 23 (2): 157–171.
Crisp, G., Palmer, E., Turnbull, D., Nettelbeck, T., Ward, L., LeCouteur, A., Sarris, A.,
Strelan, P. and Schneider, L. (2009). ‘First year student expectations: results from a
university-wide student survey’. Journal of University Teaching and Learning Practice
6 (1): 11–26.
Killen, R. (1994). ‘Differences between students’ and lecturers’ perceptions of factors
influencing students’ academic success at university’. Higher Education Research and
Development 13 (2): 199–211.
Leese, M. (2010). ‘Bridging the gap: supporting student transitions into higher education’.
Journal of Further and Higher Education 34 (2): 239–251.
Lowe, H. and Cook, A. (2003). ‘Mind the gap: are students prepared for HE?’ Journal of
Further and Higher Education 27 (1): 53–76.
Moore, D. and McCabe, G. (2006). Introduction to the Practice of Statistics. 5th ed. New
York: W.H. Freeman and Company.
Ryan, J. and Carroll, J. (2005). ‘Canaries in the coalmine: International students in Western
universities’. In J. Carroll and J. Ryan (Eds). Teaching International Students:
Improving Learning for All. Abingdon: Routledge.
The Times. (2016). ‘Coping with transition from sixth form to university’, 26 September
2016, p. 4.
Tinto, V. (1987). Leaving College: Rethinking the Causes and Cures of Student Attrition.
Chicago, IL: University of Chicago Press.
White, P. (2013). Embracing Diversity. 7th Annual Learning and Teaching Conference,
9 January 2013, [online]. Available at: https://www.shef.ac.uk/lets/cpd/conf/2013/res/
preso [Accessed 10 July 2014].
a) Find an example of: i) a book by one author

ii) a journal article by nine authors
iii) a chapter in an edited book
iv) a conference paper
v) a journal article by one author
vi) a book by two authors
b) What are the differences between the format of references for books and journal articles?
Books: _
Journal articles:
c) When are italics used?
d) How are capital letters used in titles?
e) How is a source with no given author listed?
f) Write citations for summaries of the first five sources in the list of references above (see (2) for
model).
i)
ii)
iii)
iv)
v)
UNIT
1.8
Summarising
and
Paraphrasing
Summarising and paraphrasing are normally used together in academic writing.

●● Summarising aims to reduce information to a suitable length, allowing the writer to
condense lengthy sources into a concise form.
●● Paraphrasing means changing the wording of a text so that it is significantly different
from the original source, without changing the meaning.
●● Both are needed to avoid the risk of plagiarism, and this unit practises them both
separately and jointly.
1 What makes a good summary?
Summarising is a common activity in everyday life. It is used to describe the main features of a
subject in order to give a clear and simple impression. For example, if you have been to Tokyo, you
might tell a friend:
Tokyo’s a huge city with mainly modern buildings and a dense network of public transport. It
has many busy shopping centres which are crowded day and night.
■■ Write a short description of one of the topics below in no more than 30 words.
a) A town or city you know well
b) A product you have recently bought
c) A film you have watched recently
■■ Compare your summary with others in your class. Discuss what is needed for a good
summary and write your ideas below.
•
•
•
DOI: 10.4324/9781003010210-10
2 Stages of summarising
Summarising is a flexible tool. You can use it to give a one-sentence outline of an article, or to pro-
vide much more detail, depending on your needs. Generally a summary focuses on the main ideas
and tends to exclude examples or supporting information. When writing a summary, the same basic
steps always need to be followed in order to meet the criteria discussed in 1) above.
■ Study the stages of summary writing below, which have been mixed up. Complete
the chart to show their correct order.
• Write the summary from your notes, reorganising the structure if needed.
• Make notes of the key points, paraphrasing where possible.
• Read the original text carefully and check any new or diffcult vocabulary.
• Mark the key points by underlining or highlighting.
• Check the summary to ensure it is accurate and nothing important has been
changed or lost.
3 Practice A
■ Read the following text and the summaries which follow. Which is best? Rank them
from 1 (= best) to 3 and give reasons.
DISRUPTIVE TECHNOLOGY
This phrase was first used by Joseph Bower and Clayton Christensen of the Harvard Business
School in 1995. They employed it to describe a new technology that appeals to a minority
section of the market, but a large enough minority to allow the technology to take root and
develop. Companies that continue to use the older technology run the risk of being left behind
if they do not adopt the innovation at the right moment. A good example in the mid-1990s was
the digital camera. The first models were more expensive than film cameras and had lower
picture quality. But their important advantages were that they allowed the photographer to see
the results immediately, and it was possible to download the images to a computer for storage,
printing or emailing. Since then, digital cameras have completely transformed the industry and
are now standard in many devices such as mobile phones. The business of making film has
almost ceased, and the vast majority of cameras sold are now digital.
1.8: Summarising and Paraphrasing 69
a) Disruptive technology is a new invention which attracts enough buyers to become

established in the market, and then to improve and grow. For example, the frst
digital cameras, launched years ago, took poor-quality pictures and were costly,
but had some important benefts. Today they dominate the market, and the older
type of camera, which uses expensive flm, is now less popular.
b) Bower and Christensen from Harvard introduced the term ‘disruptive technology’
in 1995, to characterise a new technology which sold well enough to enter the
market, and could then be developed further. The digital camera, for instance,
was originally expensive and had low picture quality. However, it had impor-
tant advantages which quickly allowed it to virtually replace the traditional flm
camera.
c) Digital cameras are a good example of a disruptive technology, a term used by
Bower and Christensen of Harvard Business School in 1995 to describe a new
technology that initially wins enough market share to survive and develop. These
cameras at frst produced inferior pictures, but had the critical advantages of
showing the picture instantly, and allowing the user to download the image. After
a few years they dominated the camera market, while traditional flm cameras
almost became redundant.
1.
2.
3.
4 Practice B
■ a) Read the following text and underline the key points.
AFRICA CALLING
In many African countries mobile phone ownership is aiding new businesses to get started.
Farmers can easily find current market prices for their crops, and traders can use mobile
money services to make payments. It seems clear that as more people use these phones,
national GDP rises, but it is difficult to quantify this precisely. Ten years ago there were
only 130 million mobile users in the entire continent; now the number is over one billion.
However, this figure is deceptive; many Africans have two or more SIM cards, and in reality
only about half of Africa’s 1.2 billion people have access to a mobile phone.
Inevitably, the Africans who have phones tend to be better-educated urban dwellers, but even
these are often unable to access the internet, according to an estimate by the International
Telecommunications Union (ITU). They claim that 75% of Africans are unable to use the
net, with figures as high as 95% in places like Chad. This is because much of the continent
is rural and sparsely populated, so that providing mobile phone masts in these districts is
uneconomic. Even fewer people can receive a fast 4G signal, and when available, costs are
high.
But the situation may be improving due to advances in technology. New cables are facili-
tating the connection with other continents, and fibre optic networks are being installed
in major cities. Modern satellites are also lowering transmission costs, and solar-powered
phone masts are cheaper to run in remote villages. But one significant obstacle to these
developments is the heavy taxation many governments impose on the telecom companies,
which can be as high as 50% in places such as Tanzania.
(Source: Weiss, J. and Evans, P. (2019). African Perspectives. Edinburgh: The Polity Press,
pp. 213–214)
► See Unit 1.5 Finding Key Points and Note-making
■ b) Complete the notes of the key points below.

i) Mobile phones have helped
ii) Link between higher phone ownership
iii) Only half of Africans
iv) New developments
v) But
■ c) Join the notes together and expand them to make the fnal summary in about
70 words. Check that the meaning is clear and no important points have been left
out. Find a suitable title.
Title:____________________________________________________________________
d) This summary is about 25% of the length of the original, but it could be summa-
rised further.
■ Summarise the summary in no more than 30 words.
5 Practice C
■ Summarise the following text in about 60 words.

THE UNEASY RISE OF VIDEOCONFERENCING
The 2020 Covid-19 epidemic accelerated the adoption of videoconferencing by business

and government as a convenient and safe alternative to travelling to face-to-face
meetings. This effectively reinforced a long-term trend to use this technology to replace
expensive and time-consuming journeys. Although it is often difficult to assess the exact
energy savings obtained by not travelling, clearly there are other advantages in using this
technology such as the ability to see the other participants and watch their gestures and
expressions.
However, many people feel self-conscious when seeing themselves on a screen, especially
if they are at home, casually dressed and possibly surrounded by domestic clutter. These
difficulties are made worse if the quality of the images or sound is unreliable, as is often the
case. Taking part in a videoconference meeting appears to be more stressful for many than
participating in a ‘normal’ meeting. In addition, the element of informal socialising, a key
aspect of many conferences, can rarely be achieved via a camera.
6 Paraphrasing
Paraphrasing and summarising are normally used together in essay writing, but while summaris-
ing aims to reduce information to a suitable length, paraphrasing attempts to restate the relevant
information. For example, the following sentence:
There has been much debate about the reasons why the Industrial Revolution happened in
eighteenth-century Britain, rather than in France or Germany.
could be paraphrased:
Why the Industrial Revolution occurred in Britain in the eighteenth century, instead of on the
continent, has been the subject of considerable discussion.
Note that an effective paraphrase usually:
● has a different structure to the original

● has mainly different vocabulary
● retains the same meaning
● keeps some phrases from the original which are in common use e.g. ‘Industrial Revolution’.
7 Practice D
■ Read the text below and then rank the three paraphrases (a–c) in order of accuracy,
clarity and use of original language.
THE CAUSES OF THE INDUSTRIAL REVOLUTION
Allen (2009) argues that the best explanation for the British location of the Industrial
Revolution is found by studying demand factors. By the early eighteenth century high wages
and cheap energy were both features of the British economy. Consequently, the mechanisa-
tion of industry through such inventions as the steam engine and mechanical spinning was
profitable, because employers were able to economise on labour by spending on coal. At that
time, no other European country had this particular combination of expensive labour and
abundant fuel.
a) A focus on demand may help to explain the UK origin of the Industrial Revolution.
At that time British workers’ pay was high, but energy was cheap. This encour-
aged the development of mechanical inventions based on steam power, which
enabled bosses to save money by mechanising production (Allen, 2009).
b) The reason why Britain was the birthplace of the Industrial Revolution can be
understood by analysing demand in the early 1700s, according to Allen (2009).
He maintains that, uniquely in Europe, Britain had the critical combination of
cheap energy from coal and high labour costs. This encouraged the adoption
of steam power to mechanise production, thus saving on wages and increasing
proftability.
c) Allen (2009) claims that the clearest explanation for the UK location of the
Industrial Revolution is seen by examining demand factors. By the eighteenth
century cheap energy and high wages were both aspects of the British economy.
As a result, the mechanisation of industry through inventions such as the steam
engine and mechanical spinning was proftable because employers were able
to save money on wages by spending on coal. At that time, Britain was the only
country with signifcant deposits of coal.
1)
2)
3)
8 Techniques for paraphrasing
a) Changing vocabulary by using synonyms:

argues > claims / eighteenth century > 1700 s/ wages > labour costs / economise > to save
b) Changing word class:

explanation (n.) > explain (v.) / mechanical (adj.) > mechanise (v.) / profitable (adj.) > profit-
ability (n.)
c) Changing word order:
… the best explanation for the British location of the Industrial Revolution is found by studying
demand factors.
> A focus on demand may help explain the UK origin of the Industrial Revolution.
Note that in practice all these three techniques are used at the same time. Do not attempt to para-
phrase every word, since some have no true synonym e.g. demand, economy.
► See Units 4.2 and 4.3 Academic Vocabulary and 4.5 Synonyms
9 Practice E
■ Read the following text.
TEAM PLAYERS
Teams allow people to specialise, both in a game of football and in a company. In a football
team, for example, success depends on both defenders and attackers working well together.
The same applies to business, where a marketing expert complements a colleague who is a
skilled accountant. But the critical question in many fields is, what is the best number for a
team?
In sport this may depend on the size of the playing area, so that indoor sports like basketball
have smaller teams (five) than outdoor ones such as football (11). Fifteen (rugby) seems to
be the maximum size, and this may be the practical limit in terms of coaching and manage-
ment. In armies units tend to be around 100, as used by the Romans; today an American
army company has 180. Presumably it would be difficult to build and maintain relationships
with a larger body.
An anthropologist at Oxford University, Robin Dunbar, has studied the way groups of pri-
mates interact. He argues that brain size is critical in forming bands, and that humans, having
larger brains, can have the benefit of larger groups, which allow for greater specialisation.
He believes that many people belong to a range of groups of varying sizes, having about five
close friends, 15 good friends and around 50 social friends.
In business there are clear advantages to being small: decisions can be taken quickly and
communicated rapidly to all employees. Dunbar points out that committees of four or five
are the optimum size for decision making. In fact, small companies play a more important
role in the economy than is commonly realised. A 2015 survey found that less than 1% of
British businesses had more than 150 employees. It seems likely that people feel more moti-
vated when they know most or all of their fellow workers, compared to employees in a giant
corporation.
a) j Find synonyms for the words and phrases underlined. Re-write the sentences
using these.
Teams allow people to specialise, both in a game of football and in a company. In
a football team, for example, success depends on both defenders and attackers
working well together. The same applies to business, where a marketing expert
complements a colleague who is a skilled accountant. But the critical question in
many felds is, what is the best number for a team?
b) j Change the word class of the underlined words. Rewrite the sentences using the
changes.
In sport this may depend on the size of the playing area, so that indoor sports
like basketball have smaller teams (fve) than outdoor ones such as football (11).
Fifteen (rugby) seems to be the maximum size, and this may be the practical limit
in terms of coaching and management. In armies units tend to be around 100, as
used by the Romans: today an American army company has 180. Presumably it
would be diffcult to build and maintain relationships with a larger body.
c) j Change the word order of these sentences, re-writing the paragraph so the mean-
ing stays the same.
An anthropologist at Oxford University, Robin Dunbar, has studied the way
groups of primates interact. He argues that brain size is critical in forming bands,
and that humans, having larger brains, can have the beneft of larger groups,
which allow for greater specialisation. He believes that many people belong to a
range of groups of varying sizes, having about fve close friends, 15 good friends
and around 50 social friends.
d) j Combine all three techniques to paraphrase the next paragraph.

In business there are clear advantages to being small: decisions can be taken
quickly and communicated rapidly to all employees. Dunbar points out that com-
mittees of four or fve are the optimum size for decision making. In fact, small
companies play a more important role in the economy than is commonly real-
ised. A 2015 survey found that less than 1% of British businesses had more than
150 employees. It seems likely that people feel more motivated when they know
most or all of their fellow workers, compared to employees in a giant corporation.
10 Practice F
a) j Use the same techniques to paraphrase the following text.
THE PAST BELOW THE WAVES
More than three million shipwrecks are believed to lie on the sea bed, the result of storms
and accidents during thousands of years of sea-borne trading. These wrecks offer marine
archaeologists valuable information about the culture, technology and trade patterns of
ancient civilizations, but the vast majority have been too deep to explore. Scuba divers can
only operate down to 50 metres, which limits operations to wrecks near the coast, which
have often been damaged by storms or plant growth. A few deep sea sites (such as the
Titanic) have been explored by manned submarines, but this kind of equipment has been too
expensive for less famous subjects. However, this situation has been changed by the intro-
duction of a new kind of mini submarine: the automatic underwater vehicle (AUV). This
cheap small craft is free-moving and does not need an expensive mother-ship to control it.
Now a team of American archaeologists are planning to use an AUV to explore an area of
sea north of Egypt which was the approach to a major trading port 4,000 years ago.
(Source: History Now, April 2009, p. 9)
b) j Summarise the same text in 50 words.

UNIT
1.9
Contrasting
Sources
For most assignments students are expected to read a range of sources, often containing
conflicting views or different perspectives on the question. In some cases, the contrast
between the various views may be the focus of the task. This unit explains how writers
can present and organise a range of contrasting sources.
1 Referring to sources
In the early stages of a paper it is common to refer to the views of other writers on the subject, to
show that you are familiar with their work, and that your work will take their research into account.
In a longer essay or thesis this may form a section headed ‘Literature review’.
► See Unit 2.5 Literature Reviews
■ Read the following example from a study of student transition from school to univer-
sity and answer the questions below.
The expectations which students have of higher education are influenced by their prior
educational experiences (Ramsden, 1992: 82; Tinto, 2005; Cook and Rushton, 2008). These
experiences form a basis for the academic expectations which students have relating to learn-
ing and teaching (Dalglish and Chan, 2005), assessment (Ramsden, 1992: 84), academic
support (Yorke, 2000; Crisp et al., 2009), and academic interactions with staff (Crisp et al.,
2009).
(Source: McEwan, M. ‘Understanding student transition to university: the expectations of

essay writing for students and staff’, Enhancement and Innovation in Higher Education
Conference, 2015)
DOI: 10.4324/9781003010210-11
1.9: Contrasting Sources 77
a) How many sources are mentioned here?

b) Which writers examine expectations of learning and teaching?
c) What was the subject of Yorke’s study?
d) Which writer looked at expectations of assessment?
e) Why do you think page numbers are given for Ramsden?
2 Practice A
■ Read another paragraph from the same study and answer the following questions.
Academically, a diverse body of international university entrants have even greater diversity
in pre-arrival expectations and prior educational experiences when compared to those of
home students (e.g. Dalglish and Chan, 2005; Crisp et al., 2009; White, 2013) resulting in a
period of transition which can be more challenging with greater requirements for academic
adjustment (Ramsey, Barker and Jones, 1999). For example, international students often
need to make significant cultural (Ryan and Carroll, 2005) and linguistic (Wu and Hammond,
2011) adjustments and this takes time; perhaps many months or even years (Carroll, 2014).
a) What is the main subject of the paragraph?

b) Summarise the different points made by each of the fve sets of sources cited.
Example:
i) Dalglish and Chan, 2005; Crisp et al., 2009; White, 2013
International students have wider variety of expectations
compared to home students
ii) Ramsey, Barker and Jones, 1999
iii) Ryan and Carroll, 2005
iv) Wu and Hammond, 2011
v) Carroll, 2014
3 Contrasting sources
Most subjects worth studying are the subject of debate and discussion, as more research is con-
ducted and new data are collected. Therefore it is important to compare a range of views on a topic
to show that you are familiar with all sides of a discussion.
■ The following texts are on the subject of gender pay equality. Read 3.1 and 3.2 and
discuss their differences with a partner.
3.1 MIND THE GAP
The gender pay gap is the difference between what women and men earn in different com-
panies or sectors of the economy. According to the latest figures the gap in Britain is nearly
12%, a percentage which has hardly changed since businesses were first required to report
their gap in 2017. There were no sectors of the economy in which women earned more than
men, while fewer than 500 organisations, out of a total of 10,500, claimed to have a pay gap
of 0%.
Some of the companies which reported a reduced gap, such as Monzo Bank, explained it
as a result of more women being promoted to senior positions. The same occurred in some
schools and academies, which tend to be dominated by female staff. But the complexity of
the situation is highlighted by companies with the opposite outcome, a widening gap, such
as the law firm Ashfords, which pointed out they had recruited a large number of women in
junior positions. It is also notable that the pay gap in the public sector, at 16%, is wider than
in the private sector (11%).
The data are collected by the Equalities and Human Rights Commission, but this body has
no power to check the accuracy of the figures, or force companies to reduce their gap. The
government insists that the best way to promote equality is by encouraging businesses to
adopt female-friendly employment practices, but given the evidence of the past few years it
seems that more needs to be done to achieve full equality.
(Source: Björkman, 2019)
3.2 CAN SEX SEGREGATION BE ELIMINATED?
During the 1970s most Western countries passed laws which required companies to treat
male and female employees equally. The majority of jobs were open to applicants of either
sex, so that the idea of a female firefighter or a male nurse was no longer considered abnormal.
This process has brought significant economic gains: Chang-Tai Hsieh and colleagues at
Chicago University calculate that a 25% increase in output per worker was achieved between
1960 and 2010, mainly due to this change.
However, it appears that most of the change has been seen in office work, and in other areas
there has been little recent progress. In fact, across the economy men still work mainly with
other men, and women with women. In the EU around 70% of working women are in sectors
dominated by women, such as primary school teaching or catering. A similar situation exists
in the USA, where occupations such as nursing are 80% female. This explains most of the
gender pay gap, since female-dominated jobs tend to be worse paid than male ones, such as
construction. In the US, 26 of the 30 highest paid occupations are male-dominated.
Even well-qualified women, such as those who graduate in STEM subjects (science, tech-
nology, engineering and maths), are less likely than men to get work in that field and are
more likely to leave it, possibly due to discrimination. Motherhood poses a further barrier to
integration.
But one effective method of improving female pay is a national minimum wage, as women
tend to do the lowest-paid work. In America, those states with a minimum wage set above
the federal level have smaller differences in their gender pay gap than those without.
Additionally, if more men entered female-dominated sectors, this would tend to push wage
levels higher. However, it may be that the effective limits of de-segregation have been
reached, and that there will always be a tendency for houses to be built by men and the sick
to be nursed by women.
(Source: Ziadah, 2018)
■ Read this extract from a paper which compares the two previous sources.
3.3 WILL MEN AND WOMEN EVER EARN THE SAME?
Many countries now ask large organisations to report the difference in pay between their
male and female employees. Björkman (2019) emphasises that the latest data from the UK
show little change from previous years, with a gap of about 12%. The recruitment situation
in particular companies may explain year-on-year changes in the figures. She considers that
just reporting the differences will have little effect on the behaviour of firms, and the govern-
ment must do more to encourage female employment in higher-paid work. Ziadah (2018),
however, points out that as there has been little recent progress in employment patterns, the
process may have stalled. She argues that, although innovations such as minimum pay levels
have aided women, beyond the white-collar sector traditional roles seem to be very resistant
to change. Discrimination and the demands of their families, she maintains, are both signifi-
cant contributory factors.
■ Note the way in which the paper summarises and paraphrases the sources:
3.1 Björkman 3.3 Summary

According to the latest fgures the gap in According to Björkman (2019) the
Britain is nearly 12%, a percentage which latest data from the UK show little
has hardly changed since businesses were change from previous years, with a
frst required to report their gap in 2017. gap of about 12%.
… given the evidence of the past few years … the government must do more to
it seems that more needs to be done to encourage female employment in
achieve full equality. higher-paid work.
■ Find more examples from the second text:
3.2 Ziadah 3.3 Summary
■ Read the summary (3.3) again and answer the following questions:
a) Which verbs are used to introduce the summaries of the two sources?
b) Which word marks the switch from summarising Björkman to Ziadah?
c) Can you suggest any other words or phrases to use here?
4 Balancing different sources
■ Study the following structures.

Presenting a source
According to Dymski …
O’Hare (2009) argues/claims that …
Unsworth’s main theory/ thesis/ model places foreign policy on a continuum …
Various scholars have supported this position (Geddes, 2016; Mulhouse, 2018)
Walter Benjamin made Paris the capital of the nineteenth century (Benjamin, 1999)
Contrasting sources
A counter argument is presented by Croese …
Regardless of the theoretical approaches …
Despite this, Chatterton claims/ argues/ denies …
On the one hand it can be argued that …
However, this goal change has had negative consequences.
NB: Multiple sources can be ordered either alphabetically or chronologically (see chronological
examples in 1 above), depending on the style of the journal. This is an example of alphabetical order:
There is still ambiguity in the literature (see Borchert and Zeiss, 2003; Burch and Moran,
1985; Cotta and Best, 2007; Guttsman, 1965; Kavanagh, 1992; King, 1983).
5 Practice B
■ The two texts below present differing responses to the question ‘What killed the
dinosaurs?’ Read them both and then complete the following introductory paragraph
from a paper on mass extinctions, contrasting the views of both sources.
WHAT KILLED THE DINOSAURS?
1. For over a hundred million years life on Earth was dominated by dinosaurs; the largest
reptiles ever known. Yet about 66 million years ago they suddenly vanish from the fossil
record, and the scientific debate about the cause of this sudden disappearance has been long
and ferocious, with geologists and physicists unable to agree. For many years huge vol-
canic eruptions were seen as the likely reason for the dinosaurs’ fate, as these had also been
blamed for several other, earlier mass extinctions in the Earth's history.
However, during the 1980s a father and son team, Luis and Walter Alvarez, announced a new
theory. They claimed that the presence of the rare element iridium, found in clay deposits
all round the world, and associated with space rocks, was proof that a meteorite had struck
the Earth at the end of the Cretaceous period. Their suggestion was strongly supported in
the 1990s by the discovery of a huge crater, over 100 miles in diameter, on the coast of the
Yucatan Peninsula in Mexico. This, it was claimed, had been made by a six-mile-wide aster-
oid crashing into our planet at this time.
The impact of this collision would have been devastating for most life, not just dinosaurs.
A deadly shock wave must have been followed by an enormous tsunami, forest fires, and
years of darkness as the sun’s light was shut out by debris in the atmosphere. Little could
have survived this maelstrom, and clearly not large animals. The devastation must have been
overwhelming, wiping out not only animals but also the plants that many fed on.
Although other causes for the extinction of the dinosaurs have been proposed, some more
credible than others, there seems no good reason to doubt the Alvarez hypothesis. The col-
lision has been reliably dated using tektites, small rocks formed by impact, to 66,038,000
years ago, after which time no non-avian dinosaur fossils have ever been found.
(Source: Sunderland, J. ‘Climate Chaos’, New World Review, April 2016)
2. Professor Keller of Princeton University has spent many years challenging the meteorite
theory as the sole cause of the dinosaurs’ departure. Despite receiving fierce opposition from
elements of the scientific community, she believes that dinosaurs were in decline before this
event, due to climate change caused by volcanic eruptions in India, several million years
before the end of the Cretaceous. These eruptions, throwing volcanic dust into the atmos-
phere, are thought to have caused global cooling, which must have affected the plants that
dinosaurs ate. However, other scientists claim that, on balance, volcanic activity pumps
carbon dioxide into the atmosphere and actually results in warming the planet.
Today, advances in the precise measurement of the age of geological deposits have lent
weight to the theories of Gerta Keller and her supporters. The Indian eruptions and their
associated lava flow have now been dated to several hundred thousand years before the
meteorite struck, suggesting that the Earth’s climate may have become increasingly hostile to
the giant reptiles long before the asteroid collision led to their sudden destruction, along with
millions of other species. Yet the debate shows no sign of cooling, with both sides continuing
research to support their theories about a crucial event deep in our world’s past.
(Source: Kazepov, Y. ‘Mega-extinctions and mysteries’, North Atlantic Quarterly, Winter

2018)
WHAT KILLED THE DINOSAURS?
One of the most intriguing scientific questions in the past cen-

tury has been the reason for the extinction of the dinosaurs,
the huge reptiles that dominated life on earth for over one hun-
dred million years.
1.10
UNIT
Organising
Paragraphs
Paragraphs are the basic building blocks of academic writing. Well-structured paragraphs
help the reader understand the topic more easily by dividing up the argument into con-
venient sections. This unit looks at:
●● The components of paragraphs
●● The way the components are linked together
●● The linkage between paragraphs in the overall text
1 Paragraph structure
■■ Read the paragraph below and answer the questions.
Many countries around the world are currently moving some government departments out of the
capital city. Previously, there were attempts to create entirely new capitals, such as Brasilia in
Brazil or Islamabad in Pakistan. Now, however, these schemes are seen as too expensive, complex
and disruptive. Instead the trend is to disperse different ministries to various, less crowded districts
away from the capital. Mexico, for example, has moved its Ministry of Culture from Mexico City
to Tlaxcala and Norway has shifted the competition authority from Oslo to Bergen.
a) What is the topic of this paragraph?
b) How are the sentences in the paragraph linked together?
The paragraph can be analysed thus:
1. Topic sentence Many countries around the world are currently moving
some government departments out of the capital city.
2. Supporting Previously, there were attempts to create entirely
information new capitals, such as Brasilia in Brazil or Islamabad in
Pakistan.
DOI: 10.4324/9781003010210-12
3. Reason Now, however, these schemes are seen as too

expensive, complex and disruptive.
4. Further detail/ Instead, the trend is to disperse different ministries to
restatement various, less crowded districts away from the capital.
5. Examples Mexico, for example, has moved its Culture Ministry
from Mexico City to Tlaxcala and Norway has shifted the
competition authority from Oslo to Bergen.
This example shows that:

i) A paragraph is a group of sentences which deal with a single topic. Dividing up
the text into paragraphs helps both writer and reader to follow the argument
more clearly.
ii) The length of paragraphs varies signifcantly according to text type, but should
normally be no less than four or fve sentences.
iii) Usually (but not always) the frst sentence introduces the topic. Other sentences
may give defnitions, examples, extra information, reasons, restatements and
summaries.
iv) The sentences of the paragraph are linked together by the reference words, con-
junctions and adverbs shown in bold in the table. These guide the reader through
the arguments presented.
► See Unit 3.1 Cohesion
2 Practice A
■ The sentences in the following paragraph, from the same article on government re-
location, have been mixed up. Use the table to put them in the right order.
i) One beneft of dispersal is to improve the quality of life of the civil servants,
detached from overcrowded and expensive capitals.
ii) Today’s civil servants no longer need to all work in the same district and be able
to meet face-to-face.
iii) Finally there should be economic benefts for remote and possibly run-down
regions in receiving an injection of well-paid employment.
iv) Recent developments such as videoconferencing make this pattern of dispersal,
which has many apparent benefts, more feasible.
v) Moreover, away from the pressures of the capital with its lobbyists and politi-
cians, workers may have a more objective and detached viewpoint.
Topic sentence
Reason
Result 1
1.10: Organising Paragraphs 85
Result 2
Result 3
3 Practice B
■ a) Analyse the next paragraph from the same text by completing the left-hand col-
umn of the table with suitable descriptors.
b) Underline the words and phrases used to link the sentences together.
c) Which phrase is used to link this paragraph to the one before?
Topic sentence Despite these advantages there are serious drawbacks to

relocating government departments.
One of the gravest is that many employees, especially younger
ones, are reluctant to leave lively capital cities to live in remote
provincial towns.
In some cases more than half the staff have resigned rather
than move, fearing the loss of social life.
In addition, new locations may be chosen for political rather
than economic reasons.
Politicians may attempt to bring jobs to their own
constituencies, as when Pinochet moved Chile’s congress to
his home town, Valparaiso.
So although there are many apparent gains from relocation,
putting such a move into practice can be full of problems.
4 Practice C
■ Read the full text on relocating government departments. Find a title for the whole
text. Then complete the chart to show how the three paragraphs present the process.
Title: _______________________________________
Many countries around the world are currently moving some government departments out
of the capital city. Previously, there were attempts to create entirely new capitals, such as
Brasilia in Brazil or Islamabad in Pakistan. Now, however, these schemes are seen as too
expensive, complex and disruptive. Instead, the trend is to disperse different ministries to
various, less crowded districts away from the capital. Mexico, for example, has moved its
Ministry of Culture from Mexico City to Tlaxcala and Norway has shifted the competition
authority from Oslo to Bergen.
Today civil servants no longer need to all work in the same district and be able to meet
face-to-face. Recent developments such as videoconferencing make this pattern of disper-
sal, which has many apparent benefits, more feasible. One benefit of dispersal is to improve
the quality of life of the civil servants, detached from overcrowded and expensive capitals.
Moreover, away from the pressures of the capital with its lobbyists and politicians, work-
ers may have a more objective and detached viewpoint. Finally there should be economic
benefits for remote and possibly run-down regions in receiving an injection of well-paid
employment.
Despite these advantages there are serious drawbacks to relocating government departments.
One of the gravest is that many employees, especially younger ones, are reluctant to leave
lively capital cities to live in remote provincial towns. In some cases more than half the staff
have resigned rather than move, fearing the loss of social life. In addition, new locations may
be chosen for political rather than economic reasons. Politicians may attempt to bring jobs
to their own constituencies, as when Pinochet moved Chile’s congress to his home town,
Valparaiso. So although there are many apparent gains from relocation, putting such a move
into practice can be full of problems.
1 Background >
2
3
5 Introducing paragraphs and linking them together
The paragraph in Practice B begins with a phrase which links it to the previous paragraph, in order
to maintain continuity of argument:
Despite these advantages …
■ Study the following phrases which can be used to link paragraphs together:
1. Introducing a topic (often with time phrase)
This symposium focuses …
Urbanists have shown that …
Recent decades have witnessed …
The post-modern rejection of ‘grand narratives’ …
The rise in energy prices from 2003 …
1.10: Organising Paragraphs 87
Traditionally, few examples were …

Currently, there is little evidence of …
Originally, most families were …
2. Referring to a source
Dreyfus and Dreyfus drew on this approach …
Thompson is more equivocal …
George Tsebelis (2002) uses the concept …
3. Referring back to the previous paragraph (often with a conjunction)
This qualitative gap …
The meta-criticism is in contrast to …
Nevertheless, the academic literature …
Meanwhile, the rapid expansion …
Yet despite this massive transformation …
4. Listing a series of points
The frst argument is that …
Second, if careerism is the core plank …
Thirdly, the intersubjective and communicative …
On the one hand it can be argued …
5. Coming to a conclusion
This review article has analysed …
This paper has argued for …
When we assess the implications …
Finally, the performance of …
► See Unit 4.3 Academic Vocabulary: Verbs and Adverbs
6 Practice D
■ Use the notes below to write two paragraphs on the subject of ‘Trams’. Use conjunc-
tions and other suitable phrases to introduce and link the paragraphs together.
● As cities grew in 19th century increased need for urban public transport
● Horse-drawn buses were slow and expensive
● Trams (streetcars in the USA) developed in late 19th century
● Provided cheap and convenient mass transport in many cities
● Rail-based systems expensive to maintain
● Fixed tracks meant system was inflexible
● During 1950s and 1960s many European and Asian cities closed tram systems
● Today trams becoming popular again
● Some cities e.g. Paris and Manchester have built new systems
● Trams less polluting than cars and cheaper to operate

● Problems remain with construction costs and traffic congestion blocking tracks
● Expense of building modern tramways means that they remain controversial
7 Practice E
■ Choose one of the topics below. Using the internet and your own knowledge make
notes as in 6) above. Then write two or three paragraphs on your topic.
● The influence of social media

● The driving test
● The future of advertising
1.11
UNIT
Introductions
and
Conclusions
An effective introduction explains the purpose, scope and methodology of the paper to the
reader. The conclusion should provide a clear answer to any questions asked in the title,
as well as summarising the main points discussed. With coursework, it may be better to
write the introduction after writing the main body.
1 Introduction components
a) j Discuss with a partner the function of introductions to essays or reports.
What components are normally found in an introduction? Choose from the list
below.
Components Yes/ No
i) A defnition of any unfamiliar terms in the title
ii) Your personal opinions on the subject of the essay
iii) Mention of some sources you have read on the topic
iv) A provocative idea or question to interest the reader
v) A suitable quotation from a famous source
vi) Your aim or purpose in writing
vii) The method you adopt to answer the question
viii) Some background or context of the topic
ix) Any limitations you set yourself
x) An outline of the main body
DOI: 10.4324/9781003010210-13
b) j Read the extracts below from introductions to articles and decide which of the
components listed above (i–x) they are examples of.
A) In the past 20 years the ability of trial juries to assess complex or lengthy
cases has been widely debated.
B) The rest of the paper is organised as follows. The second section explains
why corporate governance is important for economic prosperity. The third
section presents the model specifcation and describes the data and variables
used in our empirical analysis. The fourth section reports and discusses the
empirical results. The ffth section concludes.
C) We attempted to test our hypothesis by comparing the reactions of a random
sample of postgraduates with those of a group of frst-year students.
D) There is no clear empirical evidence sustaining a ‘managerial myopia’
argument. Pugh et al. (1992) fnd evidence that supports such a theory, but
Meulbrook et al. (1990), Mahoney et al. (1997), Garvey and Hanka (1999) and
a study by the Offce of the Chief Economist of the Securities and Exchange
Commission (1985) fnd no evidence.
E) ‘Social cohesion’ is usually defned in reference to common aims and objec-
tives, social order, social solidarity and the sense of place attachment.
F) This study will focus on retention rates of nursing staff between 2010 and
2018, since with more recent years an accurate assessment cannot yet be
made.
G) The purpose of this paper is to investigate changes in the incidence of extreme
warm and cold temperatures around the globe since 1870.
2 Introduction structure
Introductions are usually no more than about 10% of the total length of an assignment. Therefore,
in a 2,000-word essay the introduction would be approximately 200 words.
► See Unit 1.2 Understanding Essay Questions and the Planning Process
There is no standard pattern for an introduction, since much depends on the type of research you
are conducting and the length of your work, but this is a common structure:
a Defnition of key terms, if needed

b Relevant background information
c Review of work by other writers on the topic
d Purpose or aim of the paper
e Your research methods
f Any limitations you imposed
g An outline of your paper
1.11: Introductions and Conclusions 91
■ Study this introduction to an essay entitled: ‘Evaluate the experience of e-learning for
students in higher education’.
There is a range of definitions of this term, but in this paper ‘e-learning’ refers to any type
of learning situation where content is delivered via the internet. Learning is one of the most
vital components of the contemporary knowledge-based economy. With the development of
computing power and technology the internet has become an essential medium for knowl-
edge transfer. In addition, the Covid-19 pandemic of 2020 made e-learning necessary for
many students around the world. Various researchers (Webb and Kirstin, 2003; Honig et al.,
2006) have evaluated e-learning in a healthcare and business context, but little attention
so far has been paid to the reactions of students in higher education (HE) to this method of
teaching. The purpose of this study was to examine students’ experience of e-learning in an
HE context.
A range of studies was first reviewed, and then a survey of 200 students was conducted to
assess their experience of e-learning. Clearly a study of this type is inevitably restricted by
various constraints, notably the size of the student sample, which was limited to students of
Pharmacy and Agriculture. The paper is structured as follows. The first section presents an
analysis of the relevant research, focusing on the current limited knowledge regarding the
student experience. The second part presents the methodology of the survey and an analysis
of the findings, and the final section considers the implications of the results for the develop-
ment and delivery of e-learning programmes.
■ Underline the following sections (a–g) of the introduction above:

a) Defnition
Certain words or phrases in the title may need clarifying because they are not
widely understood, or are used in a special sense.
b) Context
It is useful to remind the reader of the wider context of your work. This may also
show the value of the study you have carried out.
c) Reference to other researchers
While a longer article may have a separate literature review, in a shorter essay it
is still important to show familiarity with researchers who have studied this topic
previously. This may also reveal a gap in research which justifes your work.
d) Aim
The aim of your research must be clearly stated so the reader knows what you are
trying to do.
e) Method
The method demonstrates the process that you carried out to achieve the given
aim.
f) Limitations
You cannot deal with every aspect of this topic in an essay, so you must make the
boundaries of your study clear.
g) Outline
Understanding the structure of your paper will help the reader to follow your
argument.
► See Unit 3.3 Definitions
3 Opening sentences
Perhaps the most difficult part of writing a paper is getting started but, especially in exams, hesita-
tion will waste valuable time. The first few sentences should be general but not vague, to help the
reader focus on the topic. They often have the following pattern:
Time phrase Topic Development

Currently, the control of water has emerged as a potential cause of
resources international friction.
Since 2017 electric vehicles have become a serious commercial
proposition.
Before 1950 antibiotic drugs were not widely available.
It is important to avoid opening sentences which are over-general and vague. Compare:
Nowadays there is a lot of competition among different news providers. X

In the last 20 years newspapers have faced strong competition from the internet √
for news and entertainment.
■ Working quickly, write an introductory sentence for three of the following titles.
a) How important is it for companies to have women as senior managers?
b) Are there any technological solutions to global warming?
c) What can be done to reduce infant mortality in developing countries?
d) Compare the urbanisation process in two contrasting countries.
e) To what extent are prisons effective in reducing crime?
► See Units 3.5 Generalisations and 3.8 Style

1.11: Introductions and Conclusions 93
4 Conclusions
Although it is difficult to be precise, conclusions tend to be shorter and more varied in format than
introductions. Some articles may have a ‘summary’ or ‘concluding remarks’. Student papers should
have a final section which summarises the arguments and makes it clear to the reader that the origi-
nal question has been answered.
■ Discuss with a partner which of the following are generally acceptable in conclusions.
Components Yes/ No
i) A statement showing how your aim has been achieved
ii) A discussion of the implications of your research
iii) Some new information on the topic not mentioned before
iv) A short review of the main points of your study
v) Some suggestions for further research
vi) The limitations of your study
vii) Comparison with the results of similar studies
viii) A quotation which appears to sum up your work
■ Match the extracts from conclusions below with the acceptable components above.
A) As always, this investigation has a number of limitations to be considered in eval-
uating its fndings.
B) These results suggest that the risk of fooding on the east coast has increased
signifcantly and is likely to worsen.
C) Several hurdles that we encountered provide a point of departure for subsequent
studies.
D) Our review of 13 studies of strikes in public transport demonstrates that the effect
of a strike on public transport ridership varies and may either be temporary or
permanent.
E) These results of the Colombia study reported here are consistent with other simi-
lar studies conducted in other countries (Cop and Zihnioĝlu, 2009).
F) This study has clearly illustrated the drawbacks to family ownership of retail
businesses.
5 Conclusion structure
Although there is no fixed pattern, a common structure for an essay conclusion is:
a Summary of main fndings or results

b Link back to the original question to show it has been answered
c Mention of the limitations to your work e.g. geographical
d Suggestions for future possible related research
e Comments on the implications of your research
6 Practice
■ The following sentences form the conclusion to the essay entitled ‘Evaluate the expe-
rience of e-learning for students in higher education’, whose introduction was given
above in 2). The sentences have been mixed up. Put them into a logical order (1–5).
a) This fnding was clear, despite the agreed convenience of e-learning.
b) Given the constraints of the small and limited sample there is clearly room for
further research in this feld, in particular to explore whether certain disciplines
are more suited to this mode of learning than others.
c) However, our survey of nearly 200 students found a strong preference for tradi-
tional classroom teaching, with the consequent face-to-face contact with the tutor
and fellow students.
d) But in general it would appear that e-learning is unlikely to be acceptable as a
primary teaching method in higher education.
e) This study found that little relevant research on the student experience of e-learn-
ing in HE has been conducted, and the research that has been reported indicates
a mixed reaction to it.
UNIT
1.12
Editing and
Proofreading
In exams you have little time for editing, but with coursework it is important to take time
to revise your work to improve its clarity and logical development. In both situations
proofreading is essential to avoid the small errors which may make parts of your work
inaccurate or difficult to understand.
1 Editing
It is important to be clear about the difference between editing and proofreading; both are criti-
cal stages of the writing process, but they need to be done separately. Good editing, which aims
to make a paper as clear and precise as possible, can make a huge difference to the quality of your
work. Although it is tempting to think that the first draft of an essay or report is good enough, it
can almost certainly be improved. After completing the first draft it’s a good idea to leave it for two
days and then critically reread it, asking yourself the following questions:
a) Does this fully answer the question(s) in the title?

b) Do the different sections of the paper have the right weight, i.e. is it well balanced?
c) Does the argument or discussion develop clearly and logically?
d) Have I forgotten any important points which would support the development?
e) Is the paper the required length; not too short or too long?
f) Have I mentioned the main authorities on this subject?
g) Is the style suitably academic?
h) Are all the citations and references included correctly?
i) Would a third party be able to understand this?
DOI: 10.4324/9781003010210-14
2 Practice A
As part of a module on Qualitative Research Methods, you have written the first draft of a 1,000-
word paper entitled: ‘What would be an acceptable number of interviews to carry out for a Master’s
dissertation?’
■ Study the introduction to this paper below, and decide how it could be improved, list-
ing your suggestions in the table.
An interview can be defined as a conversation with a definite structure and objective. It goes beyond
an everyday conversation with no particular purpose. There are many possible interview situations,
but all involve an interviewer and an interviewee. It is normal for the former to ask the latter direct
questions, and record the answers. The questions may be prepared in advance or they may occur
as the interview develops. The recording is often done on paper, but may also be done by audio or
video recording. Interviews can take place anywhere: in a street, café, office, bar, restaurant, etc. It
is hard to say how many interviews can be carried out in one day. I personally think that two is the
maximum because it can get very tiring. A lot depends on the subject being researched.
Suggestions for improvement
a) No sources are mentioned.

b)
c)
d)
e)
► See Answers on p. 266 for suggestions.
With these points in mind, the introduction could be rewritten as follows:

Organising an interview involves a series of steps (Davies, 2007) including recruiting interviewees,
finding a suitable venue and writing appropriate guidelines. However, depending on the research
subject a more flexible approach can be adopted, resulting in a less structured interview (Cooper
and Schindler, 2008). For a Master’s dissertation, interviews must contain data relevant to the
research topic which the interviewer can later process. As King states: ‘gathering a large volume
of cases does not guarantee the credibility of a study’ (King, 2004:16). Most writers agree that
two one-hour interviews per day are effectively the maximum for one interviewer, given the time
needed for preparation and subsequent processing. Moreover, if audio or video recording is used
there is more content to be analysed, for instance in terms of facial expression. The analysis of one
interview can take up to three days’ work. In order to answer the question, clearly much depends
on the research topic and the time the researcher has available.
► See Unit 3.8 Style

1.12: Editing and Proofreading 97
3 Practice B
■ Read the following paragraph on ‘Possible ethical issues raised by interview-based

research’. Decide how it could be improved, and rewrite it.
Any organisation that allows researchers to interview its employees runs a big risk. The interview-
ees may complain about the boss or about other workers. Another danger for the researcher is that
employees may feel obliged to give positive answers to questions instead of their honest opinions.
This is because they are afraid of their bosses finding out what they really think. Also the reputation
of the organisation may suffer. I believe that researchers should make sure that this does not hap-
pen. They must make it clear why they are doing the research, and keep identities secret by using
false names. If this is not done there’s a good chance that the validity of the whole research project
will be in danger.
4 Proofreading
After you have edited your work, the final stage is to proofread it. This means checking your work
for small errors, for instance of spelling or grammar, which may make it more difficult for the
reader to understand exactly what you want to say. If a sentence has only one error:
The italian economy is burdened with massive debt.
it is not difficult to understand, but if there are multiple errors, even though they are all quite minor,
the effect is very confusing:
A American senate once say: ‘Truth is frist casualty off war’.
Clearly, you should aim to make your meaning as clear as possible:
[An American senator once said: ‘Truth is the first casualty of war’.]
Note that computer spellchecks will not always help you, since they may ignore a word which is
spelt correctly but which is not the word you meant to use:
Tow factors need to be considered.
5 Practice C
■ Examples of the twelve most common types of error in student writing are shown
below. In each sentence underline the error and correct it.
i) Factual
Corruption is a problem in many countries such as Africa.
ii) Word ending

The context provides relative clear clues.
iii) Punctuation
What is the optimum size for a research team.
iv) Tense
Since 2017 new editions were published every year.
v) Vocabulary
The Bulgarian money is the lev.
vi) Spelling
Pervious experience can sometimes be a disadvantage.
vii) Singular/plural
It is one of the largest city in Asia.
viii) Repetition
A multinational business that operates in many countries.
ix) Missing word
This is an idea established by David Ricardo in nineteenth century.
x) Word order
Three skills are for needed success in the academic world.
xi) Style
Recent studies mention racism, misogyny and etc.
xii) Agreement (subject/verb or noun/noun)
The intensity of the emotions are different.
NB: You probably know the type of error you frequently make e.g. perhaps confusing ‘its’ and ‘it’s’.
If so, you should make a point of checking these items carefully.
6 Practice D
■ The following sentences each contain one type of error. Match each to one of the error
types (i–xii) above, and correct the error.
a) Unfortunately the study shows discrimination against female students.
b) Both companies focus on mass marketing to promote its line of products.
c) Failure to fnd the right coffee may lead to torment for consumers.
d) They found that different researchers had differently effects on the research.
e) This was after the single European market was established in 1873.
f) Many students for the grant applied.
g) The Arts Faculty has it’s own library.
h) She selected Budapest in Hungry for setting up the research centre.
i) Companies from the rest of world are eager to do business in India.
1.12: Editing and Proofreading 99
j) From 2012 to 2018 there are few cases of cholera.

k) He said that the advantage and drawbacks of the plan were obvious.
7 Practice E
■ Working with a partner, read the following introduction from a student essay on
cyberbullying. Discuss where the errors are, and how they could be corrected.
Right now, cyberbullying has become an increasingly grave international problem because
of the swift developments in Information and Communication Technologies (ICT). The most
frequently used feature of ICT is computer-mediated communication (McCleod, 2019),
which provides a medium for the development and growth of a plethora of social media
channels. Individually, social media have enjoyed a blossoming level of popularity in recent
decades, which has fully provided benefits for socialising and communicating in people’s
life and society. Despite the benefits, the rise of social media in the digital domain has also
brought risks. Studies (Nitoiu, 2017, Allen and Cairney, 2019) point out that the growth in
the use of ICT or social media has resulted in new means of cyber aggression emerging, such
as hate speech, vulgar language, cyberbullying and etc. Among all of these behaviours, the
global phenomenon of cyberbullying which cause much attentions presents some new chal-
lenges as well as opportunities for researchers.
8 Practice F
■ Underline the errors in the text below and then correct them.
THE PANAMA CANAL
Ship canals are important element in the development of world trade, as most manufactured
things travel by ship. Unlike the Suez Canal in egypt, crossing the Panamanian isthmus
involves lifting ship 26 metres and then lowering them on the other side. Construction was
so difficult and danger that the original French engineers were defeated by disease, after over
20,000 men had died working on the project. On the early twentieth century the American
government became involved and after ten years’ work the canal opened to shipping 1914,
thereby avoiding the difficult route around the tip of South America. But since the 1970s
container ships have steadily grown to large to fit the canals locks, and so in 2007 the Canal
Authority began a major development to expand canal’s capacity with locks 60% wider.
When this was completed in 2016, at a cost of over $5 billion, the canal was able to handle
almost all ships, including the giant cruise vessels now being operated.
9 Summary
■ Decide if the following are part of the editing (E) or proofreading process (P).
1. Does the style avoid informal, colloquial terms?
2. Are enough sources included and are they correctly cited?
3. Are there any spelling mistakes, such as confusion of ‘quite’ and ‘quiet’?
4. Are the various parts of the question fully answered?
5. Is the punctuation correct, especially colons and semi-colons?
6. Have I included any repetition without a good reason?
7. Are all the facts e.g. dates accurate?
8. Do the introduction and conclusion function effectively?
Progress
Check B
These exercises will help you assess your understanding of Units 7–12 in Part 1: The Writing
Process.
1 Complete the description of the process of essay writing by adding one suitable word to each
gap in the text below.
The first stage of essay writing is to read and understand the a)…………, and then to pre-
pare a b)………… of work for the time available. Then the topic should be brainstormed and
a draft c)………… prepared. Next, possible d)………… have to be carefully evaluated and
the most relevant selected, after which you can start e)………… notes, using paraphrasing
and summarising f)…………. When you have collected enough material to answer the ques-
tion the first g)…………. of the main body can be written from the notes, taking care to avoid
any h)…………. Subsequently you can write the first draft of the introduction and i)…………,
ensuring that a logical approach to the title is developed. After this the whole draft must be
j)………… edited and revised for both clarity and accuracy. The penultimate stage is to pre-
pare final lists of k)…………, appendices and other items such as graphs and maps. Finally, the
whole text should be thoroughly l)………… before submitting the assignment on time.
2 Decide if the following statements are true or false.

a) An essay introduction should explain the purpose of the paper.
b) The citation of quotations should include the page number.
c) Paraphrasing means changing both vocabulary and structure while retaining the ideas
and information.
d) Reference verbs always use the past tense.
e) Paragraphs should begin with a topic sentence.
f) A good summary often includes several examples.
g) Conclusions often mention the constraints on the paper e.g. length.
h) A literature review is generally found in longer papers.
i) Proofreading just means checking for spelling mistakes.
j) An essay conclusion should make it clear that the question has been answered.
DOI: 10.4324/9781003010210-15
3 Read the following book extract and write a summary in about 80 words.
In Europe in the early twentieth century wild bison were nearly hunted to extinction. At one
stage there were less than 60 of these fearsome beasts alive, all in zoos. Yet today there are
flourishing herds of bison in Poland, Belarus and Romania. This is because parts of eastern
Europe provide an ideal habitat for such large wild animals as deer, wolves and brown bears,
as well as the birds and insects which have become scarce in western Europe due to more
intensive agriculture. During the Communist period marginal land was neglected agricul-
turally, causing forests to expand and encouraging ecological diversity. Since 1989 many
rural areas in ex-Communist countries have become depopulated, because of` emigration
to the cities of western Europe. The Caras-Severin region of Romania, for instance, has lost
over a quarter of its population in the last 30 years. Although some of its older inhabitants
have doubts about the arrival of these large animals, for others they create an opportunity to
develop eco-tourism. The more entrepreneurial are establishing bed and breakfast businesses
and organic farms, catering for visitors thrilled to see such creatures in the wild.
(Source: Nitoiu, C. (2019). Rewilding Europe. Frankfurt: Freihaus, p. 74)
4 Read the following book extract and paraphrase the first paragraph, including a quotation
with citation.
A group of scientists working at Oxford University have been researching the behaviour of
crows. Their work shows that the birds appear to be able to make simple tools, a skill which
was thought to be unique to man and other primates. In an experiment a piece of meat was
placed in a glass tube which was too long for the crow to reach with its beak. The bird was
given a length of garden wire, 9 cms long and 0.8 mm thick, to extract the meat, but it soon
discovered that this was not possible if the wire was straight. The bird then held one end of
the wire with its feet while it used its beak to bend the other end, making a kind of hook.
This could then be used for pulling the meat out of the tube, which in most cases was done
within two minutes.
It has been known for some time that chimpanzees use simple tools like sticks to reach food,
but it was never thought that crows could show similar levels of intelligence. Eight years
ago, however, biologists in the forests of New Caledonia watched crows using sticks to reach
insects inside trees. The Oxford experiment was designed to see if the same kind of bird
could modify this ability to make a tool out of a material not found in their native forests i.e.
wire. According to Professor Kacelnik, one of the scientists involved, the research demon-
strates that crows have an understanding of the physical properties of materials and the abil-
ity to adapt them for their own uses.
(Source: Grummitt, F. (2010). What Makes Us Human? Dublin: Roseberry Press, p. 15)
PART
Writing Types 2
This section explains and practises the various

types of writing students may be required to
complete. These types may be the main focus
of the work, or a subsection of it. For example, a
case study might be one part of a longer paper,
or the entire report. The organisation needed
for writing longer papers of up to 5,000 words
is also explained.
DOI: 10.4324/9781003010210-16
UNIT
2.1
Argument and
Discussion
On most courses students are expected to study the conflicting views on a topic and
engage with them, which means analysing and critiquing them if appropriate. This unit
demonstrates ways of showing your familiarity with all sides of a debate and presenting
your own conclusions in a suitably academic manner.
1 Discussion vocabulary
Essay titles commonly ask students to ‘discuss’ a topic:
Children will learn a foreign language more effectively if it is integrated with another subject
– Discuss.
This requires a critical evaluation of both the benefits and disadvantages of the subject, within a
section of the essay, sometimes headed ‘Discussion’, in which a summary of the positive and nega-
tive points is made and a conclusion reached. The following vocabulary can be used:
+ −
beneft drawback
advantage disadvantage
a positive aspect a negative feature
pro (informal) con (informal)
plus (informal) minus (informal)
one major advantage is … a serious drawback is …
another signifcant beneft is … … was a considerable disadvantage
One serious drawback to integrating content and language is the heavy demand it places on the
teacher.
A significant benefit of teaching a subject through a foreign language is the increased motivation
to master the language.
■ Write a short paragraph of about 100 words on the benefts and drawbacks of learn-
ing online.
DOI: 10.4324/9781003010210-17
106 Part 2: Writing Types
2 Organisation
■ Working with a partner, brainstorm the benefts and drawbacks of prisons for society.
The discussion can be organised in two ways: either by grouping the benefts in one
section and the disadvantages in another (vertical), or by examining the subject from
different viewpoints (horizontal).
These alternative structures are illustrated below for the following title:
Prisons do little to reform criminals and their use should be limited – Discuss.
NB: In general, the vertical pattern is more suitable for shorter essays.
a) Vertical
Drawbacks
Prisons are expensive; may be ‘universities of crime’; many prisoners re-offend after
leaving; many prisoners have mental health problems which often go untreated.
Benefts
Prisons isolate dangerous criminals from society; act as a deterrent to criminal
activity; may provide education or treatment (e.g. for drug addiction); provide
punishment for wrong-doing.
Discussion
Number of prisoners is rising in many countries, which suggests that the system is
failing. Evidence that short sentences are of little value. But prisons will always be
necessary for some violent criminals, and as a deterrent.
b) Horizontal
Economic Ethical Social Discussion

High cost Do prisons Effect on families Numbers of prisoners is
of keeping reform of prisoners, rising in many countries,
prisoners safe criminals? especially female which suggests that the
and secure. What rights prisoners with system is failing. Evidence
Compare should children. But that short sentences are
with cost of prisoners also necessary of little value, while the
other forms of have? Cases to consider the cost of the prison system
punishment. of wrongful victims of crime, is rising. But prisons will
imprisonment. especially violent always be necessary for
crime, and provide some violent criminals,
punishment for and as a deterrent.
wrong-doing.
■ What are the advantages of each format (i.e. vertical and horizontal)?
2.1: Argument and Discussion 107
3 Practice A
You have to write an essay titled:
‘Working from home can be positive for both companies and their employees – Discuss’.
■ Brainstorm the positive and negative aspects in the box below, and then write an
outline using one of the structures (vertical or horizontal) above.
+ Positive − Negative
No time wasted commuting to

work
4 The language of discussion
In discussion it is important to maintain an objective style, so avoid personal phrases such as in my

opinion or actually, I think ….
Instead use impersonal phrases, such as:
It is generally accepted that working from home saves commuting time.

It is widely agreed that email and the internet reduce reliance on an
offce.
Most people prefer face-to-face contact with colleagues.
It is probable that more companies will encourage working from
home.
The evidence suggests that certain people are better at self-organisation
and time-management.
These phrases suggest a minority viewpoint:
It can be argued that home-working encourages time-wasting.

One view is that home-workers become isolated.
It is claimed that commuting can be a positive period.
When you are supporting your opinions with reference to sources use phrases such as:
According to Emerson (2013) few companies have developed clear policies.

Poledna (2017) claims that most employees appreciate fexible arrangements.
5 Argument and counter-argument
In contrast to discussion, with argument the emphasis is more on the writer making a case, using
examples or reference to other research to establish a position. For instance, if you want to present
the arguments for teaching languages at primary school, you might begin:
There are clear benefits to early language teaching. Firstly, young children are less inhibited
about using new vocabulary. Furthermore, six-year-old children have better memories than
older pupils. Numerous studies (e.g. de Wolf et al., 2017) have demonstrated the advantages
of this approach …
In this case the argument is built up, point by point, with support from relevant sources.
However, in most situations there are contrary views, different from your own point of view,
which are called counter-arguments. In an academic paper you should show that you are familiar
with the various opinions on the topic, and then provide reasons to support your own position. It is
usual to deal with the counter-arguments first, before giving your view. In the case of the debate on
the best age for language teaching you could start with:
Traditionally language teaching has begun around the age of eleven, on the basis that older
children can better understand the grammatical concepts involved. In addition these chil-
dren may have had experience of foreign travel and so be better motivated to learn another
language.
6 Practice B
■ Underline the counter-arguments in the following example, on the topic of prisons

from 2) above. What is the writer’s position?
It is claimed that prisons are needed to isolate dangerous criminals from society, and to provide
punishment for wrong-doing. But while this may be true in a minority of cases, more commonly
prisons act as ‘universities of crime’, which serve to reinforce criminal behaviour. The majority of
prisoners are not dangerous, and could be dealt with more effectively by other means.
■ Study the example below, and write two more sentences using ideas on the topic of
home-working from the title in 3) above.
Counter-argument Your position

Some people believe that home- but this can be avoided by holding weekly
workers become isolated, meetings for all departmental staff.
2.1: Argument and Discussion 109
7 Providing evidence
Normally your conclusions on a topic follow an assessment of the evidence. You must show that you
have examined the relevant sources, since only then can you give a balanced judgement.
■ Study the following text, which discusses the idea that young people today, who have
grown up with computing and the internet, are different from previous generations.
Underline the counter-arguments, then answer the questions.
DO ‘DIGITAL NATIVES’ EXIST?
Various writers have argued that people born around the end of the twentieth century (1990–
2010) and who have been using computers all their lives have different abilities and needs to
other people. Palfrey and Gasser (2008) refer to them as the ‘net generation’ and argue that
activities such as putting videos on YouTube are more natural for them than writing essays.
Similarly, Prensky (2001a) claims that the educational system needs to be revised to cater for
the preferences of these so-called ‘digital natives’.
But other researchers doubt that these claims can apply to a whole generation. Bennett,
Maton and Kervin (2008) argue that these young people comprise a whole range of abilities,
and that many of them only have a limited understanding of digital tools. They insist that the
so-called ‘digital native’ theory is a myth, and that it would be a mistake to re-organise the
educational system and abandon traditional means of assessment and enquiry such as essay
writing to cater for their supposed requirements.
Clearly there are some young people who are very proficient in online technologies, and
many more who regularly use social media in their daily lives, but taking a global perspec-
tive, millions still grow up and are educated in a traditional manner. Teaching methods are
constantly being revised, but there is no clear evidence of a need to radically change them.
a) How many sources are cited to support the ‘digital native’ theory?
b) What do these writers suggest changing?
c) Why do their critics disagree with them?
d) What is the opinion of the writer of this text?
e) What is your opinion of this subject?
► See Unit 1.9 Contrasting Sources

8 Practice C
■ Write three paragraphs (about 200 words) on the topic: ‘Marijuana should be legal-
ised – Discuss’. To prepare, add to the ideas below and make your position clear.
Pros
• Criminalising marijuana encourages the illegal activity which supplies the drug.
• Sales of legal marijuana could be taxed by the state for the common good.
•
(Source: Shephard, 2017)

Cons
• Marijuana users would move on to more dangerous drugs.
• Use of marijuana can have serious effects on mental health.
•
(Source: Solaiman, 2014)
► See Unit 2.3 Problems and Solutions
9 Practice D
■ Work with a partner. Both of you should choose a topic of debate, similar to those
practised in this unit (e.g. prisons, working from home). Your partner has to write a dis-
cussion of the topic you have chosen, giving counter-arguments, in about 200 words.
Finally you should constructively critique your partner’s work.
UNIT
2.2
Cause and
Effect
Academic work frequently involves explaining a link between a cause, such as a hot sum-
mer, and an effect or result, such as a drought. Alternatively, research may begin with a
result, such as the French Revolution, and discuss possible causes, e.g. a bad harvest. This
unit demonstrates and practises two methods of describing the link, with the focus either
on the cause or on the effect.
1 Causes and effects
■ Read the text and underline the causes ( ) and effects (______).
The recession of 2008–2009
The 2008–2009 recession resulted from a loss of confidence in the international financial system
and led to a housing price crash, higher unemployment and the failure of various banks. The trig-
ger may have been rash mortgage lending to unsuitable borrowers in the USA, causing house price
inflation. When this bubble burst some financial institutions, such as Lehman Brothers, found they
were holding worthless assets, and this led to their collapse. Other consequences of the recession
were higher government debt, reduced government spending and more unemployment.
This example shows that in many situations cause and effect can be a chain of events, as each effect
leads to a further development:
DOI: 10.4324/9781003010210-18
2 The language of cause and effect
A writer may choose to emphasise either the cause or the effect. In both cases, either a verb or a
conjunction can be used to show the link.
NB: Conjunctions are linking words and phrases such as because, therefore, then or so.
a) Focus on causes
With verbs
The poor harvest caused higher prices
led to
resulted in
produced
With conjunctions
Because of the poor harvest prices rose
Due to
Owing to
As a result of
b) Focus on effects
With verbs *
The higher prices were caused by the poor harvest
were produced by
resulted from
With conjunctions
There were price rises due to the poor harvest
because of
as a result of
* Note use of passive

Compare the following:
Because children were vaccinated diseases declined. (because + verb)

Because of the vaccination diseases declined. (because of + noun)
As/since children were vaccinated diseases declined. (conjunction + verb in passive)
Owing to/due to the vaccination diseases declined. (conjunction + noun)
Note the position of the conjunctions in the following:

The teacher was ill, therefore/hence/so/consequently the class was cancelled.
2.2: Cause and Effect 113
3 Practice A
■ Match the causes with their likely effects and write two sentences linking each
together, one emphasising the cause and the other the effect. Use a different con-
junction in each.
Causes Effects
the cold winter of 2015 stores closing on the high street
higher rates of literacy more tourists arriving
construction of the airport a new government formed
last year’s national election greater demand for secondary education
installing speed cameras on main increased demand for electricity
roads a fall in the number of fatal accidents
opening a new hospital in 2019 reduced infant mortality
more people shopping on the
internet
Example:
i) (cause) Owing to the cold winter of 2015 there was increased demand
for electricity.
ii) (effect) The increased demand for electricity was due to the cold
winter of 2015.
a)
b)
c)
d)
e)
f)
■ Develop one of the ‘effect’ sentences above by adding a further effect.

Example: Owing to the cold winter of 2015 there was increased demand
for electricity, which led to some power cuts.
4 Practice B
■ Complete the following sentences with likely effects.
Example:
Increasing use of email for messages has led to fewer letters being sent.
a) The violent storms last week
b) The new vaccine for tuberculosis (TB)
c) Building a high-speed railway line
d) The invention of the jet engine
■ Complete these sentences with possible causes.
Example:
The serious motorway accident resulted from drivers speeding in dense fog.
e) The high price of bread
f) The increase in obesity
g) Earthquakes
h) The rising prison population
5 Practice C
■ Underline the verbs and conjunctions of cause and effect in this text.
Unhappy workers
In recent years there appears to have been a growth in employee dissatisfaction with work. At
its most extreme this is shown by high rates of suicide in some companies, apparently owing to
the stress resulting from re-structuring programmes. Surveys of both European and American
employees have found that more than 50% were unhappy, often due to a feeling of stagnation.
Various theories have attempted to explain this situation. Employees in certain industries such
as car production may feel stressed because of industry-wide overcapacity, creating a sense of
insecurity. More generally, recession can lead to a fear of unemployment or short-time working. In
addition, the constant drive to cut costs and increase productivity causes a concern with meeting
targets which takes its toll on the workforce. Furthermore, many younger employees are now hired
on short-term contracts, which generates an awareness that they could lose their jobs with little
warning.
2.2: Cause and Effect 115
6 Practice D
a) j Study the fow chart below, which shows some of the possible effects of the intro-
duction of driverless cars. Working with a partner, discuss further possible effects
and add them to the chart by flling the empty boxes.
b) j Complete the paragraph describing this sequence.

The introduction of driverless cars and trucks would have various
significant results. First, it would lead to …
c) j Work with a partner. Choose a comparable situation and draw a fow chart show-
ing a cause and some probable effects. Then exchange charts and write a para-
graph to describe them.
UNIT
2.3
Problems and
Solutions
Academic work frequently involves examining a problem and evaluating a range of solu-
tions. This unit explains ways in which this kind of study can be organised. Note that
some of the language is similar to that practised in Unit 2.1 Argument and Discussion.
1 Vocabulary
The main problem facing the football club was the lack of young players. One answer to this was
the local talent scheme. Another proposal was …
The following words can be used as synonyms for problem and solution.
three main diffculties have arisen … the best remedy for this may be …
the main challenge faced by doctors … two answers have been put forward …
one concern during the recession … another suggestion is …
the new process created two Matheson’s proposal was fnally
questions … accepted.
the group faced three main issues … this was rectifed/ solved by …
our principal worry/ dilemma was … another avenue/ approach worth
the next drawback to the proposal was … exploring …
the defect can be overcome by …
■ Complete the following text with a suitable word from the lists above.
How to motivate workers effectively is a(n) a) …………….. which has been discussed and debated
for many years. Higher pay is one obvious b) …………… , but this alone may not be sufficient to
motivate the best employees. A different c) …………… is to improve the job satisfaction of work-
ers, although this d) …………… is not always easy to achieve. A third e) …………… is to enhance
working conditions, for instance by offering cheap meals in the workers’ restaurant, or perhaps
DOI: 10.4324/9781003010210-19
2.3: Problems and Solutions 117
offering flexible working hours. But the best f) …………… will usually depend on the kind of work
being done by the employees.
■ Study the organisation of the following paragraph:
Reducing road congestion
Currently roads are often congested, which is expensive in terms of delays to the movement of
people and freight. It is commonly suggested that building more roads, or widening existing ones,
would ease the traffic jams. However, not only is the cost of such work high, but the construction
process adds to the congestion, while the resulting extra road space may encourage more traffic to
use the wider road, so it is only a short-term answer. Therefore constructing more roads is unlikely
to solve the problem, and other remedies such as road pricing or greater provision of public trans-
port should be examined.
Topic Reducing road congestion

Problem Currently, roads are often congested, which is expensive in
terms of delays to the movement of people and freight.
Solution A It is commonly suggested that building more roads, or
widening existing ones, would ease the traffc jams.
Arguments However, not only is the cost of such work high, but the
against solution A construction process adds to the congestion, while the
resulting extra road space may encourage more traffc to use
the wider road, so it is only a short-term answer.
Conclusion … other remedies such as road pricing or greater provision of
offering solutions public transport should be examined.
B and C
3 Alternative structure
The same ideas could be re-ordered to arrive at a different conclusion:
How can road congestion be reduced?
Currently, roads are often congested, which is expensive in terms of delays to the movement of
people and freight. It is commonly suggested that building more roads, or widening existing ones,
would ease the traffic jams. This remedy is criticised for being expensive and liable to lead to more
road use, which may be partly true, yet the alternatives are equally problematic. Road pricing has
many practical difficulties, while people are often reluctant to use public transport. There is little
alternative to a road building programme except increasing road chaos.
Topic Reducing road congestion

Problem Currently, roads are often congested, which is expensive in
terms of delays to the movement of people and freight.
Solution A It is commonly suggested that building more roads, or
widening existing ones, would ease the traffc jams.
Arguments against This remedy is criticised for being expensive and liable to
solution A lead to more road use, which may be partly true …
Solutions B and C and … yet the alternatives are equally problematic. Road
arguments against pricing has many practical diffculties, while people are
often reluctant to use public transport.
Conclusion in favour There is little alternative to a road building programme
of solution A except increasing road chaos.
4 Practice A
■ Read the following text and then rewrite it to reach a different conclusion.
The housing dilemma
In many urban areas there is a serious housing shortage caused by people moving from the country
to seek opportunities in the city. There are various possible answers to this problem, but each has
its drawbacks. The traditional response is to build family houses with gardens, which offer privacy
and space but require a lot of land. In addition, building these is slow and the growth of suburbs
creates longer journeys to work. Another solution is to construct tall blocks of flats, which will
accommodate more people at high density quite cheaply. However, families may find them noisy
and cramped. A third option is to build prefabricated three-storey houses, which can be erected
more quickly and cheaply than traditional houses and can be designed to achieve a higher density
of population. For many cities these may be the best solution, avoiding the growth of both extensive
suburbs and high-rise blocks.
5 Practice B
■ Working with a partner, study the diagram, which shows a current environmental
problem and offers four possible solutions. Discuss the value of the solutions, and
then write a paragraph analysing the situation.
2.3: Problems and Solutions 119
6 Practice C
■ Working with a partner, add to the list of urban problems and possible solutions.
Problem Solution A Solution B Solution C

Air pollution in large Charge all Only allow Ban cars and
cities vehicles to enter electric vehicles offer free public
centre to enter transport
Night clubs in city
centres create a noise
nuisance
■ Choose one of the problems and write a paragraph discussing the possible solutions.
7 Practice D
■ Think of a similar problem in your subject area. Complete the table and write a para-
graph which offers possible solutions.
Topic
Problem
Solution A
Argument against A
Solution B
Argument for/ against B
(Solution C)
Conclusion
UNIT
2.4
Case Studies
Essays, reports and theses in disciplines such as Medicine and Engineering often include
case studies, which are detailed examples illustrating the topic under discussion. One case
study may be the main subject of an essay, or several may be included to illustrate differ-
ent situations.
1 Using case studies
A case study attempts to explore a concrete, real-world situation. For example, if you are discussing
methods of fighting malaria in rural areas, a case study might follow the real-life efforts of a medi-
cal team in a specific district of Indonesia over a period of months. This may have more value than
a purely theoretical discussion, since it shows what really happened in one place. However, by being
specific these results may not be valid in other situations.
Case studies often form part of an essay or thesis and are widely used in Business, Medicine,
Science, Engineering and Law Studies. They commonly illustrate various solutions to particular
problems, for example:
Problem: How to design earthquake-proof road bridges?

Case study: How three bridges in Chile reacted to the 2010 earthquake.
■ Match the topics on the left with the example case studies on the right.
Topics Case studies

The social effects of developing wind A programme to cut smoking among
farms in rural areas pregnant women in a Greek clinic
Improving crop yields in semi-deserts Work and learning – how a Brazilian
scheme encouraged convicts to stay out
of jail
DOI: 10.4324/9781003010210-20
2.4: Case Studies 121
Topics Case studies

Reducing infant mortality The Berlin experiment: increasing public
participation in collecting and sorting waste
Ecological implication of reintroducing Using solar power to operate irrigation
large mammals into the wild pumps in Ethiopia
Dealing with reoffending among Releasing wolves in the mountains of
prisoners northern Italy
Improving recycling rates in large A comparison of wind farms and
cities community response in two regions of
central Spain
■ Discuss with a partner the value of using case studies in your subject area.
2 Planning a case study
A case study usually begins with a problem:
Why is obesity increasing in many Western countries?
This is a common question, but you need to research the background to establish a clear context
(Where is it increasing? By how much?).
This should be followed by research proposals:
Is obesity caused by poor diet? Lack of physical activity? Genetic predisposition?
You could then search for reports of programmes for combatting obesity. What methods did they
use? How effective were they in reducing obesity?
It might be interesting to describe several such schemes, especially if they varied significantly in
their results. Why was one more successful than another? A failure can be as instructive as a suc-
cess. Your case study may well challenge the accepted theories in this area. This comparison should
then lead to proposals for running similar programmes in the future.
3 Background research
■ Discuss the following question with a partner:
What are the benefits and drawbacks of constructing large dams?
To answer the question you first need to study the background:
Why are dams built?

What are the arguments about their construction?
Where are dams currently being built?
This background research could involve using websites, newspapers, magazines, documentaries or
interviews; contemporary material can be valuable but you should remember to assess all sources
for bias.
A variety of case studies could be of value with this topic. With dam construction, an analysis of
benefits and drawbacks could involve looking at dams constructed 100 years ago as well as current
projects, in order to consider their long-term impact. It might be useful to consider three cases, for
example a dam built in the 1930s in the USA, a recently completed project in East Africa, and a
current development in Turkey.
■ With a partner, do an internet search for possible sources for these examples. Discuss
which are the most useful.
Clearly, depending on your needs, case studies can vary considerably in length. However, the for-
mat will normally include these components:
Introduction Background and context to the topic

Problem question and research proposals
Reference to any theoretical models that are relevant
Development Reasons for choosing particular cases – how they help to answer the prob-
lem question
Case studies A/B/C These may include maps, charts, photographs or video footage
Discussion Comparison of different cases referring to their strong and weak aspects
Conclusion Summary of your findings and possible reference to theories
Implications for future situations
References All references must be correctly cited
4 Model case study
■ Read the following example of a case study taken from a longer essay and answer
the questions below.
Topic: Adapting international brands to local markets
Case Study: The experience of IKEA in China
INTRODUCTION
The Chinese economy has expanded at an average annual rate of about 8% for the past
30 years. Parallel to this, the Chinese furniture industry has grown vigorously, with annual
sales recently rising by over 20% a year. Legislation to privatise home ownership and rapidly
rising income levels have created unprecedented growth in the home improvement market,
and China is now the world’s second largest furniture market. This demand has boosted
domestic production and also prompted multinational furniture manufacturers to enter this
lucrative market. International brands entering a national market must decide how much
they need to adapt to local market conditions. According to Chu et al. (2013) they need to
2.4: Case Studies 123
offset the advantages of producing on a global scale against the benefits of closely targeting a
particular market.
IKEA, a Swedish furniture company, was one of the international companies which moved
into China. It is a major furniture retailer operating in over 50 countries around the world and
had annual sales of over 38.8 billion euros in 2018 (IKEA website). It entered the Chinese
market in 1998 with its first store in Beijing, and sees great potential in the country, having
already expanded to 28 stores and five distribution centres. Despite this successful growth,
IKEA has found itself facing a number of challenges in terms of local differences in culture
and business practices.
Marketing IKEA in China
Marketing management needs to be largely tailored to local contexts. IKEA has kept this
notion in mind when designing marketing strategies and trying to appeal to local tastes
while maintaining profitability. The company attempts to find the best possible compromise
between standardisation and adaptation to local markets. The store layouts reflect the floor
plan of many Chinese apartments, and since many of these have balconies, the stores include
a balcony section. In contrast with traditional Chinese furniture, which is dark with much
carving, IKEA introduces a lighter and simpler style. However, efforts have been made to
adapt its products to Chinese taste. For instance, it has released a series of products just
before each Chinese New Year. In 2008, the year of the rat, the series ‘Fabler’ was designed,
using the colour red which is associated with good luck.
Changes were also made to some product ranges. In Sweden, people are used to sleeping
in single beds, or to putting two single beds together to form a double bed. However, this
idea was not well received by Chinese couples, due to the fact that sleeping in separate beds
symbolises a poor relationship and is believed to bring bad luck. In addition, Chinese brand
names should have positive connotations. The Chinese name of IKEA (Yi Jia) means ‘com-
fortable home’, which gives the company a useful advantage in the market.
An important feature of a retailer is the services it offers. The Shanghai store, for instance,
has a children’s playground and a large restaurant, which make it distinctive. However,
Chinese consumers expect free delivery and installation, and although IKEA has reduced its
charges for these, it still compares unfavourably with its competitors.
When the company first entered China its target market was couples with an income of
5–8,000 Rmb per month. Following steady price reductions this has now been lowered to
families with just over 3,000 Rmb. Various strategies have been adopted to achieve these
reductions; the most effective being to source locally. Seventy percent of its products sold in
China are now made in the country. Furthermore, IKEA replaced its thick annual catalogue
with thinner brochures which now appear five times a year. These not only cut printing costs
but also give greater flexibility to adjust prices.
Accessibility is an important issue for the Chinese market. In most countries IKEA stores are
sited near main roads, but as only 41% of likely customers own cars in China, easy access
to public transport is vital. Advertising also plays an important role in the total promotional
mix. IKEA uses advertising effectively, with adverts in the local newspapers to keep cus-
tomers informed of special offers. All TV commercials are produced locally with Chinese
characters. Public relations are vital to building a good corporate image, and in China IKEA
cooperates with the World Wide Fund for Nature (WWF) on forest projects. The company
insists on using environmentally friendly and recyclable materials for the packaging of its
products, as part of its efforts to build a good corporate image.
Discussion and conclusion
IKEA’s product policy in China has been to successfully standardise products as much as
possible, but also to customise as much as needed. But it has learned that service is also vital:
free delivery and installation are the perceived rules in the local market which it needs to fol-
low. It has further found that it is better to locate in a downtown area, easily accessible with
public transport, when free delivery is not provided. International companies which operate
in China, such as IKEA, face more complicated marketing decisions than local companies.
They must become culture-conscious and thoroughly research local requirements rather than
simply introduce a standard model of business.
Questions
a) Give examples of problems the company has faced in this market.
b) What has IKEA done to adapt to the Chinese market?
c) Is anything missing from this case study?

UNIT
2.5
Literature
Reviews
Literature reviews are sections of a paper in which the writer summarises relevant pub-
lished work on the topic. They are standard in dissertations and theses, and allow the
writer to show awareness of the leading authorities in the field and the state of the current
debate.
1 What is a literature review?
Introductions to essays commonly refer to the main sources used by the writer, but in longer papers,
dissertations and theses there is usually a separate section in which relevant works are discussed.
This may be headed ‘Literature review’ or a similar phrase such as ‘State of the debate’ or ‘Current
state of the literature’.
In some cases the whole focus of an essay may be a lengthy literature review, but in most under-
graduate and graduate writing it will form only a relatively short section of the paper. In all cases,
however, it is necessary to show that you are familiar with the views of the main authorities in the
relevant field, to provide your work with credibility and so that your writing can build on these
sources.
A literature review is not simply a list of sources that you have studied. It can be used to show
that there is a gap in the research that your work attempts to fill:
This article has a different standpoint from other studies, because it believes that the influ-
ence of the state on the market has structurally increased since the neo-liberal era.
This article focuses on information production, not information accessibility. That is the dif-
ference between this research and previous studies.
It is also common to use the literature section to clarify and differentiate the varying positions held
by other researchers:
DOI: 10.4324/9781003010210-21
The political competition literature comprises two main strands – voter monitoring and
political survival.
► See Unit 1.9 Contrasting Sources
2 Examples of literature reviews
■ Read this extract from an article on the subject of a ‘political class’.
A. A solution to the ‘political class’ problem begins with conceptual clarity. A meaningful solution
must be attached to a well-defined problem. Has this clarity been produced by scholars? Certainly,
it is a subject that has attracted the attention of many, but there is still ambiguity in the literature
(see Borchert and Zeiss, 2003; Burch and Moran, 1985; Cotta and Best, 2007; Guttsman, 1965;
Kavanagh, 1992; King, 1983; Mosca, 1939; Rush and Cromwell, 2000; Stanworth and Giddens,
1974; Weber, 1919). For example, Mosca (1939, pp. 50–1) describes a ruling or political class that
‘performs all political functions, monopolises power and enjoys the advantages that power brings’.
The political class has power, dominates all of politics and is drawn from a privileged socio-eco-
nomic background.
This example presents:
a) justification for further research: ‘… but there is still ambiguity in the literature’.
b) a comprehensive list of previous writers, going back over 100 years.
c) summaries of their views, beginning with Mosca.
■ Study another example which focuses on the transport infrastructure of Dubai, and
answer the question which follows.
B. Yet within the literature on Dubai, only a few studies have addressed the impact of port infra-
structure and logistics on wider patterns of capital accumulation (Jacobs and Hall, 2007; Ramos,
2010; Akhaven, 2017). This article aims to contribute to this scant literature by tracing the impact
of Dubai’s state-owned conglomerates and labour regime on the emergence of the city as a global
trade hub.
● What phrases does the writer use to justify his study?
■ Read the next extract, which deals with issues of city governance in Leeds.
C. The uniqueness of this article is to bring together developing insights from co-production and
urban labs and to explore the novel institutional personae that can be developed to unlock more
effective and progressive ways of designing, managing and living in cities. [ … ] Our discus-
sion builds on ongoing debates on soft spaces and fuzzy boundaries (Allmendinger and Haughton,
2.5: Literature Reviews 127
2009; Haughton et al., 2013; Heley, 2013), the role of policy intermediaries (Evans, 2009; Guy et al.,
2011), emotions in policy, (Collins, 2016), and place leadership (Sotarauta and Beer, 2016).
● How do the writers explain what is special about their study while referring to previous
scholars?
● What is the difference between the way citations are organised in example A and examples B
and C?
3 Writing a literature review
■ Study the following stages of writing a literature review as part of a long essay or
thesis.
1. Search the literature which relates to your subject area and research question.
Depending on the length of your paper you may choose to use primary or second-
ary sources; the latter are more convenient if there is a wide range of sources.
Use keywords in your search as practised in Unit 1.3 Reading: Finding Suitable
Sources.
2. Critically examine the sources. You will not have time to read every word pub-
lished on the topic. Successful work depends on pruning the possibilities to focus
just on the most relevant sections of articles and books. In some subjects, such as
Medicine, only recent papers are likely to be of value, whereas in the Humanities,
older sources may still have value, as in the frst example above.
3. Find the themes which link some sources and identify any gaps which your work
can fll. You may be able to show the position of other writers in the current debate
and then where your paper relates to this ongoing discussion. This is important
for establishing your position in the academic community.
4. As with other types of academic writing a literature review needs a coherent
structure; it is not just a collection of citations. It may not always be organised
as Introduction, Discussion and Conclusion but it needs a pattern of logical
development.
5. When you have planned the structure, you can then start to write the review. As
with other types of academic writing it is important not to postpone the writing
stage too long; until you begin you will not be able to judge whether you have
found enough sources.
4 Model literature review
■ Study the following example from a student paper on motivation theory. Answer the
questions which follow.
CONTENT AND PROCESS THEORIES
The various theories of motivation are usually divided into content theories and process
theories. The former attempt to ‘develop an understanding of fundamental human needs’
(Cooper et al., 1992: 20). Among the most significant are Maslow’s hierarchy of needs
theory, McClelland’s achievement theory and Herzberg’s two-factor theory. The process
theories deal with the actual methods of motivating workers, and include the work of Vroom,
Locke and Adams.
Content theories
Maslow’s hierarchy of needs theory was first published in 1943 and envisages a pyramid
of needs on five levels, each of which has to be satisfied before moving up to the next
level. The first level is physiological needs such as food and drink, followed by security,
love, esteem and self-fulfilment (Rollinson, 2005: 195–6). This theory was later revised by
Alderfer, who reduced the needs to three: existence, relatedness and growth, and re-named it
the ERG theory. In addition, he suggested that all three needs should be addressed simultane-
ously (Steers et al., 2004: 381). McClelland had a slightly different emphasis when he argued
that individuals were primarily motivated by three principal needs: for achievement, affilia-
tion and power (Mullins, 2006: 199).
In contrast, Herzberg suggested, on the basis of multiple interviews with engineers and
accountants during the 1950s, a two-factor theory: that job satisfaction and dissatisfaction
had differing roots. He claimed that so-called hygiene factors such as conditions and pay
were likely to cause negative attitudes if inadequate, while positive attitudes came from
the nature of the job itself. In other words, workers were satisfied if they found their work
intrinsically interesting, but would not be motivated to work harder merely by good salaries
or holiday allowances. Instead, workers needed to be given more responsibility, more author-
ity or more challenging tasks to perform (Vroom and Deci, 1992: 252). Herzberg’s work
has probably been the most influential of all the theories in this field, and is still widely used
today, despite being the subject of some criticism, which will be considered later.
Process theories
Vroom’s expectancy theory hypothesises a link between effort, performance and motivation.
It is based on the idea that an employee believes that increased effort will result in improved
performance. This requires a belief that the individual will be supported by the organisa-
tion in terms of training and resources (Mullins, 2006). In contrast, Locke emphasised the
importance of setting clear targets to improve worker performance in his goal theory. Setting
challenging but realistic goals is necessary for increasing employee motivation: ‘goal speci-
ficity, goal difficulty and goal commitment each served to enhance task performance’ (Steers
et al., 2004: 382). This theory has implications for the design and conduct of staff appraisal
2.5: Literature Reviews 129
systems and for management by objective methods focusing on the achievement of agreed
performance targets.
Another approach was developed by Adams in his theory of equity, based on the concept that
people value fairness. He argued that employees appreciate being treated in a transparently
equitable manner in relation to other workers doing similar functions, and respond positively
if this is made apparent (Mullins, 2006). This approach takes a wider view of the workplace
situation than some other theories, and stresses the balance each worker calculates between
‘inputs’, i.e. the effort made, and ‘outputs’, which are the rewards obtained.
As several of these theorists did their research over 60 years ago there has clearly been a
huge change in the nature of employment since then. Therefore it is worth asking whether
they still have relevance to the situation of many workers in the modern, post-industrial
economy, and this study attempts to answer that question.
Questions
a) How many types of motivation theory are described?
b) How many different theorists are mentioned?
c) How many sources are cited?
d) Why has the writer not referred to the work of the theorists directly but used secondary sources
instead?
UNIT
2.6
Writing Longer
Papers
Long essays of 3,000–5,000 words may be required as part of a module assessment. These
require more time, research and organisation than short essays, and this unit provides a
guide to how this type of assignment can be approached.
1 Introduction
■ What are the differences between writing shorter and longer papers? Discuss with a
partner.
The important differences are not the number of words.
● A longer paper allows a student to study a topic in greater depth, so requires more research
and planning.
● The structure of the paper can be more complex, which means that the writer needs to control
the material carefully, and keep a suitable balance between the sections.
● This type of assignment also gives you time to rethink and reorganise your ideas as the process
develops.
● In addition, the paper may contain sections not found in a shorter essay (see 3) below).
2 Planning your work
Longer assignments are normally set many weeks before their deadline, which means that students
should have plenty of time to organise their work. However, it is worth remembering that at the end
of a semester you may have to submit several writing tasks, so it could be a good idea to finish one
or more well before the deadline.
DOI: 10.4324/9781003010210-22
2.6: Writing Longer Papers 131
You should also check the submission requirements of your department. These include style of
referencing, method of submission (i.e. electronic, hard copy or both) and place and time of submis-
sion. Being clear about these will avoid last-minute panic.
► See Unit 1.2 Understanding Essay Questions and the Planning Process
a) The first thing is to prepare a schedule for your work. An eight-week schedule might look like
this:
Week Stages of work Relevant units in this book

1 Study title and make frst outline. Look 1.2, 1.3
for and evaluate suitable sources.
2 Reading and note-making. Keep record 1.3, 1.4, 1.5
of all sources used.
3 Reading, note-making, paraphrasing 1.3, 1.4, 1.5, 1.8
and summarising. Modify outline.
4 Write draft of main body. 1.10
5 Write draft introduction and conclusion. 1.11
6 Rewrite introduction, main body 1.12
and conclusion, checking for logical
development of ideas and relevance to
title.
7 Organise list of references, contents, list 1.7
of fgures and appendices if required.
Check all in-text citations.
8 Proofread the whole essay before 1.12
handing it in. Make sure that the overall
presentation is clear and accurate (e.g.
is page numbering correct?).
b) How you actually plan your schedule is up to you, but the important thing is to organise your
time effectively. At some point you have to stop researching and start writing (Week 4 in the
example above). Leaving the writing stage until the last minute will not lead to a good mark,
however much research you have done. There is little value in collecting a large quantity of
data or ideas if you cannot use it to answer the question effectively. Although you may be
tempted to postpone writing, the sooner you start, the sooner you will be able to begin refining
your ideas. Remember that late submission of coursework is usually penalised.
3 Formatting the paper
Longer papers may include the following features, in this order. Note that not all of these are
required (e.g. a 3,000-word essay may not need a contents page or acknowledgements).
Title page Apart from the title, this usually shows the student’s name
and module title and number.
Contents page This should show the reader the basic organisation of the
paper, with page numbers.
List of tables or fgures If the essay includes visual features such as tables, maps
and graphs, these need to be listed by title and page
number.
Introduction See Unit 1.11 Introductions
Main body The main body may be divided into sections with
subheadings in bold for each.
Your paper may include a literature review and case
studies, but these do not have to be labelled as such.
Your department may require a numbering system, so the
sections of the main body are normally numbered 1, 2,
3 and then subdivided 1.1, 1.2 etc.
Conclusion See Unit 1.11 Conclusions
Acknowledgements A space to thank any tutors or others who have assisted
the writer.
Notes These are used to give extra detail without interfering
with the main narrative. They are indicated in superscript
within the main body of the text. Arabic numerals should
be used for these.
List of references This is a complete list of all the sources cited in the text.
Writers occasionally also include a bibliography, which is
a list of sources read but not cited.
Appendices These sections are for data related to the topic which
(Singular – appendix) the reader may want to refer to. Appendices should be
numbered, have a title and be mentioned in the main
body.
You must check with your department for guidelines regarding typeface, line spacing, margins and
other criteria. With regard to notes you may have the choice of using endnotes, which are collected
in a section before the list of references, or footnotes at the bottom of each page.
The word count is important, and should not be exceeded. Note that only the bibliography and
appendices are normally exempt, so footnotes must usually be included in the count.
2.6: Writing Longer Papers 133
Page numbers: use Roman numbers (i, ii, iii) for the preliminary section from the title page to
the end of the contents page, and then use Arabic numbers (1, 2, 3) to number the rest of the text.
Overall, success with longer papers depends on:
● having a schedule and keeping to it;
● starting to write the main body early enough;
● being ready to modify your outline if necessary;
● allowing adequate time for editing and proofreading;
● being consistent in formatting e.g. with references.

UNIT
2.7
Reports
Students of Science, Engineering, Medicine and Business (among others) may often have
to write reports instead of essays. Reports and essays are similar in many ways, but the
differences are explained and illustrated in this unit.
1 Essays and reports
■ Work with a partner. Discuss possible differences between essays and reports. Make
a list of the differences.
Essays Reports
► See Unit 2.4 Case Studies
2 Writing reports
a) While essays are often concerned with abstract or theoretical subjects, a report is a description
of a situation or something that has happened. In academic terms it might describe:
i) a problem that you have studied and developed several solutions for;
ii) a survey you have carried out;
iii) a proposal for a new product or service.
Most reports should include the following features (though see the more detailed outline of scien-
tific reports in the next section):
DOI: 10.4324/9781003010210-23
2.7: Reports 135
Introduction
– background to the subject
– reasons for carrying out the work
– review of other research in the area
Method
– how you did your research
– description of the tools/ materials/ equipment used
Results
– what you discovered
– comments on the likely accuracy of the results
Discussion
– of your main fndings
– comments on the effectiveness of your research
Conclusion
– summary of your work
– practical implications of the research
– suggestions for further research
b) In comparison with essays, reports are likely to

i) be based on primary as well as secondary research;
ii) be more specific and detailed;
iii) use numbering (1.1, 1.2) and subheadings for different sections.
In most other respects reports are similar to essays since both:
● have a clear and logical format

● use objective and accurate academic style
● may include citations and references
● make use of visual information in the form of graphs, diagrams and tables
● include appendices where necessary.
c) While an essay will generally be written for your lecturer or tutor, a report could also be pre-
pared for a manager, a customer or an organisation. You are far more likely to write reports
than essays in your future career, and so it is a skill worth practising.
■ Decide whether the following titles are more likely to be written as reports or essays.
Topic Report Essay

1. The development of trade unions in South Africa
(1900–2018)
2. Two alternative plans for improving the College Open
Days for prospective students
3. A survey you conducted to compare male and female

attitudes to writing essays
4. An overview of recent research on the human genome
5. The arguments for and against capital punishment
3 Scientifc reports
Scientific research is usually conducted in order to support a hypothesis or to validate the work of
others. An accurate written record of the experiment is important because it allows other research-
ers to share your work. At graduate level or above your research is adding to an international body
of data on your particular area of study.
In general, scientific reports follow the same guidelines as other academic writing in terms
of style and vocabulary. However, your department may well have its own requirements for the
organisation of a report, so it is advisable to ask if these exist.
Format
Reports of laboratory experiments in disciplines such as Biology, Chemistry and Physics generally
include the following sections:
a) Title
This should contain the essential elements of the report in (ideally) no more than 12 words:
The effect of temperature changes on the germination of wheat (Triticum aestivum)
b) Abstract
The function of an abstract is to help potential readers identify whether your report is relevant to
their research interests. It is essentially a summary in about 200 words of each part of the report,
and so it is commonly written after the last draft is finalised. It should include the principal conclu-
sions and be written in the same tenses as the main report.
► See Unit 1.3 Reading: Finding Suitable Sources
c) Introduction
The introduction should contextualise your work with reference to other similar research. It should
cite previous research papers which you have studied in order to explain the purpose of your work
e.g. to confirm or extend their findings. It must contain a purpose statement (why you did this
experiment) or a hypothesis you wished to evaluate, or both.
2.7: Reports 137
d) Method
This section explains how you did the research. It should allow another researcher to repeat your
work, so it needs to include a description of equipment and materials used, as well as the process
you followed. You may wish to include diagrams or photographs to illustrate the set-up in the labora-
tory. The passive is normally used (three samples were prepared) rather than the active (we prepared
three samples). Because the research is already concluded, the past tense should be used throughout.
e) Results
Again using the past tense, here you summarise all the results obtained. Detailed data may be pre-
sented in tables and graphs, with only the most important features highlighted in the text. You must
include all results, including unexpected ones which do not conform to your hypothesis.
f) Discussion
This section links back to the introduction by comparing your results with the original purpose or
hypothesis. It aims to evaluate the experiment in terms of your findings and compare them to your
expectations. It may be necessary to refer to the relevant literature.
g) Conclusion
The conclusion should make it clear whether you feel that your hypothesis has been supported and
whether there are changes that you would make to the design of the experiment if you were to repeat it.
h) References
As in all academic writing, this provides a list of all the sources you have specifically mentioned
in your report.
► See Unit 1.7 References and Quotations
4 Practice
■ The order of the following six sentences (a–f), which form the introduction to a report
on student accommodation at a university college, has been mixed up. Rearrange the
sentences in their logical order (i–vi). The frst one has been done for you.
a) However, as the estimated cost of these new residences is about £2.75 million
($3.4m) there is a counter-proposal to spend the money on better teaching facili-
ties and instead rely on private landlords to provide accommodation off-campus.
b) On the basis of the survey results, we then attempted to evaluate the two main
options available to the College.
c) This is a crucial issue for the College as the quality of accommodation is a vital
concern for most students: having comfortable and affordable housing can be
seen as essential for focussing on academic work.
d) Rising student numbers are putting pressure on existing student residences on

the campus, so that the College is currently considering building three new blocks
in the College grounds which would accommodate approximately 350 students.
e) In order to research these questions we conducted a survey of 194 current stu-
dents living in a range of accommodation.
f) Therefore this report sets out to establish what kind of accommodation students
prefer, and secondly to discuss how this can be best provided, given the current
fnancial climate.
A report on student accommodation at Bullbridge College
1. Introduction
i) d
ii)
iii)
iv)
v)
vi)
■ Now read the rest of the report and answer the questions which follow.
2. Accommodation survey
We tried to find out why a cross-section of students had chosen their current rooms and how sat-
isfied they were with their choices by conducting a short survey. About 250 students were sent
an online questionnaire and 194 of these were completed. Of these, 55% (106) were from female
students and 45% (88) were from males. This broadly reflects the gender balance of the College.
Question 1: What kind of accommodation do you have now?
Type College Student Shared house At home

residence residence or fat – private with parents
on-campus off-campus landlord
Male 36 14 33 5
Female 57 11 29 9
Total 93 25 62 14
It can be seen that the most common type of accommodation is in the College residences, and that
only a small minority live with their parents. The results also demonstrate that substantially more
females than males live in college residences and with their families.
2.7: Reports 139
Question 2: How satisfied are you with your current accommodation?

(Rated 1–5, average results)
Type College Student Shared house At home

residence residence or fat – private with
on-campus off-campus landlord parents
Male 3.7 4.6 3.4 2.9
Female 4.2 4.1 3.6 4.0
Average 3.95 4.35 3.5 3.45
These results show that the highest levels of satisfaction are found with the off-campus purpose-
built residences, provided by private companies. The on-campus College residences are also quite
well-liked, but shared houses and flats seem less satisfactory.
Question 3: What do you like and dislike about your current accommodation?
Type College Student Shared At home

residence residence house or with parents
on-campus off-campus fat – private
landlord
Likes Convenient Well-equipped Cheap Economical
Make friends Near town Can choose Comfortable
centre friends to
share with
Dislikes Expensive Small rooms Arguments Less freedom
Noisy Expensive with fatmates Can’t have
Poor quality friends to stay
fttings
3. Analysis
The survey might have been improved by asking a greater number of students, but 194 responses
does provide a significant sample. Perhaps a more serious drawback is that it did not distinguish
between different years: first-year students may well have different priorities (e.g. making friends)
to final-year students (who may value the independence of a shared house). However, the results
obtained do support anecdotal reports of student preferences.
4. Conclusion
Clearly living with parents is an option only open to a limited number of students with families liv-
ing locally, so there are basically three types of student accommodation. Some students will prefer
to save money by sharing flats and houses with their friends, and in fact there is a good supply of
this type of accommodation provided by private landlords.
The off-campus student residences appear to be rather more popular than the College residences,
and from the College’s point of view they require no investment. Provided that more of these can
be built to accommodate rising student numbers it would seem better for the College to spend its
limited capital on new teaching facilities.
a) Is anything missing from the report?

b) How could the report be improved?
UNIT
2.8
Refective
Writing
As part of studying a course in Nursing, Teaching, Social Sciences, Business or similar

subjects it is increasingly common for students to be asked to reflect on their performance
in various practical activities as part of the learning process. This unit explains the pur-
pose of this reflection and illustrates some ways it can be approached.
1 The purpose of refective writing
Reflective writing aims to enhance the benefit that students gain from various activities on their
academic course, especially from more practical ones which involve other students such as taking
part in a group project or conducting a survey. It recognises the value to students of assessing their
experience, thinking about the positive and negative aspects, and drawing conclusions from this
which will inform future performance.
Various models have been developed to illustrate this process. One of the most comprehensive
was by Gibbs (1988), which portrayed reflective writing as a cycle, moving from a description of
what happened to an analysis of a student’s reactions to the event, followed by an explanation of
the situation and then an evaluation of how well they dealt with the issue. Finally the student could
consider how this might impact on their behaviour in future.
DOI: 10.4324/9781003010210-24
(Source: Modified from Gibbs, G. (1988). Learning by Doing: A Guide to

Teaching and Learning Methods. Oxford: Oxford Further Education Unit)
2 Example
■ Study the following extract from a piece of refective writing on a recently conducted
survey as part of a group project on public transport. Answer the questions which
follow.
The first stage of our course required each group to research different types of local public
transport. Our group decided to research the demand for local bus services and developed
a questionnaire which consisted of ten questions, all with a yes/ no format. The survey was
carried out in the Intu shopping precinct on May 19th, with the group working in pairs. We
completed 112 questionnaires during the morning, with 74 women and 38 men taking part.
The results showed that a majority of respondents (67% overall) would pay more to use the
bus service if it was more reliable.
I was quite nervous about interviewing people in the street but almost everyone we asked
agreed to take part. However, I feel that the format of our questions was too rigid and some
‘open’ questions would have been more productive. Due to the timing, most of the interview-
ees were women shoppers, and we should have tried to get a better male/ female balance.
Looking back, I think we could have trialled the questionnaire with a test group and been
2.8: Reflective Writing 143
prepared to modify some of the questions. I had thought about this earlier, but was worried
about suggesting it to the group. In future I must be prepared to give my opinions even if it
creates extra work for the team. Overall it seems difficult to design a set of questions in a
large group of 10 people and perhaps it would be better to form a subcommittee to deal with
this.
a) What has the writer learned from the experience about her behaviour?
b) What does the writer suggest might improve group work in future?
c) How does this report conform to the Gibbs model?
3 Structure
In general, a piece of reflective writing has four main sections, with the emphasis on the last two:
Introduction – a brief overview of the background

Description – a summary of what happened
Interpretation – how you felt about the events
Outcome – what you learnt from the experience
■ Use these descriptors to break down the example in 2) above.
Introduction The first stage of our course required each

group to research different types of local public
transport.
Description
Interpretation
Outcome
4 Style
Reflective writing is different in style from the bulk of academic writing. As it is more personal,
using ‘I’ or ‘we’, it will be more subjective than normal, explaining your feelings. However, like
other academic genres, it aims to be clear and precise as well as logical. The emphasis will be on
critical analysis rather than description. As with other types of academic writing, your comments
should be based on clear evidence where possible.
The following phrases may be useful in writing about interpretation and outcome:
It might have been better to ….

We should have considered ….
Another approach would have been to ….
Perhaps a more effective method could be …
In future I will take a different approach

I need to improve my timing
A smaller team could be more productive
Overall I feel it was a useful exercise
5 Practice A
■ Work with a partner. Think about a seminar or lecture you have both recently attended,
or a project you have been involved in. Ask each other questions such as:
• What did you expect from this?

• What beneft did you get from it?
• How could it have been improved?
• Would you change your behaviour at a similar event in future?
■ Write a short account of the event with a brief description of what happened and then
an account of your reactions to it and an analysis of any changes you might make to
your participation in future.
6 Practice B
Everyone makes mistakes, but in order to learn from them you could consider keeping a learning
journal. This is a kind of diary which records some of the academic tasks you are required to do
and your analysis of how useful they were, as well as how well you dealt with them. This is just for
your own interest and nobody else need read it.
Example:
October 5th We were given two weeks to write a 1,000-word report on ante-natal services at the
local clinic, working in groups of three. I felt rather nervous at first, but after meet-
ing the other two I thought we got on well and we made a plan for our research.
October 6th We talked to a nurse at the clinic. She gave us some leads, but we should have
prepared our questions better before meeting her. However, on the basis of this we
modified our plans for researching the services, which I thought was useful and
should give us a better outcome.
■ Select two days in the past week and write journal entries for them. Your emphasis
should be on interpretation of events rather than just description.
Progress
Check C
These exercises will help you assess your understanding of Part 2: Writing Types.
1 This paragraph discusses the advantages and disadvantages of electric vehicles.

Complete the gaps with suitable words and phrases.
One important …………… of battery-powered vehicles is their lack of polluting emissions.
Another…………… is that they are simpler to construct, while lower running costs are a fur-
ther …………… . However, one serious ……………. must be their restricted range, as they
require recharging after about 250 miles. Price is an additional …………, since the cost of the
battery makes these vehicles more expensive than petrol-driven models. A final issue may be
the source of the electricity, because if it is generated by coal or gas there is little …………….
for the environment.
2 Complete these sentences about electric vehicles, with counter arguments given first.
a) It is frequently claimed that EVs have a very short range, but ………………………
b) Although it has been argued that EVs will reduce air pollution ……………………………
c) Currently EVs are relatively expensive, yet ……………………………………………….….
3 Complete the text with suitable words or phrases.
The Covid-19 pandemic had a major effect on the aviation industry. a) ………………………
many countries closed their borders, airlines were forced to b) ……………………… .
In addition, many people were afraid to travel by c) ……………………… . This situation
d) ………………………………………… the closure of some airports and thousands of staff
e) ……………………… . A further f) ……………………… was the impact on airplane builders
such as Airbus, which experienced a severe fall in demand for their products.
4 Complete each sentence with synonyms for ‘problem’ or ‘solution’.
a) The main ……………… facing the engineers was the extreme cold.
b) The only ………………… was to repeat the experiment.
c) One …………… faced by the company was public mistrust of internet security.
d) The safe disposal of nuclear waste is a ……………without an easy ……………… .
DOI: 10.4324/9781003010210-25
5 Some of these sentences contain factual errors. Find and correct them.
a) Case studies are mainly used by students of Medicine.
b) Most longer papers should include a literature review.
c) A good literature review will only include primary sources.
d) When writing a longer paper you should start by writing the introduction.
e) One purpose of reflective writing is to improve your study habits.
f) Reflective writing must be objective.
g) Reports are generally less theoretical than essays.
h) Reports deal with an analysis of events in the past.
6 The plans below illustrate two proposals for redeveloping a site on a university campus. Study
the plans and then read the five sentences (a–e) which are the introduction to a report on the
redevelopment. The order of the sentences has been mixed up. Put them in the correct order.
Plan A
Plan B
Progress Check C 147
a) The report also takes into account a consultation exercise with staff and students carried out
last autumn.
b) Two alternatives schemes for redevelopment have been put forward, as can be seen in Plans A
and B above.
c) This report attempts to compare the two schemes and to establish which is the more suitable.
d) The aim of the redevelopment is to improve facilities for both staff and students, and at the
same time enhance the appearance of this part of the campus.
e) Due to the recent closure of the maintenance depot, a site approximately 250 metres long and
100 metres wide has recently become vacant on the west side of the university campus, and is
ready for redevelopment.
■ Write the rest of the report under the three headings: Proposals, Discussion and
Recommendations in less than 250 words.
PART
Writing Tools 3
Part 3 examines the skills needed to write any

kind of academic work, such as using exam-
ples, making generalisations and providing
correct punctuation. Presented in alphabetical
order, these writing tools can be accessed for
reference as needed or studied in conjunction
with units in Part 1, e.g. Unit 3.8 Style with
Unit 1.12 Editing and Proofreading.
DOI: 10.4324/9781003010210-26
UNIT
3.1
Cohesion
Cohesion means joining a text together with suitable reference words (he, she, theirs, the
former) and conjunctions (but, then) so that the whole text is clear, interesting and logical
for the reader. This unit deals with the use of reference words.
1 Reference words
Reference words are used to avoid repetition:
Leonardo da Vinci (1452–1519) was a fifteenth-century Italian genius who produced only a
handful of finished artworks. However, they include Mona Lisa and The Last Supper, the former
perhaps the most famous painting in the world. Although he is remembered mainly as an artist,
he was also an innovative engineer, scientist and anatomist. His designs include tanks and flying
machines, and although few of these were built in his lifetime he is still remembered as the man
who saw their possibility.
Here the reference words function as follows:
Leonardo da Vinci fnished artworks Mona Lisa designs

He/His they the former these/their
Examples of reference words and phrases:
Pronouns he/ she/ it/ they

Possessive pronouns his/ her/ hers/ its/ their/ theirs
Object pronouns her/ him/ them
Demonstrative pronouns this/ that/ these/ those
Other phrases the former/ the latter/ the frst/ the second/ the last
DOI: 10.4324/9781003010210-27
152 Part 3: Writing Tools
2 Practice A
■ Read the following paragraph and complete the table with reference words.
Capital glamour?
In the last 10 years at least 15 British universities such as Warwick and Loughborough have opened
campuses in London, the former in the Shard building. They believe that an outpost in the capital
is attractive for some students, especially international ones. For that reason many of them offer
English-language classes alongside their academic courses. These campuses tend to offer more
vocational subjects such as Management, although the bright lights of the capital offer no guarantee
of subsequent employment. But among the drawbacks of such courses is the lack of sports facilities
or other student union-based activities in the cramped conditions of the capital.
Reference Reference word/phrase

Warwick The former
15 British universities
some students
an outpost in the capital is attractive
campuses in London
more vocational subjects
3 Preventing confusion
To avoid confusing the reader it is important to use reference words only when the reference is clear
and unambiguous. For example:
Pablo Picasso moved to Paris in 1904 and worked with Georges Braque from 1908 to 1909.
He became interested in the analysis of form, which led to cubism.
In this case it is not clear which person (Picasso or Braque) ‘he’ refers to. So to avoid this write:
Pablo Picasso moved to Paris in 1904 and worked with Georges Braque from 1908 to 1909.
Picasso/ The former became interested in the analysis of form, which led to cubism.
■ Read a short text in your subject area and underline the reference words.
3.1: Cohesion 153
4 Practice B
■ In the following paragraph, insert suitable reference words in the gaps.
Famous for?
When Andy Warhol died at the age of 58 in 1987 few people guessed that a) ………. would soon
become one of the most valuable artists in the world. In 2007 total sales of b) ………. work at auc-
tion reached $428 million. When, a year later, c) ………. painting ‘Eight Elvises’ sold for over $100
million, d) ………. was one of the highest prices ever paid for a work of art. In e) ………. working
life f) ………. made about 10,000 artworks, and dealers believe that g) ………. will continue to be
popular with collectors in future. h) ………. is because of Warhol’s huge reputation as a super-cool
trendsetter and innovator. i) ………. is also remembered for j) ………. remark: ‘In the future every-
one will be famous for 15 minutes’, which seems to forecast today’s celebrity culture.
5 Implied language
In various written forms certain words may be omitted for convenience. For instance, in emails the
pronoun is frequently missed out:
(I) Hope to see you on Friday.

(We are) Looking forward to reading your article.
In other cases, nouns may be implied, to avoid repetition:
Various metals are used to make alloys with nickel. One such (metal) is chromium.
Oil (production) and gas production have fallen since 2015.
It is hoped to select suitable candidates from the 10,000 (candidates) who apply each year.
In places a whole phrase might be implied:
They are hoping to reach that goal soon. By 2025 they probably will
(reach that goal).
Implied language, also called ellipsis, is frequently found in comparisons:
The price of land in rural areas is much less than (the price of land) in cities.
Until you are a confident writer it is better not to omit such words or phrases since it may lead to
confusion, but it is useful to understand why it is done.
6 Practice C
■ Read the paragraphs below and replace the words in bold with reference words.
Velcro
Velcro is a fabric fastener used with clothes and shoes. Velcro was invented by a Swiss engineer
called George de Mestral. Mestral’s idea was derived from studying the tiny hooks found on some
plant seeds. The tiny hooks cling to animals and help disperse the seeds. Velcro has two sides, one
of which is covered in small hooks and the other in loops. When the hooks and loops are pressed
together they form a strong bond.
Mestral spent eight years perfecting Mestral’s invention, which Mestral called ‘Velcro’ from the
French words ‘velour’ and ‘crochet’. The invention was patented in 1955 and today over 60 million
metres of Velcro are sold annually.
7 Practice D
■ In the following paragraph, insert suitable reference words in the gaps.
Gillette’s blades
Thin, disposable razor blades were first marketed in America by King Gillette at the beginning of
the twentieth century. a) ………… had realised that as all men had to shave daily, there was a huge
market for a product that would make b) …………. easier. c) ………….. was a simple idea, but at
first d) ………… found it very hard to sell e) ………… . f) ………… was because nobody had mar-
keted a throw-away product before. However, g) ………… use of advertising to stimulate demand
rapidly increased sales and h) …………… became very popular. Within a few years i) …………
was a millionaire.
8 Practice E
■ Use the following information to write a paragraph about the invention of Kevlar, pay-
ing careful attention to the use of reference words.
Kevlar
Inventor Stephanie Kwolek (1923–2014)

Background: Her parents were Polish immigrants to America
Company: DuPont Corporation (USA)
Kwolek’s position: Research chemist
3.1: Cohesion 155
Kwolek’s education: BSc from Carnegie Mellon University. She had planned a medical career,
but took a temporary job with DuPont
Kevlar ‘s properties: Synthetic fibre, stronger than steel
Patented: 1965
Commercially produced: 1971
Applications: Car tyres, bullet-proof vests, skis, ropes, motorcycling clothing
3.2
UNIT
Comparison
It is often necessary to make comparisons in academic writing. The comparison might

be the subject of the essay, or might provide evidence for the argument. In all cases it is
important to explain clearly what is being compared and to make the comparison as accu-
rate as possible. This unit deals with different forms of comparison and practises their use.
1 Comparison structures
■ Working with a partner, write three sentences comparing the weather today with the
weather two days ago.
Example: Today is much cooler and windier than (it was) on Tuesday.
a)
b)
c)
The two basic comparative forms are:
i) France is larger than Switzerland.
The students were happier after the exam.
(–er is added to one-syllable adjectives, some two-syllable adjectives (clever, cleverer) and
two-syllable adjectives ending in –y, which changes into an ‘i’)
ii) Learning Chinese is more difficult than learning English.
Washington is less crowded than New York.
(more/ less … are used with other adjectives of two or more syllables)
DOI: 10.4324/9781003010210-28
3.2: Comparison 157
These comparisons can be modified by the use of adverbs such as:

slightly, marginally (for small amounts)
considerably, significantly, substantially (for large amounts)
France is substantially larger than Switzerland.

Switzerland is slightly smaller than Holland.
Winters in Poland are significantly colder than in Portugal.
Similarity or near-similarity can be noted by the use of as …… as or the same as:
The population of France is approximately the same as the population of Britain.
Summers in Tokyo are as wet as in Singapore.
The ‘as … as …’ form can be used for quantitative comparison:
Britain is half as large as France.
The journey by plane is five times as fast as by train.
► See Unit 3.6 Numbers and Visual Information
2 Practice A
Some papers are based on a comparison:
The purpose of this study is to compare Chinese and American consumers on their
propensity to use self-service technology in a retail setting.
In other cases a comparison provides useful context:
The first attempt to decode the human genome took 10 years; now it can be done in less than a
week.
■ Read the text below and underline the comparison phrases. The frst has been done.
One result of the Covid-19 pandemic has been to further increase the popularity of online shopping.
Choosing and ordering goods via a mobile phone or laptop has significant advantages compared
to visiting the high street or a shopping centre. Many people find it more convenient to be able to
shop at any time of day, rather than when a shop is open. Online shopping also offers significantly
greater choice, since a much wider range of goods can be kept in large warehouses rather than in
showrooms. It is also generally less expensive, as the retailer does not have the cost of running a
physical store, while reading reviews from other buyers is helpful for many customers. Clearly, it is
also much quicker compared with making a journey to the shops.
However, physically handling goods, whether furniture or clothes, can be more reassuring than
seeing the same products on a screen. In addition, many people enjoy the interaction of shopping
in person, and find it more satisfying to speak to an assistant. Overall, it seems inevitable that more
shopping will take place online, but the pleasure of browsing will ensure that some brick-and-
mortar shops remain open.
3 Using superlatives (e.g. the largest/ smallest)
When using superlatives take care to define the group, e.g. ‘the cheapest car’ has no meaning with-
out a context:
The cheapest car in the Ford range/ in the USA.
The most/ the least are usually followed by an adjective:
The most interesting example is the position of Ireland.
The most/ the fewest are used in relation to numbers:
The fewest students studied insurance. (i.e. the lowest number)
4 Practice B
■ Study the table, which shows the changes in house prices in ten countries 2007–2017.
Complete the following paragraph with one word in each gap.
Country Real % change

Canada +47
New Zealand +36
Australia +35
Germany +31
China +30
Japan +5
United Kingdom −4
USA −15
Ireland −35
Spain −36
(Source: The Economist)
In the decade between 2007 and 2017, the a)……………... rise in house prices
among these countries was in Canada, where prices rose by 47%. This increase was
b) ……………... greater c) ……………... in New Zealand (36%) or Australia (35%).
Rises in Germany were nearly the d) ……………... as in China (31% and 30%). The
e) ……………... falls were in Spain and Ireland (−36% and −35%), f) ……………...
greater than declines in the USA (−15%) or the UK (−4%).
3.2: Comparison 159
5 Forms of comparison
■ Compare these three possible structures:

House prices in China have risen more than in Japan.
Chinese house prices have risen more than Japanese (prices).
The price of houses in China has risen more than in Japan.
Note that high/ low are used for comparing abstract ideas (e.g. rates):
The birth rate was higher 20 years ago.
more/ less must be used with than + comparison:
This module is more diffcult than the previous one.
Current spending on health is less than last year’s (rate).
6 Practice C
■ Study the table, which shows the income of the top ten clubs in European football.
Then read the comparisons. Each sentence contains one error. Find and correct it.
Income of top ten European football clubs (2020)
Club Revenue euros m.

FC Barcelona 840
Real Madrid 757
Manchester United 711
Bayern Munich 660
Paris Saint-Germain 635
Manchester City 610
Liverpool 604
Tottenham Hotspur 521
Chelsea 513
Juventus 459
(Source: Deloitte)
a) FC Barcelona had the highest income.

b) Real Madrid’s income was almost twice much as Juventus’.
c) FC Barcelona earned marginally more than Chelsea.
d) Tottenham Hotspur had less revenue Liverpool.
e) Liverpool’s income was substantially less than Manchester City’s.
f) Liverpool earned approximately same as Manchester City.
7 Practice D
■ The table shows the percentage of GDP spent on health in a range of countries.
Complete the sentences below and write two more. Then combine all the sentences
into a paragraph using linking phrases.
Country Health spending

as % of GDP
USA 14
Switzerland 11
Canada 9.5
South Africa 8.6
Denmark 8.4
Bangladesh 3.5
Oman 3.0
Indonesia 2.4
Madagascar 2.0
Azerbaijan 0.9
(Source: WHO)
a) There are wide in the percentage of GDP spent on health globally.

b) The USA spends times as much as Bangladesh.
c) South Africa spends more than Denmark.
d) Madagascar’s spending on health is the same as Indonesia’s.
e)
f)
8 Practice E
■ Study the table below, which shows the share of total energy consumption produced
from renewable sources in various European countries in 2016. Write a paragraph
comparing them.
Country % of total
Sweden 54
Finland 41
Denmark 35
Austria 32
Portugal 28
3.2: Comparison 161
Romania 24
Italy 18
Germany 15
UK 10
Netherlands 6
(Source: Eurostat)
Among various European nations, Sweden produces the greatest

amount of its energy from renewable sources …
9 Practice F
■ Study the data below about Barcelona, then complete the right-hand column about
a city you know well. Finally, write a comparison of the two cities in 150–200 words.
Barcelona Your city

Location Port city, on the northern Spanish
Mediterranean coast
History A town has been on this site for over
2,000 years
Status Capital of the autonomous region of
Catalonia
Population 1.6 million
Employment Government offces, banking, tourism,
car manufacturing
Culture Over 55 museums, plus many art
galleries, theatres and cinemas
Public 12 Metro lines, plus trams, buses and
transport funicular railways
Climate Warm wet winters, hot dry summers.
Summer average approximately 25°C.
Housing Mainly fats, typically in blocks of six
storeys.
Main visitor The buildings of Gaudi, especially the
attractions Sagrada Familia cathedral
UNIT
3.3
Defnitions
Definitions are often found in introductions (see Unit 1.11). They are not needed in every
paper, but if the title includes an unfamiliar phrase, or if the writer wants to use a term
in a special way, it is important to make clear to the reader exactly what is meant in this
context. This unit presents ways of writing both simple and complex definitions.
1 Simple defnitions
Basic definitions, as found in a dictionary, are formed by giving a category and the application:
Word Category Application

An agenda is a set of issues to be discussed in a meeting.
A Master’s is an academic for postgraduate students, given on
degree award successful completion of a dissertation.
A grant is a sum of given for a specifc purpose.
money
A seminar is an academic meeting with a tutor for study.
class
2 Category words
These are useful for making definitions.
■ Match the examples on the left with the categories on the right. Then write a full def-
nition for each one.
DOI: 10.4324/9781003010210-29
3.3: Definitions 163
Example:
Reinforced concrete is a building material consisting of cement, aggregates and steel
rods, used in structures such as bridges.
Example Category word

Reinforced concrete Disease
Malaria Cereal
Autocracy Organisation
Weaving Visual arts
Oats Political system
Limited company Building material
Parking fne Penalty
Sculpture Process
■ Complete the following defnitions by inserting a suitable category word or phrase

from the box (there are more words than gaps).
textile theory behaviour organisation process
instrument organs period profession
a) A barometer is a scientifc …………… designed to measure atmospheric pressure.

b) Kidneys are …………… that separate waste fuid from the blood.
c) A multi-national company is a business …………… that operates in many
countries.
d) Linen is a …………… made from fax.
e) Bullying is a pattern of anti-social …………… found in many schools.
f) Recycling is a …………… in which materials are used again.
g) A recession is a …………… of reduced economic activity.
■ Write defnitions for the following:

h) A lecture is
i) Tuberculosis (TB) is
j) The Red Cross is
k) An idiom is
■ Write two defnitions from your own subject area:

3 Complex defnitions
It can be difficult to define terms that you may feel are widely used and understood. For instance,
what exactly is an ‘urban area’, a ‘non-governmental organisation’ or the ‘international community’?
Although these and many similar terms are commonly employed in discussion, if you have to
write about them it can be vital to make clear, at the beginning of a paper, what you understand by
such a phrase in the context of your paper.
■ The following examples illustrate the variety of methods that can be used in giving
defnitions. Study the examples and underline the terms being defned.
a) The defnition for a failed project ranges from abandoned projects to projects that
do not meet their full potential or simply have schedule overrun problems.
b) Development is a socio-economic-technological process having the main objec-
tive of raising the standards of living of the people.
c) Bowlby (1982) suggested that attachment is an organized system whose goal is
to make individuals feel safe and secure.
d) … the non-linear effect called ‘self-brightening’ in which large-amplitude waves
decay more slowly than small-amplitude ones …
e) Globalisation, in an economic sense, describes the opening up of national econo-
mies to global markets and global capital, the freer movement and diffusion of
goods, services, fnance, people, knowledge and technology around the world.
■ Which of the above example(s)

i) quotes a defnition from another writer?
ii) gives a variety of relevant situations?
iii) explains a process?
iv) uses category words?
4 Practice A
■ Study the following titles, underline the terms that are worth defning, and write def-
nitions for three of them.
Example:
Title: Higher education should be free and open to all – Discuss.
Defnition: Higher education usually means university-level study for frst or higher
degrees, normally at the age of 18 or above.
a) Capital punishment has no place in the modern legal system – Discuss.
b) How can the management of an entrepreneurial business retain its entrepreneur-
ial culture as it matures?
c) E-books are likely to replace printed books in the next 20 years. Do you agree?
3.3: Definitions 165
d) As urban areas continue to expand worldwide, will agriculture be able to feed the
growing population of cities?
e) Given the medical dangers of obesity, what is the best way of reducing its
incidence?
5 Practice B
■ Think of a topic you are currently studying and write three defnitions for terms used
in that topic that need clarifcation.
Example:
(Education)
a) pre-school
b) learning disability
c) mixed-ability class
UNIT
3.4
Examples
Examples are used in academic writing for support and illustration. Suitable examples
can strengthen the argument, and they can also help the reader to understand a point. This
unit demonstrates the different ways in which examples can be introduced, and practises
their use.
1 Using examples
Generalisations are commonly used to introduce a topic:
Many plants and animals are threatened by global warming.
But if the reader is given an example for illustration, the idea becomes more concrete:
Many plants and animals are threatened by global warming. Polar bears, for example, are
suffering from the lack of Arctic ice.
Without examples writing can seem too theoretical:
The overuse of antibiotics has had serious negative consequences.
But an example makes the idea easier to understand:
The overuse of antibiotics has had serious negative consequences. Hospital-acquired infec-
tions such as MRSA have become more difficult to treat and this has resulted in many
deaths.
DOI: 10.4324/9781003010210-30
3.4: Examples 167
The example may also support the point the writer is making:
The past decade has seen International Relations enthusiastically embrace popular culture
as a classroom resource. George Orwell’s ‘1984’ has long had traction as a metaphor for a
meta-regional dystopia …
► See Unit 3.5 Generalisations
■ Read the following text and note the way that examples are used. Underline the
examples.
Droning on
For some years there have been predictions that drones could be used to deliver goods to customers.
Amazon was one company that expressed an interest. Yet issues with regulators have delayed the
arrival of airborne parcels in most countries, owing to concerns with privacy and safety. However,
in remote rural regions drone deliveries are already in operation. In Rwanda, for instance, an
American startup called Zipline is flying medical supplies, especially blood, to isolated clinics
and hospitals. There are various reasons for beginning to operate in these places: medicines are
valuable yet lightweight, while most deliveries are between a small number of fixed points. By
comparison, travel by road is likely to be slower and more expensive. The pioneer companies such
as Zipline and Matternet claim to be operating profitably already, and there are plans to begin the
service in less remote places: Zipline will bring its expertise from Africa to North Carolina.
2 Phrases to introduce examples
a) for instance, for example, (with commas)

Some car manufacturers, for instance Kia, now offer seven-year guarantees.
b) such as, e.g. (e.g. normally in brackets)
Extreme weather events such as hurricanes are becoming more frequent.
c) particularly, especially (to give a focus)
Certain Master’s courses, especially American ones, take two years.
d) a case in point (for single examples)
A few diseases have been successfully eradicated. A case in point is smallpox.
■ Add a suitable example to each sentence and introduce it with one of the phrases
above.
Example: A number of sports have become very proftable due to the sale of televi-
sion rights.
A number of sports, for instance motor racing, have become very proft-
able due to the sale of television rights.
a) Some twentieth-century inventions affected the lives of most people.

b) Since 2005 many countries have introduced fees for university courses.
c) Various companies have built their reputation on the strength of one product.
d) In recent years more women have become political leaders.
e) Certain countries are frequently affected by earthquakes.
f) Many musical instruments use strings to make music.
g) Ship canals facilitate world trade.
h) Politicians have discussed a range of alternative punishments to prison.
3 Practice A
■ Read the text below and add suitable example phrases from the box where appropriate.
such as Diet Coke
including eggs, butter, salt, sugar, fats and smoked meats
for example, bread or rice
e.g. swimming, running or cycling
in other words, a food may be condemned by one scientist but approved by another
such as fruit and meat
Eating for health
A hundred years ago most people’s diets consisted of a few staple items that were cheap and also
filling. Today many people are able to afford more variety, and regularly eat more expensive foods.
But along with the wider choice has come anxiety about the possible threats to health contained
in certain foods. In recent years a broad range of products have been considered a risk to health.
This has left many people confused, as much of the ‘research’ behind these claims is contradictory.
One beneficiary of this process is the health food industry, a booming sector which promotes food
and drink products to health-conscious young people. In fact, many doctors argue that instead of
focusing exclusively on what they eat or drink, people’s health would be improved by doing more
exercise.
3.4: Examples 169
4 Practice B
■ Read the text below and then insert suitable examples where needed to illustrate the
points.
Climate chaos?
In the last ten years extreme weather events have become more common, and climate scientists
generally agree that they are partly a product of global warming, as a result of the increase of car-
bon dioxide in the atmosphere. These events have two types of negative consequences: the imme-
diate damage and injuries caused by the event, and the long-term effects for farmers and others.
Although engineers point out that the dangers can be minimised by investing in better defences,
those countries which are most at risk are also those least able to afford this investment.
5 Restatement
Another small group of phrases is used when there is only one 'example'. (Brackets may also be
used for this purpose). This is a kind of restatement to clarify the meaning:
The world’s second largest gold producer, namely Australia, has been faced with a number of
technical difficulties.
in other words namely that is (to say) i.e.
NB: ‘i.e.’ and ‘e.g.’ are commonly confused. Both are from Latin:
i.e. = id est/ e.g. = exempli gratia
■ Study these examples:

The world’s largest company, i.e. Walmart has reported increased profts. (that is)
Many of the world’s largest companies, e.g. BP are in the oil business. (for example)
■ Add a suitable phrase from the box below to the following sentences, to make them
clearer.
a) The company’s overheads doubled last year.
b) The Roman Empire was a period of autocratic rule.
c) Two Spanish cities are long-standing football rivals.
d) Survival rates for the most common type of cancer are improving.
e) Participation rates in many democracies are in decline.
that is to say, fewer people are voting
in other words the fixed costs
namely Madrid and Barcelona
(27 BCE–476 CE)
i.e. breast cancer

UNIT
3.5
Generalisations
Generalisations may be a good way to introduce a topic. They can be powerful statements
because they are simple and easy to understand. But they must be used with care, to avoid
being inaccurate or simplistic. This unit explains how to generalise clearly and effectively.
1 Using generalisations
a) Generalisations can be used to give an outline introduction to a topic. Compare:
In 1974 46% of British adults smoked cigarettes; today the figure is about 15%.
In the last 50 years smoking has declined sharply in Britain.
Although the first sentence is more accurate, the second is easier to understand and remember. The
writer must decide when accuracy is necessary, and when a generalisation will be acceptable.
A generalisation in the introduction should help the reader to understand the main focus of a
paper:
Since the break-up of the Soviet Union, Russia has aimed to redefine its identity in interna-
tional politics and regain its great power status.
b) You should avoid using generalisations which are not supported by evidence or research, or are
unclear:
Young children learn second languages easily.

Smoking causes lung cancer.
It can be dangerous to use statements like those above because there may well be exceptions.
Instead, it is better to use cautious phrases such as:
DOI: 10.4324/9781003010210-31
Young children often learn second languages easily.

Smoking can cause lung cancer.
■ Decide which of the following generalisations are valid:

a) Students dislike writing essays.
b) Earthquakes are often difficult to predict.
c) There appears to be a link between poverty and disease.
d) Women work harder than men.
e) Travel by air is faster than train travel.
► See Unit 3.8.6 Style: The use of caution
2 Structure
Generalisations can be made in two ways:
a) Most commonly using the plural:

Computers have transformed the way society functions.
b) Using the singular + definite article (the):

The computer has transformed the way society functions. (more formal)
3 Practice A
■ Write generalisations on the following topics:
Example:
fresh fruit/ health – Eating fresh fruit is important for health.
a) regular rainfall/ good crop yields
b) honest judges/ respect for the law
c) adequate sleep/ academic success
d) industrial growth/ pollution
e) cold weather/ demand for gas
f) job satisfaction/ interesting work
g) regular training/ sporting success
h) creativity and skill/ great art
4 Practice B
■ Study the table and write fve generalisations about student study habits.
3.5: Generalisations 173
Results of a college survey on where students prefer to study
Undergraduates (%) Graduates (%)

Male Female Male Female
Library 20 17 47 32
Own room in silence 21 27 26 38
Own room with music 25 13 12 14
Own room in bed 15 24 6 10
Outdoors 6 9 4 2
Other 13 10 5 4
(Source: Author)
5 Building on generalisations
Generalisations can be used in various ways when introducing a subject, presenting the results of
research or developing a thesis.
■ Read the following text and note the generalisations in italics. Answer the questions
that follow.
The wood and the trees
Around the world there is concern that deforestation is contributing to global warming, while plant-
ing trees is seen as a useful remedy, because of their ability to absorb carbon dioxide. Actually,
most EU countries have experienced an expansion of forests in the past 25 years: areas of woodland
the size of Portugal have been added. France, for instance, now has 31% forest cover. This is partly
caused by the decline in agriculture on marginal land, but also due to the creation of more pro-
tected natural parks, such as the Baronnies Provençales in the southeast of France, established in
2015. Yet such parks are not always welcomed by local people: some fear restrictions on hunting or
the return of wild animals such as wolves.
a) What is the function of the first generalisation?

b) What is the purpose of the sections not in italics?
c) What would be the effect of using only generalisations i.e. only including the sections in italics?
6 Practice C
Most essays move from the general to the specific, as a generalisation has to be supported and
developed. For example, an essay with the title ‘Can higher fees in higher education be justified?’
might develop in this way:
Generalisation Support Development > Specifc

In the past 20 years As a result many In England, for example, the
many countries have students have to average student debt is now
introduced substantial take out a loan about £40,000 at the end of
fees for students in higher to complete their a three-year undergraduate
education. degree courses. course.
■ Underline the support and development in the following:

Urbanists have shown how modernist ideals of the orderly and healthy metropolis
have been at the heart of liberal projects of state making. In the latter half of the nine-
teenth century, for instance, engineers were at the forefront of efforts at instilling ide-
als of urban sanitation, cleanliness and order in rapidly industrialising Western cities.
■ Choose a title from the list below (or select one from your own subject), then write a
generalisation and develop it in the same way.
a) Does tourism always have a negative effect on the host country?
b) Should governments use taxation to promote public health?
c) Is it more important to protect forests or to grow food?
d) Is it better for the state to spend money on primary or university education?
Generalisation Support Development > Specifc
► See Units 1.11 Introductions and Conclusions and 3.4 Examples

UNIT
3.6
Numbers
and Visual
Information
Students in many subjects, such as Medicine, Business or Agriculture, are required to

write clearly and accurately about statistical data. This unit first explains and practises the
language of numbers and percentages, and then deals with presenting data in charts and
tables.
1 The language of numbers
a) In introductions numbers are often used to give the scale of a situation:
Approximately 1,800 children between the ages of five and 12 years were selected.
The earth’s atmosphere appears to be gaining 3.3 billion metric tons of carbon annually.
The words figures and numbers are both used to talk about statistical data in a general sense:
The figures/ numbers in the report need to be read critically.
But number is used more widely:
13 is an unlucky number in some cultures.
Digits are individual numbers.
4,539 is a four-digit number.
Both fractions (½) and decimals (0.975) may be used.
Three quarters of the sample group expressed support for the project. (not ¾)
DOI: 10.4324/9781003010210-32
b) There is no final ‘s’ on hundred/ thousand/ million used with whole numbers. Compare
Six million people live there.
with: Thousands of people were forced to move from the flooded valley. (+ ‘of’)
When discussing money, put the currency symbol first: $440 m (440 million US dollars).
Rates are normally expressed as percentages (e.g. the literacy rate is 75%) but may also be per
thousand (e.g. the Austrian birth rate is 8.7 per thousand).
It is common practice for whole numbers to be written as words from one to ten and as digits above
ten:
There were 16 students in the class, but only eight came to the lecture.
But note that to begin a sentence only words should be used:
Fourteen species of beetle live in the national park.
2 Percentages
These are commonly used for expressing differences, and rates of change:
Most of the earth’s surface (71%) is covered by water.

Since 2018 the number of prisoners has risen by 6% per year.
■ Complete the following sentences using the data in the table below.
a) Between 2017 and 2018 the number of Law students increased by ……… %.
b) The number increased by ……… % the following year.
c) Between 2017 and 2020 there was a ……… % increase.
Students studying Law 2017–2020
2017 2018 2019 2020

200 300 600 1000
3 Simplifcation
Although the accurate use of numbers is vital, if a text is overloaded with statistics it can be difficult
to read. If the exact number is not important, words such as various, dozens or scores may be used
instead:
3.6: Numbers and Visual Information 177
The snowstorm closed 47 schools.

The snowstorm closed dozens of schools.
a couple/ 2 informal
a pair
few a small number, less than expected has negative connotation
a few approximately 3–6 depending on has more positive
context connotation
several approximately 3–4
various approximately 4–6
dozens of approximately 30–60
scores of approximately 60–100
■ Rewrite the following sentences using one of the words or phrases from the table
above.
Example:
Only three people attended the meeting.

Few people attended the meeting.
a) Seventy-seven students applied for the scholarship.

b) Since 1975 53 primary schools have been rebuilt.
c) Five names were suggested but rejected for the new chocolate bar.
d) Last year four books were published on biogenetics in French.
4 Further numerical phrases
The expressions listed below can also be used to present and simplify statistical information. For
example:
The course fees rose from $1,200 to $2,500 in two years.
could be written:
The course fees doubled in two years.
If more accuracy is wanted, roughly or approximately can be added:
The course fees roughly doubled in two years.

one in three One in three engineering students is from China.

twice as many Twice as many women as men study business
law.
three times as many There were three times as many cases as
expected.
a fve/ tenfold increase There was a fvefold increase in the price of oil.
to double Their profts have doubled every year.
to halve The rate of infection halved after 2011.
the highest/ lowest The lowest rate of home ownership was in
Germany.
on average/ the average On average, each judge hears two cases per day.
a small/ large proportion The website generates a large proportion of their
sales.
majority/ minority The majority of births take place in hospital.
Majority/ minority are often qualified: these figures are approximate:
5–20% a small minority

21–39% a minority
40–49% a substantial/ signifcant minority
51–55% a small majority
56–79% a majority
80%+ a large majority
■ Re-write each sentence in a simpler way, using a suitable expression from the tables
above.
a) In 1973 a litre of petrol cost 12p, while the price is now £1.20.
b) The new high-speed train reduced the journey time to Madrid from seven hours
to three hours 20 minutes.
c) The number of students applying for the Psychology course has risen from
350 last year to 525 this year.
d) More than 80% of students in Britain complete their frst degree course; in Italy
the fgure is 35%.
e) Tap water costs 0.07p per litre, while bottled water costs, on average, 50p per litre.
f) Fifty-seven per cent of the members supported the suggestion, but of these 83%
had some doubts.
5 Practice A
■ Study the data in the table below and write sentences using suitable numerical
phrases.
Selected Olympic Games 1896–2012: Participation by gender
Year Host Sports Events Athletes % Women

e.g. e.g.
athletics 100 metres
1896 Athens 9 43 241 0.0
1924 Paris 17 126 3,089 4.4
1964 Tokyo 19 163 5,151 13.2
1992 Barcelona 32 257 9,356 28.9
2008 Beijing 28 302 10,942 42.4
2012 London 28 302 10,700 45.0
(Source: IOC)
a) At the Paris Olympics in 1924 a small minority of athletes were

female.
b)
c)
d)
e)
f)
6 Visual information: Types of visuals
Visual devices such as graphs and tables are a convenient way of displaying large quantities of
information in a form that is easy to understand.
Below are examples of some of the main types of visual devices used in academic texts. Note
that they are often combined e.g. a bar chart with a line graph.
■ Complete the box below to show the example (A–I) of each type.
Types Use Example

1. Diagram illustration of structure F
2. Table statistical display
3. Map location - small scale
4. Pie chart comparison
5. Flow chart sequence of process

6. Line graph changes in time
7. Bar chart proportion
8. Plan location - large scale
9. Scatter graph/ plot relation between two sets of variables
A. Average monthly rainfall B. Average life expectancy

(inches) (both sexes, in years, 2017)
Average monthly rainfall
5 Japan 83.7
City 1
City 2
4 France 82.4
3
United States 79.3
2
United Arab Emirates 77.1
1
India 68.3
0
Jan Feb Mar Apr May June July Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec
South Africa 62.9

Afghanistan 60.5
Nigeria 54.5
Angola 52.4
C. Electricity output from coal (2015) D. Origins of international students
Electricity output % from coal

90
80
70
Far East
60 N.America
50
40 Europe
30 Other
20
10 Africa
0
China Australia India United States Germany
E. Planning an essay
F. The human eye G. Layout of the language centre
H. The states of the USA I. Height versus armspan

Height (cm)
200
190
180
170
160
150
140
130
120
110
100
100 120 140 160 180 200
Armspan (cm)
7 The language of change
(past tenses in brackets)
Verb Adverb
grow (grew) slightly
rise (rose) gradually
increase (increased) steadily
climb (climbed) sharply
Verb Adjective + noun

drop (dropped) a slight drop
fall (fell) a gradual fall
decrease (decreased) a sharp decrease
decline (declined) a steady decline
(Also: a peak, to peak, a plateau, to level off, a trough)
■ Study the graph and the description below.
The graph (Fig. 1) shows that the rate of infation was 2% in January, and then rose
to 2.5% in February. After that it levelled off until April, and then increased steadily to
over 4% in July. Infation fell slightly in August, but then climbed to a peak of 5% in
September. From there it dropped sharply to below 2% in December.
Figure 1 Infation (%) January–December 2019.

(Source: IMF)
8 Describing visuals
Although visuals do largely speak for themselves, it is common to help the reader interpret them by
briefly commenting on their main features.
The graph shows the changes in the price of oil since 1990.
The map illustrates the main sources of copper in Africa.
The diagram displays the organisation of both companies.
■ Read the following descriptions of the chart below. Which is better, and why?
i) The chart (Fig. 2) shows the quantity of tea consumed by the world’s leading tea-
consuming nations. India and China together consume more than half the world’s
tea production, with India alone consuming about one third. Further signifcant
tea consumers are Turkey, Russia and Britain. ‘Others’ includes the United States,
Iran and Egypt.
ii) The chart (Fig. 2) shows that 31% of the world’s tea is consumed by India, 23%
by China, and 8% by Turkey. The fourth largest consumers are Russia, Japan and
Britain, with 7% each, while Pakistan consumes 5%. Other countries account for
the remaining 12%.
Others
12%
Pakistan
5% India
31%
Japan
7%
Britain
7%
Russia
7%
China
23%
Turkey
8%
Figure 2 World tea consumption.

(Source: The Tea Council)
9 Labelling visuals
● When referring to visual information in the text, the word ‘figure’ is used for almost every-
thing (such as maps, charts and graphs) except tables (see examples in sections 8 and 10).
● Figures and tables should be numbered and given a title. Titles of tables are written above the
data, while titles of figures are written below. As with other data, sources must be given for all
visual information.
● If you are writing a lengthy work such as a dissertation you will need to provide lists of tables
and figures, showing numbers, titles and page numbers, after the contents page.
10 Practice B
■ Complete the following description of the table below (one word per gap).
Table 1 Projected population changes in various European countries 2018–2050
Country Population 2018 Projected population Change (%)

(million) 2050 (million)
France 62 67 +5
Germany 82 71 – 11
Italy 60 57 –3
Poland 38 32 –6
Portugal 10.7 10 – 0.7
Russia 140 116 – 24
Spain 45 51 +6
UK 62 72 + 11
(Source: UN)
Table 1 a) ……………….. the projected population changes in various European countries

b) ……………….. 2018 and 2050. It can be seen that in a c) ……………….. the population is expected
to fall, in some cases (e.g. Germany and Russia) quite d) ……………….. . However, the populations
of France, e) ……………….. and the UK are predicted to f) …………….., in the case of the latter by
more g) ……………….. 10%.
11 Practice C
■ Write a paragraph commenting on the main features of the chart below.
Figure 3 The world’s fastest mammals (maximum speed, miles per hour)
(Source: Author)
UNIT
3.7
Punctuation
Accurate punctuation and the correct use of capital letters help the reader to understand
exactly what the writer means. While some aspects of punctuation, such as the use of
commas, can be a matter of individual style, correct punctuation in areas such as quota-
tion is vital.
1 Capital letters
Carelessness with capitals can lead to confusion. Can you correct the following?
The polish polish can be used on wood or leather.
It is difficult to give precise rules about the use of capital letters in modern English, where nowa-
days there is a tendency to use them less than before. However, they should always be used in the
following cases:
a) The first word in a sentence In the beginning …

b) Days and months Friday 21st July
c) Nationality words Indonesia and the Indonesians
d) Languages Most Swiss speak French and German
e) Names of people/ places Dr Martin Lee from Sydney, Australia
f) Book titles (main words only) Power and the State
g) Historical periods The Industrial Revolution, the Great Depression
h) Names of organisations Nottingham Trent University
i) The first person pronoun By Monday I had finished the book
j) Ideologies The coalition included Socialists and Communists
k) Academic subjects In her second year she dropped Maths
NB: seasons are not capitalised The course began in autumn
DOI: 10.4324/9781003010210-33
3.7: Punctuation 187
When discussing general concepts such as ‘empire’ (a common noun) no capital is needed:
Rome developed one of the world’s earliest empires.
But a capital form is used when specific (a proper noun):

The Roman Empire stretched from Britain to Syria.
2 Full stops (.) [US: period]
These are used to show the end of a sentence:
The first chapter provides a clear introduction to the topic.
They are also used with certain abbreviations formed from the first part of a word:
govt./ Jan./ p.397/ etc.
But do not use full stops with acronyms such as:
BBC/ UN/ VIP
► See Written British and American English – Section 4
It is also now less common to use full stops with initials in people’s names:
DH Lawrence
► See Unit 4.1.7 Approaches to Vocabulary – Abbreviations
3 Commas (,)
These are one of the commonest punctuation marks, but also one of the hardest to
provide guidance for, because comma use is partly a matter of individual style.
Overuse can slow down the reader, but equally the lack of commas can be confusing.
Some instances of general comma usage are:
a) after introductory words or phrases:

However, further cases should be considered before reaching a conclusion.
On the whole, there were more winners than losers.
b) around examples or comments (these are phrases that can be left out without loss of meaning):
Certain investments, for instance shares, are highly volatile.
Privatisation, it is widely recognised, has a positive and a negative aspect.
c) around non-restrictive relative clauses (i.e. clauses which can be left out):
His essay, which had taken him weeks to write, was submitted a day late.
d) in lists of three or more items:
Apostrophes, colons, semi-colons and commas must all be used with care.
e) finishing direct speech:
‘Don’t forget the deadline’, the teacher told them.
f) with a group of adjectives:
It was a long, rambling, humorous and controversial book.
4 Apostrophes (’)
These can be one of the most confusing features of English punctuation, but their correct use is
grammatically vital. They are mainly used in two situations:
a) to show contractions He’s the leading authority on Marx.
NB: contractions are not common in academic He is the leading authority on Marx.
English. It is usually better to write the full form:
b) with possessives The professor’s secretary (singular – one

professor)
Students’ marks (plural – many students)
Dickens’ novels (names ending in ‘s’)
Women’s rights (for irregular plurals)
NB: It’s is the contraction of it is It’s possible the course will be cancelled.
The third person singular possessive form is its ‘Civilization and its Discontents’ (Freud)
There is no need to use the apostrophe with generic plurals: 1980s, HGVs
5 Semi-colons (;)
Semi-colons are used to show the link between two connected clauses, each of which could stand
on its own:
Seven people applied for the post; six were shortlisted and then interviewed.
Nobody questioned the results; they were quite conclusive.
Semi-colons are also used to divide up items in a list when they have a complex structure, as in a
multiple citation:
(Maitland, 2006; Rosenor, 1997; The Economist, 2017b; University of Michigan, 2000).
6 Colons (:)
Colons have three main uses:
a) to introduce explanations The meeting was postponed: the Dean was ill.
b) to start a list Three aspects were identified: financial, social and ethical.
c) to introduce a quotation As Keynes said: ‘In the long run we are all dead’.
7 Quotation marks/ inverted commas (“ ”/ ‘ ’)
a) Single quotation marks are generally used to show quotations from other writers:
Goodwin’s (1977) analysis of habit indicates that, in general, ‘It will be more difficult to reverse
a trend than to accentuate it’.
NB: Make sure that the final quotation mark comes before the full stop.
Longer quotations are usually indented (i.e. have a wider margin) and/ or are set in smaller type.
They do not need inverted commas:
More recently, she has stated the point even more directly:
Government, I hold, should not give people an option to be treated with respect and nonhumiliation
… Government should treat all people respectfully and should refuse to humiliate them (Nussbaum,
2011b, p. 26).
b) Double quotation marks are used to show quotations inside quotations (nested quotations):
As Kauffman remarked: ‘his concept of "internal space" requires close analysis’.
NB: American English uses double quotation marks to show standard quotations.
c) They are also used to emphasise a word or phrase:
The word ‘ factory’ was first used in the seventeenth century.

The Swedish ‘third way’ or welfare state is a possible model.
d) To show direct speech:
‘Can anyone find the answer?’ asked the lecturer.

► See Written British and American English
e) In references, depending on the referencing style, quotation marks may be used for the titles of
articles and chapters, but book or journal titles normally use italics:
Russell, T. (1995) ‘A future for coffee?’ Journal of Applied Marketing 6, 14–17.
► See Unit 1.7 References and Quotations
8 Others
a) Hyphens (-) are used with certain words which fit together, such as ‘long-lived’ or high-profile’,
and in some structures:
A well-researched, thought-provoking book.

Her three-year-old daughter is learning to read.
But note that the use of hyphens is generally declining e.g. ‘proofreading’ rather than ‘proof-read-
ing’. Many words with prefixes re-, pre- and co- no longer require hyphens:
Cooperation is vital for successful group projects.
If in doubt, consult a good dictionary.
b) Exclamation marks (!) and question marks (?):
‘Well!’ he shouted, ‘who would believe it?’
NB: Exclamation marks are not usually used in academic writing.
c) Brackets or parentheses ( ) can be used to give additional detail, without interfering with the flow
of the main idea:
This led to the loss of several defence contracts (of around US$ 10 billion).
Brackets are also used for in-text citations:
Indeed, as Foucault (1989: 339) observed …
9 Practice A
■ Punctuate the following sentences.

a) the study was carried out by christine zhen-wei qiang of the national university of
singapore
b) professor rowans new book the end of privacy 2019 is published in new york
c) as keynes said its better to be roughly right than precisely wrong
d) banks such as hsbc and barclays were in penny pinching mode in the 1990s
e) as matheson 1954 wrote it was the germ that was the villain
f) thousands of new words such as vlog enter the english language each year
g) the bbcs world service is broadcast in 33 languages including somali and
vietnamese
h) she scored 56% on the main course the previous semester she had achieved 67%
i) their article a reassessment of the changing patterns of the indian monsoon 2015-
2020 was well received
j) before submitting her essay on t s eliot she checked it for spelling grammar and
punctuation
10 Practice B
■ Punctuate the following text.
studying will play a vital part in your life as an oxford student but you will also find an enormous
amount to do in oxford in your spare time oxford is the youngest city in england and wales and
has two universities oxford university and oxford brookes 35% of people who live here are aged 15
29 and 27% 40,000 of a total population of 150,000 are university students if you ever feel like a
change of scene the bus to london takes around 90 minutes and runs 24 hours a day there are now
two railway stations the central oxford station and the recently opened oxford parkway oxford is
a youthful and cosmopolitan city with plenty to see and do there are dozens of historic and iconic
buildings including the bodleian library ashmolean museum sheldonian theatre the cathedral and
the colleges in the city centre you will find lots of shops cafés restaurants theatres cinemas pubs
and clubs there are plenty of green spaces too riverside walks englands oldest botanic garden the
university parks and college gardens
NB: Because many aspects of punctuation (e.g. use of hyphens or use of capitals) are not
standardised, the most important point in your writing is to be consistent throughout your
work. For example, if you decide to capitalise ‘Western influence’ you must also capitalise
‘Eastern ethos’.
UNIT
3.8
Style
Acceptable academic style can vary from subject to subject, but in all disciplines a good
written style displays accuracy, objectivity and clarity. Students should make these cri-
teria their priority, while aiming eventually to develop their own individual ‘voice’. This
unit gives guidelines for an appropriate style, and provides practice with varying sentence
length and the use of caution.
1 Developing an academic style
■ Working with a partner if possible, read the text below, and discuss and list any exam-
ples of poor style that you fnd.
In the last few years there’s been lots of debate about trains. Trains are often run by the state. The
state pays for new lines and new equipment. This is because they do an important job moving
people around. What’s more, developing the railways costs lots of money, which only governments
can find. But in some countries like England the railways have been privatised, so as to offer more
choice to passengers. The problem is that the private trains still need money from the government
to keep running. They’re the only way to get everyone to work in big cities. So either way I think
that there’s no easy answer to the problem.
Poor style Reason
• In the last few years Vague – how many years?
DOI: 10.4324/9781003010210-34
3.8: Style 193
Some of the problems with the style of this paragraph can be analysed as follows:
Poor style Reason

In the last few years Vague – how many years?
there’s been Avoid contractions
lots of discussion, lots of money Avoid ‘lots of’ – too informal
trains Imprecise vocabulary – use ‘railways’
Trains are often run by the state. The state Repetition, and sentences too short
pays for new lines and new equipment.
do an important job Too informal
What’s more Too idiomatic
like England Avoid ‘like’, use ‘such as’
‘England’ is not a state, use ‘Britain’
or ‘the UK’
The only way … either way Repetition
That’s the only way Caution needed – ‘that is an effective
method’
to get everyone to work Avoid ‘get’ phrases: ‘to enable
millions of people to travel …’
So either way I think Too personal
The paragraph could be rewritten using a more suitable style like this:
In the past two decades there has been considerable debate about the ownership of national
railway networks. In many countries these are operated by the state, partly because the provision
of mass transit is seen as a public service, but also because railway systems demand large-scale
capital investment which is often beyond the reach of the private sector. However, there has been a
trend towards railway privatisation, as for example in Britain and Germany, since in these countries
it was thought useful to introduce some competition into the industry. Yet even these systems still
often require public money to subsidise passenger services, which are essential to enable millions
of people to travel safely to work each day. Neither the public nor the private model seems to pro-
vide a fully satisfactory answer to the issue.
2 Guidelines
There are no rules for academic style which apply to all situations and all academic disciplines.
However, there are some principles that apply to most contexts, and these are given below. In
addition, reading journal articles in your discipline will provide you with useful models of what is
generally acceptable.
Vocabulary
a) Do not use idiomatic or colloquial vocabulary: kids, boss. Instead use standard English:
children, manager.
b) Use vocabulary accurately. There is a difference between rule and law, or weather and climate,
which you are expected to know if you study these subjects.
c) Avoid the following:
● like for introducing examples. Use such as or for instance.
● thing and combinations nothing or something. Use factor, issue or topic.
● lots of. Use a significant/ considerable number.
● little/ big. Use small/ large.
● ‘get’ phrases such as get better/ worse. Use improve and deteriorate.
● good/ bad are simplistic. Use positive/ negative e.g. the changes had several positive aspects
d) Avoid adverbs that show your personal attitude: luckily, remarkably, surprisingly.
e) Avoid using two-word verbs such as go on or bring up if there is a suitable synonym e.g. con-
tinue or raise.
General
f) Be as precise as possible when dealing with facts or figures. Avoid vague phrases such as about
a hundred or hundreds of years ago. If it is necessary to estimate numbers, use approximately
rather than about.
g) Conclusions should use tentative language. Avoid absolute statements such as unemployment
causes crime. Instead use cautious phrases: unemployment may cause crime or is often cited as
a cause of crime.
h) Do not contract auxiliary verb forms: don’t, can’t. Use the full form: do not, cannot.
i) Avoid complicated expressions of gender. Instead of writing:
each candidate had his or her presentation prepared
write: all candidates had their presentations prepared
Try not to use gendered language such as chairman or policeman. Use chairperson or police
officer.
j) Do not use rhetorical question forms such as Why did war break out in 1914? Instead use state-
ments: There were three reasons for the outbreak of war …
k) Avoid numbering sections of your text, except in reports and long essays. Use conjunctions and
signposting expressions to introduce new sections:
Turning to the question of detecting cancer …
► See Unit 1.10 Organising Paragraphs

3.8: Style 195
l) When writing lists, avoid using etc. or and so on. Insert and before the last item:
The main products were pharmaceuticals, electronic goods and confectionery.
3 Practice A
■ In the following sentences, underline examples of bad style and rewrite them in a
more suitable way.
a) Another thing to think about is the chance of crime getting worse.
b) Regrettably, these days lots of people don’t have jobs.
c) Sometime soon they’ll fnd a jab for malaria.
d) Luckily, the fremen soon got the fre under control.
e) You can’t always trust the numbers in that report.
f) Sadly, the bad infation led to poverty, social unrest and so on.
g) He was over the moon when he won the prize.
h) I think we should pay students to study.
i) Years ago they allowed women to vote.
j) What were the main causes of the Russian Revolution?
4 Avoiding repetition and redundancy
Instead of repeating the same word in a short text:
Most family businesses employ fewer than ten people. These businesses …
Try to make the text more interesting by using synonyms:
Most family businesses employ fewer than ten people. These firms …
► See Unit 4.5 Synonyms
Redundancy, i.e. repeating an idea or including an irrelevant point, suggests that the writer is not
fully in control of the material. It gives the impression that either they do not properly understand
the language or are trying to ‘pad’ the essay by repeating the same point. Avoid statements such as:
Homelessness is a global problem in the whole world.
Good writing aims for economy and precision:
Homelessness is a global problem.

■ In the following text, remove all repetition and redundancy, rewriting where necessary.
All around Europe, people are living longer and having fewer children. There are several reasons
for this trend to longevity and smaller families in Europe. One reason for the second trend is that
people are marrying later, and one reason they are marrying later is the cost of housing. Other rea-
sons are the cost of childcare and women’s preference for building their careers. If women prefer to
work professionally rather than stay at home to look after their children they have to pay nurseries
to do that caring. But a negative result of the trend is that there are fewer young taxpayers to support
the old people who are living longer.
5 Varying sentence length
After reading some academic texts you may think that good academic writing involves using only
very long and complex sentences! But until you feel confident in your writing, it is better to use
shorter rather than longer sentences, though without making them simplistic. This should make
your meaning as clear as possible.
Effective writing normally uses a mixture of long and short sentences. Often short sentences will
be used to introduce the topic, since these are clear and easy to read:
Many companies are trying to develop driverless cars.
But too many short sentences are monotonous:
Many companies are trying to develop driverless cars. These vehicles may be functioning by
2023. Their use will radically alter road transport. Individual car ownership may become
outdated. Driverless cars could be used more intensively. This would reduce congestion on
the roads.
A mixture of long and short sentences makes reading more interesting:
Many companies are trying to develop driverless cars. These may be functioning by 2023,
and their use will radically alter road transport. Individual car ownership may become out-
dated, since driverless cars could be used more intensively, and this would reduce congestion
on the roads.
■ Rewrite the following paragraph so that instead of six short sentences there are two
long and two short sentences.
Worldwide, enrolments in higher education are increasing. In many European countries over half
of all young people enter college. Similar trends are seen in China and South America. This growth
has put financial strain on state university systems. Many countries are requiring students and par-
ents to contribute to the cost. This leads to a debate about whether individual students or society as
a whole benefits from tertiary education.
3.8: Style 197
■ The following sentence is too long. Divide it into shorter ones.
China is one country (but not the only one) which has imposed fees on university students (start-
ing in 1997), but the results have been surprising: enrolments, especially in the most expensive
universities, have continued to rise steeply; it seems in this case that higher fees attract rather than
discourage students, who see them as a sign of a good education, and compete more fiercely for
places, leading to the result that a place at a good college can cost $10,000 per year for fees and
maintenance.
6 The use of caution
A cautious style is necessary in many areas of academic writing to avoid making statements that
can be contradicted in some way, and to show that writers are aware of possible limitations to their
claims:
Demand for healthcare usually exceeds supply.

Most students find writing exam essays difficult.
Fertility rates tend to fall as societies get richer.
Areas where caution is particularly important include:
a) outlining a hypothesis which needs to be tested (e.g. in an introduction)

b) discussing the results of a study, which may not be conclusive
c) commenting on the work of other writers
d) making predictions (normally by using may or might, rather than will)
Caution is also needed to avoid making statements which are too simplistic:
Crime is linked to poor education.
Such statements are rarely completely true. There is usually an exception which needs to be consid-
ered. Caution can be shown in several ways:
Crime may be linked to poor education. (modal verb)

Crime is frequently linked to poor education. (adverb)
Crime tends to be linked to poor education. (verb)
■ List other phrases that express caution.

7 Using modifers
Another way to express caution is to use quite, rather or fairly before an adjective:
a fairly accurate summary

a rather inconvenient location
quite a significant discovery
NB: quite is often used before the indefinite article, as above. It is mainly used positively, while
rather tends to be used negatively.
■ Insert quite/ rather/ fairly in the following to emphasise caution.

a) The company’s efforts to save energy were successful.
b) The survey was a comprehensive study of student opinion.
c) His second book had a hostile reception.
d) The frst-year students were fascinated by her lectures.
e) The latest type of arthritis drug is expensive.
f) This mountain tiger has become rare.
► See Unit 3.5 Generalisations
8 Practice B
■ Rewrite the following sentences in a more cautious way.

a) Private companies are more effcient than state-owned businesses.
b) Exploring space is a waste of valuable resources.
c) Older students perform better at university than younger ones.
d) Word-of-mouth is the best kind of advertising.
e) Some cancers are caused by psychological factors.
f) Most shopping will be done on the internet in 10 years’ time.
g) Online education is inferior to taught classes.
h) By 2025 driverless cars will be in common use.
THE WRITER’S ‘VOICE’
Academic writers should aim to develop their own distinctive ‘voice’; their personal style.
But this may only emerge in the course of writing a lengthy paper such as a thesis, and when
writers have confidence in their familiarity with the fundamentals of the written language.
UNIT
Progress
Check D
These exercises will help you assess your understanding of Part 3: Writing Tools.
1 Rewrite the paragraph using reference words (i.e. pronouns) where suitable.
William Shakespeare was born in Stratford on Avon in 1564, into a wealthy landown-
ing family. When Shakespeare was only 18 he married Anne Hathaway, who was six years
older than William. Anne subsequently had three children, but William and Anne’s only son,
Hamnet, died young. Apparently William spent most of his time in London after their mar-
riage, where he acted and started to write plays. The plays were mainly comedies at first,
and were very successful. In the early 1600s Shakespeare’s work became darker, and this is
when William wrote his most famous plays, such as ‘Hamlet’ and ‘King Lear’. These famous
plays have secured Shakespeare’s world-wide reputation as a great dramatist and poet. William
Shakespeare died in 1616, aged only 52, while Anne lived for another seven years.
2 Write 3 sentences comparing Australia with New Zealand, using the data below:
Australia New Zealand

Area (square kilometres) 7.6 million 270,000
Population 21.5 million 4.3 million
GDP per head $ 50,750 $ 32,370
3 Write definitions for:

a) A semester
b) A thesis
c) A midwife
d) Influenza
e) A hammer
4 Insert suitable examples into each sentence.
a) Certain capital cities are smaller than the commercial centres of their country.
b) Many varieties of fruit contain vital vitamins.
DOI: 10.4324/9781003010210-35
c) A few kinds of mammals live in the sea.

d) Most planets in our solar system have moons.
5 In the following text, underline any generalisations that are possibly invalid.
In the past century, photography has gone from being an exclusive hobby to something acces-
sible to everyone. This is largely due to the invention of the digital camera. In the last 20 years
this has made it simple to take colour photographs cheaply, and also to modify pictures easily
by using editing programmes. So now that everyone has a smart phone, with its built-in cam-
era, photography has become democratic and high-quality photographs can be produced by
anybody.
6 What are the following visuals usually used to show?
a) Line graph b) Diagram c) Pie chart d) Table
Write a paragraph commenting on the data in the table below.
Table 2 Student survey of library facilities: % students rating facilities as good
Library facilities Undergraduates (%) Postgraduates (%)

Opening hours 72 63
Staff helpfulness 94 81
Ease of using electronic 65 87
catalogue
Availability of working space 80 76
Café area 91 95
Availability of short loan stock 43 35
Quality of main book stock 69 54
(Source: Author)
7 Punctuate the following text.

the school of biomedical sciences at borchester university is offering two undergraduate degree
courses in neuroscience this year students can study either neuroscience with pharmacology
or neuroscience with biochemistry there is also a masters course which runs for four years and
involves a period of study abroad during november and december professor andreas fischer is
course leader for neuroscience and enquiries should be sent to him via the website
8 Rewrite the following in a more suitable academic style.
Sadly, these days lots of kids don’t get enough exercise. Instead they sit on the sofa all day
watching telly or playing games on their phones. That’s why they get fat. Lots of research
shows they’d be healthier if they went for a walk every day. On top of that I think they’d feel
better too. You can’t beat exercise in the fresh air.
PART
Lexis 4
Students may be understandably concerned

by the quantity and complexity of vocabulary
required for reading academic texts. But
developing an effective vocabulary in English
involves more than learning lists of words.
These units provide a range of approaches
to improving students’ understanding in this
area, from using prefixes to finding synonyms.
DOI: 10.4324/9781003010210-36
UNIT
4.1
Approaches to
Vocabulary
This unit examines some of the key issues students face when reading academic texts,
such as processing new vocabulary, understanding abbreviations, avoiding confusion
with similar words and recognising phrases from other languages. The vocabulary needed
to discuss language features is also practised.
1 Vocabulary issues
■ The text below, taken from a journal article about the global fnancial crisis, illustrates
some of the vocabulary diffculties students may experience when reading academic
texts. Read it carefully and underline any words or phrases you do not understand.
The postmodern rejection of ‘grand narratives’ that swept the social sciences (apart from Economics)
during the 1990s and dissatisfaction with conventional methodological strictures have combined to
produce a revived empiricism that is thinly disguised behind a methodological eclecticism that is
intended to license a greater degree of ontological freedom. To put it simply, one can choose one’s
fundamental axioms, select from the range of available data while applying the desired measures of
inductive and deductive reasoning, and reach conclusions that were possibly in view from the start
but which now rest upon a much more respectable, ostensibly scientific, edifice.
Likely problems include:
postmodern
methodological
strictures
empiricism
eclecticism
ontological
axioms
DOI: 10.4324/9781003010210-37
204 Part 4: Lexis
inductive
deductive
■ Discuss the meaning of these words with a partner. Are they nouns or adjectives?
Look up any that you still don’t understand in a dictionary.
The vocabulary highlighted above is typical of much academic language, which uses
words which are rather formal and not found in general conversation or writing. You must
learn to deal with these words, some of which may be specifc to your subject, whereas
others (e.g. empiricism) are found more widely in many academic texts.
Building vocabulary is more than learning ‘lists of words’. It is useful to adopt a critical
approach as you read, and focus on the most important terms, such as those rather for-
mal academic items listed above.
2 Dealing with new vocabulary
Instead of trying to learn all the new vocabulary you encounter, you should screen it to select which
words are worth learning. These may be words which are repeated, or printed in italics or bold
type. It can be a mistake to attempt to learn too many new words at once: for most students subject-
specific language will have priority. The process can be understood as shown in the diagram:
It is vital not to be put off by unfamiliar vocabulary. Reusing the new vocabulary items you have
come across and learnt within your own writing will help you to understand and remember them
better. When you have selected a word or phrase to learn, make a note of its part of speech and any
useful related words, along with its meaning:
empiricism (noun) – an approach relying on practice rather than theory

empirical (adjective)
empirically (adverb)
4.1: Approaches to Vocabulary 205
3 Language features
The following words (all nouns) are used to describe and discuss common features of language.
■ Discuss the words in the list with a partner. Which of these features are not normally
used in academic writing?
Ambiguity Where more than one interpretation is possible; lack of clarity

Few people supported his proposal, but equally there was little
opposition to it.
Cliché An over-used idea or phrase; lacking in freshness
Come to Paris, the capital of romance, the city for lovers.
Euphemism Word or phrase used to avoid naming something unpleasant directly
The author of the report passed away on November 21st.
Idiom Phrase used more often in colloquial speech, the meaning of which
is not directly obvious
He was over the moon when he won the scholarship.
Metaphor A word or phrase used to convey an idea in an unrelated context
He told the class that their new course was a voyage over an
uncharted ocean.
Paradox An idea that seems wrong or illogical yet may be true
She said that the older she got, the less she seemed to know.
Proverb A traditional statement or rhyme containing advice or a moral
It is said that the early bird catches the worm.
Saying An often-repeated comment that seems to contain some truth
There’s no such thing as a free lunch, he warned them.
Simile An idea conveyed through a comparison of two things, using ‘like’
or ‘as’
After the price rise, sales fell like a stone.
Slogan A frequently repeated phrase used in advertising or politics
‘Finger lickin’ good’ has sold millions of chicken meals.
Statement A rather formal comment on a situation
The President said she regretted the loss of life in the typhoon and
commiserated with the survivors.
Synopsis A summary of something
Their teacher explained that the report consisted of two parts; the
frst an overview of the topic, the second a case study.
206 Part 4: Lexis
4 Confusing pairs
Certain common words can cause confusion because they appear similar but have distinct spellings
and meanings:
The drought affected the wheat harvest in Australia.

One effect of the drought was a rise in the price of flour.
‘Affect’ and ‘effect’ are two different words. ‘Affect’ is usually used as a verb, while ‘effect’ is
commonly used as a noun.
■ Study the differences between other similar confusing pairs (the most common form
of usage in brackets).
accept (verb)/ except (preposition)

It is diffcult to accept their fndings.
The report is fnished except for the conclusion.
compliment (noun/ verb)/ complement (verb)
Her colleagues complimented her on her presentation.
His latest book complements his previous research on South African fauna.
criticism (noun)/ critique (noun/ verb)
Their criticism of his teaching was quite unfair.
She wrote a lengthy critique of Freud’s theory of the Oedipus complex.
economic (adj.)/ economical (adj.)
Infation was one economic result of the war.
Sharing a car to go to work was an economical move.
its (possessive pronoun)/ it’s (subject pronoun + verb)
The car’s low price was its most distinct feature.
It’s widely agreed that carbon emissions are rising.
lose (verb)/ loose (adj.)
No general ever plans to lose a battle.
He stressed the loose connection between religion and psychology.
principal (adj.)/ noun/ principle (noun)
Zurich is the principal city of Switzerland.
All economists recognise the principle of supply and demand.
rise (verb – past tense rose)/ raise (verb – past tense raised)
The population of Sydney rose by 35% in the last century.
The university raised its fees by 10% last year.
site (noun)/ sight (noun)
The site of the battle is now covered by an airport.
His sight began to weaken when he was in his eighties.
■ Choose the correct word in each sentence.

a) The company was founded on the principals/ principles of quality and value.
b) Millions of people are attempting to lose/ loose weight.
c) Sunspots have been known to affect/ effect radio communication.
d) Professor Poledna received their compliments/ complements politely.
e) The ancient symbol depicted a snake eating it’s/ its tail.
f) The Eiffel tower is one of the most famous sites/ sights in Paris.
5 Words and phrases from other languages
When reading academic texts you may meet words and phrases from other languages, usually
Latin, German or French. They are commonly used because there is no exact English equivalent,
and they are often printed in italics:
During her father’s illness she was the de facto sales manager.
You are not expected to use these phrases in your own writing, but it is useful to understand them
when you read. They can be found in a dictionary, but some of the more common ones are listed
below:
Latin
ad hoc unplanned
de facto as it really is
de jure according to law
inter alia among others
pro rata proportional
French
à propos de on the subject of
ancien régime old ruling system
coup d’état military take-over
déjà vu sensation of having seen something before
fait accompli something that has already happened
raison d’être reason for living
vis à vis with relation to
German
Bildungsroman a story of growing-up
Mitteleuropa central Europe
Realpolitik political reality
Schadenfreude pleasure from another’s misfortune
Weltanschauung world view
Zeitgeist spirit of the times
208 Part 4: Lexis
6 Practice A
■ Look back over this unit. List the new vocabulary that you think is worth learning.
Add any related words, note the meaning and an example. Try to use the words in
conversation or writing where possible.
Word Meaning Example
empiricism – noun Based on observation In Europe, empirical

empirical – adj. or experience. research began in the
empirically – adv. sixteenth century.
7 Abbreviations
Abbreviations are an important and expanding feature of contemporary English, widely used for
convenience and space-saving. At times the overuse of abbreviations may be confusing:
The UK approval rate for GM foods is approx. 45%, according to her PhD thesis (ibid.).
Unless they are commonly understood (as listed below) abbreviations should be explained at their
first use in a paper:
The local Community Empowerment Network (CEN) was established in 2020 …
Abbreviations take the form of shortened words, acronyms or a set of letters, as shown below.
a) Shortened words are often used without the writer being aware of the original form. ‘Bus’
comes from ‘omnibus’, which is hardly used in modern English, and ‘disco’ is more common
than ‘discothèque’, but ‘refrigerator’ is still better in written English than the informal ‘fridge’.
Yet ‘lab’ for ‘laboratory’, ‘memo’ for ‘memorandum’ and ‘vet’ for ‘veterinary surgeon’ are
quite acceptable.
b) Acronyms are made up of the initial letters of a name or phrase (e.g. UNESCO = United
Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organisation). They are pronounced as words. In
some cases users have forgotten that these are acronyms and they are treated as ordinary words
e.g. ‘radar’ comes from ‘radio detection and ranging’.
c) Other abbreviations are read as sets of individual letters. They include names of countries,
organisations and companies (USA/ BBC/ IBM), and also abbreviations which are only found
in written English (e.g. PTO means ‘please turn over’). Note that in many cases abbreviations
are used without most users knowing what the individual letters stand for (e.g. DNA, DVD).
8 Common abbreviations
There are thousands of abbreviations in ordinary use, but here are some of those more frequently
employed in an academic context.
AGM annual general meeting

BA Bachelor of Arts
BSc Bachelor of Sciences
CAD computer aided design
CV curriculum vitae
EU European Union
FE further education (non-university study above the age of 18)
GM genetically modified
HE higher education (university study above the age of 18)
HR(M) human resources (management)
ICT information and communications technology
LLB Bachelor of Laws
MA Master of Arts
MSc Master of Sciences
PG postgraduate
PGCE Postgraduate Certificate of Education
PhD Doctor of Philosophy
STEM Science, Technology, Engineering and Mathematics
UCAS Universities and Colleges Admissions Service (UK)
UG undergraduate
URL uniform resource locator (website address)
VC Vice-Chancellor
However, writers often employ or create more specialised, subject-specific abbreviations:
Starting from the resource-based view (RBV) of the firm, it is argued that ...
The Technology Readiness Index (TRI) was introduced by Parasuraman.
Note that the first time such a phrase is used in a paper it must be written in full before the abbrevia-
tion (in brackets), but on subsequent occasions the abbreviation should be used alone.
9 Punctuation
There are many standard abbreviations which have a full stop at the end to show that they are
shortened forms of a word, e.g. govt. (government). Other examples are co. (company) and Oct.
(October). However, with acronyms and other abbreviations it is now normal to write the letters
without full stops e.g. BBC, ABS.
210 Part 4: Lexis
10 Duplicate abbreviations
Abbreviations can be confusing. PC, for example, may stand for ‘personal computer’ but also
‘politically correct’ or ‘police constable’. It is useful to be aware of these potential confusions. A
good dictionary should be used to understand more unusual abbreviations.
11 Abbreviations only found in writing
While all academic subjects have their own abbreviations, there are certain abbreviations common
to most types of academic writing. They include:
anon. anonymous (no author)

BCE before the common era (in dates, previously BC)
c. circa (in dates – about)
CE common era (previously AD)
cf. compare
ed. editor/edition
e.g. for example
et al. and others (used for multiple authors)
etc. et cetera (and so on – do not use this in formal academic work)
Fig. figure (for labelling charts and graphs)
ibid. in the same place (to refer to a source mentioned just before)
i.e. that is
NB take careful note
n.d. no date (i.e. an undated source)
n.p. no page
No. number
op. cit. in the source mentioned previously
p.a. (per annum), yearly
pp. pages
PS postscript
PTO please turn over
re: with reference to
sic in quotations, used to show a mistake in the original
vs. versus
12 Practice B
■ Explain the abbreviations in the following sentences.

a) The failure rate among ICT projects in HE reaches 40% (Smith et al., 2015).
b) NB: CVs must be submitted to HR by Sep. 30th.
c) Her PhD thesis examined the threat of TB in SE Asia.

d) The VC is meeting the PGCE students in the SU lounge.
e) Re: next month’s AGM: the report is needed asap.
f) Dr Wang argued that the quality of MSc and MA research was falling.
► See Units 1.7 References and Quotations and 3.7 Punctuation

UNIT
4.2
Academic
Vocabulary
Nouns and Adjectives
To read and write academic papers effectively students need to be familiar with the rather
formal vocabulary widely used in this genre. This unit focuses on nouns and adjectives;
Unit 4.3 looks at verbs and adverbs.
1 Introduction
The quantity and complexity of vocabulary needed to understand academic texts often concerns
students. But it is worth remembering that much of that vocabulary is specific to your subject area.
For example, in the sentence:
The process of disintermediation, whereby banks withdraw from their traditional role as the
takers of deposits and providers of loans, has meant that the role of ‘reputational intermedi-
ary’ has come to be assumed by credit rating agencies.
‘Disintermediation’ will be understood by students of Finance and Business, while ‘process’ and
‘providers’ are general academic vocabulary which all students need to understand. The focus of
this unit is on the general vocabulary common to most disciplines.
2 Nouns
Nouns are words that refer to things (thesis), people (scientist), places (Beijing), ideas (Boyle’s
Law), qualities (hardness) or actions (writing). They are usually the subject of the verb. Most sen-
tences contain several nouns:
A notable feature of the co-production experiment discussed here is the broad range of
actors involved.
NB: nouns can be used to describe other nouns (co-production experiment), effectively acting as
adjectives.
DOI: 10.4324/9781003010210-38
4.2: Academic Vocabulary: Nouns and Adjectives 213
■ Study the following list of common academic nouns, with examples of use. With a
partner, discuss the meaning of any nouns you fnd unclear.
actor The two main actors in the 1986 coup were the army and the opposition.
analysis His analysis of the alloy showed a high percentage of copper.
approach Professor Han has brought a new approach to the study of genetics.
assessment She failed the frst module assessment but passed the fnal one.
assumption He made the assumption that all the students spoke French.
authority Dr James is our leading authority on marine law.
claim Their claim that the island was frst inhabited in 550 BCE is false.
clarity They achieved greater clarity by repeating the experiment.
concept The concept of ‘class’ was not developed until the early nineteenth
century.
consensus The President tried to achieve a consensus in Congress around law reform.
correlation They found a correlation between height and health.
deterrent The harsh climate of the desert acted as a deterrent to exploration.
differentiation Our policy of product differentiation led to an overall rise in sales.
domain The professor’s domain was the iconography of the Catalan Romanesque.
extract He read a short extract from his paper on Hegel to the class.
hierarchy The peasant class formed the base of the Russian hierarchy.
ideology At the heart of Roman ideology was military power.
implication The implication of the report is that we need to do more research.
innovation Steam power was a signifcant innovation in the eighteenth century.
interaction There was little interaction between students and teachers.
intuition Intuition has been described as ‘a gut feeling’.
motivation Financial reward is claimed to be the primary motivation for most workers.
narrative The principal narrative in that period was the growth of the middle class.
perspective Sigmund Freud’s work opened up a new perspective on human behaviour.
phenomenon Earthquakes are an unusual phenomenon in Britain. (NB: irregular plural
– phenomena)
presumption In law, there is a presumption of innocence unless guilt is established.
process The drug trials involved a three-stage process that took two years.
proposal The professor’s proposal for more seminars was rejected.
provision The library has increased its provision of Wi-Fi hotspots by 100%.
sequence Writing is a sequence of reading, note-taking, planning and drafting.
stricture His tutor’s strictures had an effect: his next essay achieved A−.
substitute To what extent can natural gas be a substitute for oil?
synthesis Our aim was to make a synthesis of folk remedies for treating headaches.
technique She developed a new technique for collecting the beetles.
tendency He noticed a growing tendency among his students to arrive late.
thesis Our thesis on the causes of child poverty has been widely debated.
typology The Saxon bowl she found belonged to the Kentish typology.
validity Events confrmed the validity of his prediction.
214 Part 4: Lexis
Note the differences between the three nouns:
Economics is a demanding undergraduate degree course. (academic subject)

The Greek economy is heavily in debt. (national economy, countable)
Economy is needed to reduce the deficit. (saving money, uncountable)
■ Complete each sentence with a suitable noun.

a) Many great discoveries were based on rather than logic.
b) Due to the rising birth rate was made for more school places.
c) Few believed Galileo’s that the earth went round the sun.
d) Hurricanes and typhoons are both weather .
e) The new for making steel boosted production by 60%.
f) They looked for a between birth month and longevity.
3 Nouns and adjectives
Adjectives modify nouns:
His tedious and rambling lecture lasted over an hour.
It is easy to confuse the noun and adjective forms of some words e.g. ‘probable’ (adjective) and
‘probability’ (noun).
■ Complete the gaps in the table.
Noun Adjective
strategy strategic
necessary
exterior
particular
danger
relevant
reason
confdent
A simple way of expanding vocabulary is to learn related parts of speech. Many of the
nouns in the list in 2) above have a related adjective e.g. analysis/ analytical.
■ Write example sentences to show the meaning of the related adjectives given below.
4.2: Academic Vocabulary: Nouns and Adjectives 215
analytical His analytical skill helped them to solve the

approachable problem faster.
authoritative
ideological
innovative
intuitive
motivational
phenomenal
provisional
sequential
synthetic
technical
valid
4 Similar adjectives
Certain common adjectives have two forms, with slightly different meanings:
Martin Luther King made his historic speech in Washington. (memorable or significant)
Cleopatra was a historical character, born in 69 BCE. (real person in the past)
The electric guitar was developed in the 1930s. (worked by electricity)
Electrical Engineering was a popular course. (relating to electricity)
The Jaguar E-type is a famous classic car. (something seen as the best of its kind)
Beethoven was a leading composer of classical music. (belonging to a tradition in the past)
5 Academic adjectives
One approach to these adjectives is to learn them as pairs of opposites: absolute/relative
■ Complete the list of opposite pairs.
abstract concrete
accurate
ambiguous
analytical
effective
exclusive
logical
metaphorical
precise
rational
216 Part 4: Lexis
reliable
relevant
specifc
subjective
theoretical
6 Practice A
■ Complete each sentence with a suitable adjective from the table in 5).
a) The teacher complained that the quotes were to the title.
b) His approach led him to ignore some inconvenient facts.
c) examples are needed to make the argument clear.
d) It is suffcient to give fgures for national populations.
e) Poverty is usually regarded as a concept.
f) They approached the task in a way by frst analysing the title.
g) The students preferred examining case studies to discussion.
h) The results were : the victims had defnitely been poisoned.
i) In Europe, research began in the sixteenth century.
j) The study of engineering is very to architecture.
k) Her paper on women in education was criticised for being too
7 Practice B
■ Underline the adjective in each sentence and write the related noun in brackets.
Example:
Several steel producers are likely to shut down next year. (likelihood)
a) The HR team have just completed a strategic review of pay. ( )
b) Dr Lee adopted an analytical approach to the inquiry. ( )
c) Nylon was one of the earliest synthetic fbres. ( )
d) Her major contribution to the research was her study of ante-natal care. ( )
e) Some progress was made in the theoretical area. ( )
f) A frequent complaint is that too much reading is expected. ( )
g) We took a more critical approach to marketing theory. ( )
h) Finally, the practical implications of my fndings will be examined. ( )
Students wishing to develop their academic vocabulary should study the Academic Word List
(AWL). This is a list of 570 items commonly found in academic texts across various disci-
plines, created by Averil Coxhead.
See: https://canvas.bham.ac.uk/courses/12947/pages/vocabulary-and-the-academic-word-list
UNIT
4.3
Academic
Vocabulary
Verbs and Adverbs
When reading a paragraph of text it can be helpful to identify and understand the main
verbs before anything else, since these are often the key to understanding the whole pas-
sage. This unit looks at the more formal verbs used in academic writing, and the use of
adverbs.
1 Understanding main verbs
Verbs are words which describe an action (to walk), a state (to feel) or a happening (to become).
Virtually every sentence includes at least one verb. Verbs should be learnt in the infinitive form
(to ).
■ Read the following paragraph, from a journal article about drainage in Singapore, and
underline the main verbs.
This article scrutinises the relationship between governmental reform and infrastructural change
in Singapore. Focusing on the role of engineers, it is argued that neoliberal decentralisation has
occurred through the physical reconfiguration of drainage. Neoliberalisation is conceived of as a
localised technical response to a public health crisis resulting from infrastructural enclosure, which
is orchestrated on and through the material-ecological environment. A closed drainage system
consisting of trapezoidal canals and concrete culverts had produced an ideal breeding ground for
dengue-carrying mosquitoes, undermining the state’s centralised approach to water governance.
DOI: 10.4324/9781003010210-39
218 Part 4: Lexis
■ As you read it may be helpful to think of approximate synonyms for these verbs.
Complete the table by matching the verbs from the text above with the synonyms
given below.
Verbs in text Infnitive form Synonym

(in order)
scrutinises to scrutinise to examine
to concentrate on
to claim
to happen
to understand
to arise
to develop
to comprise
to create
to weaken
■ Underline the verbs in the following text from the same article and complete the table
in the same way.
Since the 1960s, local catchment has been progressively expanded into Singapore’s urban areas to
augment imported water from Malaysia and protected reservoirs in the Central Water Catchment
Area (CWCA). Amounting to a mere 11% in 1965, catchment areas now constitute two-thirds of
Singapore’s limited land surface, which divert rainwater into 17 reservoirs as part of a separate
sewerage and storm water system.
2 Common academic verbs
Academic writing tends to use rather formal verbs to express the writer’s meaning accurately:
In the last decade the pace of change has accelerated.

Could Darwin have envisaged the controversy his work would cause?
In spoken English we are more likely to use ‘speeded up’ and ‘imagined’.
4.3: Academic Vocabulary: Verbs and Adverbs 219
■ Study the list below and fnd a synonym in each case.

Note that synonyms may have different meanings in different contexts.
► See Unit 4.5 Synonyms
Some of these verbs e.g. ‘hold’ are used in academic writing with a special meaning.
Verb Example of use Synonym

(infnitive)
to adapt the health system has been adapted from France to modify
to arise a similar situation arises when we look at younger
children
to conduct the largest study was conducted in Finland
to characterise developing countries are characterised by ….
to clarify the project was designed to clarify these contradictions
to concentrate on that study concentrated on older children
to be concerned with the programme is concerned primarily with …
to demonstrate further research has demonstrated that few factors …
to determine the water content was experimentally determined
to discriminate a failure to discriminate between the two species
to establish the northern boundary was established frst
to exhibit half of the patients exhibited signs of improvement
to focus on her work focused on female managers
to generate a question which has generated a range of responses
to hold Newton's second Law, F=ma, holds everywhere
to identify three main areas have been identifed
to imply his absence implies a lack of interest
to interact understand how the two systems interact
to interpret the result can be interpreted as a limited success
to manifest as manifested in anti-social behaviour
to overcome both diffculties were overcome in the frst week
to propose they propose that social class is the main factor
to prove the use of solar power is proving successful
to recognise he is now recognised as a leading expert
to relate to the pattern was related to both social and physical
factors
to supplement the diet was supplemented with calcium and iodine
to undergo the system underwent major changes in the 1980s
to yield both surveys yielded mixed results
► See Unit 1.7.3 References and Quotations – Reference verbs

220 Part 4: Lexis
3 Using adverbs
1. Adverbs are words which mainly modify verbs (she wrote carefully) and adjectives (an
extremely interesting book). They often, but not always, end in –ly.
In the sentence below the adverbs are used to give information about time (currently) and degree
(completely).
The author concludes that no reasonable alternative is currently available to replace consti-
tutional democracy, even though he does not completely reject the possibility of creating a
better political system in the future.
2. Adverbs are used in academic writing in a variety of ways. Among the most important are:
a) to provide more detail:
Reasonably good data are available for only the first two years.
Decomposition eventually ceases in modern landfills.
b) individually, often at the beginning of a sentence, to introduce new points or link sen-
tences together:
Currently, the Earth’s atmosphere appears to be warming up.

Alternatively, the use of non-conventional renewable energies is worth exploring.
NB: Adverbs used individually need to be employed with care. It is dangerous to overuse them,
since they can be like the author’s ‘voice’, commenting on the topic. As an academic writer aims to
be objective, adverbs such as 'fortunately' or 'remarkably' may be unsuitable.
3. Adverbs linked to verbs and adjectives usually fall into three groups.
a) Time (when?)
previously published
retrospectively examined
b) Degree (how much?)
declined considerably
contribute substantially
c) Manner (in what way?)
medically complicated
remotely located
4.3: Academic Vocabulary: Verbs and Adverbs 221
Further common examples include:
Time Degree Manner

recently clearly (un)surprisingly
historically particularly factually
originally broadly politically
presently highly locally
currently wholly alternatively
traditionally crucially similarly
lately emphatically psychologically
frstly increasingly continuously
4 Practice A
■ Insert suitable adverbs from the table above into the gaps in the sentences.
a) Most houses do not have electricity. , then, there is little
chance of improving living standards.
b) , the internet was mainly used for academic purposes.
c) Some courses are assessed purely by exams. , coursework
may be employed.
d) , there has been growing concern about fnancing the health service.
e) Many birds use bright colours to attract a mate. , fowers
advertise their position to fertilising insects.
f) , the development should be acceptable environmentally.
g) Despite some disagreement, the team were united on the
next step.
h) Although correct, many details were missing from the report.
5 Practice B
■ Complete the text on p. 224 by inserting a suitable adverb from the box into each gap.
virtually conventionally basically originally recently

illicitly significantly substantially
222 Part 4: Lexis
A key history
the first keys were made by the Egyptians from wood,

and improved by the Romans, who used metal. Today’s keys
are the same: a piece of metal with teeth, produced by
cutting and stamping. But a new technology, 3D printing, has made it pos-
sible to manufacture much more intricate designs which are impossible to
copy . Although more expensive, these high-tech keys
offer remarkable security.
UNIT
4.4
Prefxes and
Suffxes
Prefixes and suffixes are the first and last parts of certain words, added to the base form.
Understanding the meaning of prefixes and suffixes can help you work out the meaning of
a word, and is particularly useful when you find specialist new vocabulary.
1 How prefxes and suffxes work
New words are often created in academia by adding prefixes (and suffixes) to established words
e.g. ‘ecocriticism’ or ‘biosemiotics’. It is easier to understand ‘ecocriticism’ if you realise that the
prefix ‘eco’ indicates a relationship between the physical world (eco) and literary criticism, while
the second is a science that deals with signification (semiotics) in living systems (bio).
In general: Prefixes change or give the meaning.
Suffixes show the word class (e.g. noun, verb) and sometimes give meaning.
'Unsustainable' is an example of a word containing a prefix and a suffix.
Prefx Meaning STEM Meaning Suffx Word class/ Meaning

un- negative sustain support -able adjective/ ability
The rate of growth was unsustainable (i.e. could not be continued).
■ Study the meaning of the words in bold:

Prefabrication of the flats accelerated the building process.
He was revitalised by his holiday in the mountains.
Prefx Meaning STEM Meaning Suffx Word class

pre- before fabric manufacture -ation noun
re- again vital full of life -ise verb
DOI: 10.4324/9781003010210-40
224 Part 4: Lexis
2 Prefxes
a) Negative prefixes: non-, un-, in-, im-, mis-, de- and dis- often give nouns, adjectives and verbs
a negative meaning:
nonsense, unclear, incapable, impossible, mishear, decrease, disagree
NB: There are a few exceptions e.g. ‘invaluable’ means very useful.
b) A wide variety of prefixes define meaning e.g. pre- usually means ‘before’, hence:
prequel, prehistory and, of course, prefix!
■ Find the meaning(s) of 10 of these prefxes (NB: some have more than one meaning).
Prefx Example Example sentence Meaning

Anglo* Anglosphere The Anglosphere includes Canada and English
the USA.
anti antidepressant Antidepressant drugs are often against
overprescribed.
auto automatically Over-18s automatically have the right to
vote.
bio biodegradable Most paper bags are biodegradable.
co co-ordinator The co-ordinator invited them to a
meeting.
eco ecosystem The river’s ecosystem was damaged by
the foods.
ex ex-president The ex-president gave a speech on
climate change.
fore forecast The long-term forecast is for higher
infation.
inter intervention Government intervention in the market is
needed.
intra intra-state Intra-state confict can lead to civil war.
macro macroeconomics Keynes focused on macroeconomics.
meta metascience Metascience aims to critique scientifc
methods.
micro microscope She examined the tiny animals with a
microscope.
multi multinational Ford is a multinational motor company.
neo Neolithic The Neolithic period saw the frst
farmers.
4.4: Prefixes and Suffixes 225
over oversleep He missed the lecture because he

overslept.
pan pan-European The pan-European games were held in
Trieste.
poly polyglot She was a true polyglot, speaking fve
languages.
post postpone The meeting is postponed until next
Monday.
pro promote Their website promoted the college’s
facilities.
quasi quasi-monopoly The tech giant developed a
quasi-monopoly.
re retrain The frm retrained staff to use the new
software.
self self-regulating The media business prefers to be
self-regulating.
sub subtitle Chinese flms often have subtitles in the
West.
tele televise Parliament was frst televised in 1989.
trans transmitter Early radio transmitters were
short-range.
under undervalue Buying undervalued assets can be
proftable.
*Other common national prefxes include Franco-, Hispano- and Sino- (e.g. Sinocentric).
NB: A few words contain two prefixes e.g. ‘disintermediation’.
3 Practice A
Prefixes allow new words to be created, e.g. ‘unfriend’ (to delete a ‘friend’ from social media).
■ Suggest possible meanings for the words in bold.

a) The growth of internet shopping has depersonalised the retail experience.
b) The microclimate in this district allows early vegetables to be grown.
c) It is claimed that technology has created a post-industrial economy.
d) Staycations became very popular during the pandemic.
e) The class was underwhelmed by the quality of the lecture.
f) The couple decided to draw up a prenuptial agreement.
g) The company is looking for a proactive manager.
h) She felt that much of the comedian’s humour was self-referential.
226 Part 4: Lexis
NB: It can be difficult to know whether to use a hyphen with a prefix, and sometimes there is no
fixed rule, e.g. ‘co-operate’ or ‘cooperate’? Make sure you use the same format for a particular word
throughout your work.
► See Unit 3.7 Punctuation
4 Suffxes
a) Some suffixes like –ion, -ive or –ly help the reader find the word class, e.g. noun, adjective or
adverb.
b) Other suffixes add to the meaning, e.g. –ful or –less after an adjective have a positive or nega-
tive effect (thoughtful/ careless).
Word class suffxes
Nouns –er often indicates a role: teacher, gardener

–ee can show a person who is on the receiving end of a
transaction: employee, trainee
–ism and –ist are often used with belief systems and their
supporters: socialism/ socialist
–ness converts an adjective into a noun: sad/ sadness
–ion helps change a verb to a noun: convert/ conversion
Adjectives –ive effective, constructive
–al commercial, agricultural
–ious precious, serious
Verbs –ise/–ize to form verbs from adjectives: private/ privatise
NB: in the USA only the –ize spelling is used, whereas both forms
are accepted in the UK
Adverbs –ly to form adverbs from adjectives: happily, radically
NB: most (but not all) adverbs have this suffx
Meaning suffxes
A few suffixes contribute to the meaning of the word:
● –phobe means ‘hater’ and –phile means ‘lover’: As a keen Francophile she visited Paris every
spring.
● able has the meaning of ‘ability’: an unwatchable film, changeable weather
● wards means ‘in the direction of’: the ship sailed northwards, he walked homewards
4.4: Prefixes and Suffixes 227
5 Practice B
■ Give the word class for the following underlined words:

a) The cancellation of the exams delighted the students.
b) The fact that both books were published in June was coincidental.
c) The team worked cooperatively on their project.
d) Their evolutionary process was studied in detail.
e) The bacteria live symbiotically in the cow’s stomach.
f) The weather was unpredictable all month.
g) Although forty years old, the Jaguar was very saleable.
h) The frst interviewee appeared very nervous.
i) Consumerism involves a focus on the interests of private buyers.
j) The symbolism of the fag’s colours impressed the children.
► See Unit 4.2 Academic Vocabulary: Nouns and Adjectives

UNIT
4.5
Synonyms
Synonyms are different words with a similar meaning, such as ‘figures’ and ‘numbers’.
A good writer uses synonyms to avoid repetition and thus provide more interest for
the reader. Synonyms should also be used when paraphrasing or note-making, to avoid
plagiarism.
1 How synonyms work
■ Underline the synonyms in the following text and complete the table.
Royal Dutch Shell is an Anglo-Dutch business, and is one of the largest oil companies in the world,
with a significant share of the global hydrocarbon market. Founded over a hundred years ago, the
giant firm now employs over 80,000 people internationally, including more than 6,000 employees
in Britain. As part of its move away from fossil fuels, Shell is installing recharging points for elec-
tric vehicles at many of its UK service stations, and aims to have over 200 available by the end of
next year.
Word/ phrase Synonym

business company, firm
largest
oil
in the world
now
people
Britain
DOI: 10.4324/9781003010210-41
4.5: Synonyms 229
Synonyms are rarely exactly the same in meaning, so that in the example above ‘employees’ is more
precise than ‘people’. But it is important not to change the register: ‘firm’ is a good synonym for
‘company’, but ‘boss’ is too informal to use for ‘manager’. The next table illustrates the validity of
some synonyms for ‘company’:
Possible synonyms for Validity

‘company’
frm Good
business Good
enterprise Suggests a small entrepreneurial business
corporation Widely used for larger companies
organisation Can also be used for non-commercial bodies
■ Discuss the validity of the following synonyms for ‘doctor’ with a partner and make
notes.
surgeon
specialist
quack
physician
general practitioner (GP)
Note that many common words, e.g. culture, science, economy and industry, have no effective
synonyms. But writing a good paraphrase involves more than replacing some words with others;
the writer should change the structure of the text as well.
► See Unit 1.8 Summarising and Paraphrasing

230 Part 4: Lexis
2 Common synonyms in academic writing
■ Match the academic synonyms in each list. Use each word once only.
Nouns Verbs (infnitive form)

authority advantage accelerate take apart
behaviour part analyse help
beneft argument assist question
category disadvantage attach explain
component tendency challenge evolve
controversy source clarify examine
diffculty emotion concentrate on establish
drawback target conduct insist
expansion explanation confne speed up
feeling conduct develop join
framework topic evaluate decrease
goal possibility found demonstrate
interpretation research maintain increase
issue increase predict reinforce
method fgures prohibit put together
option dissertation raise focus on
results type reduce forecast
statistics structure respond ban
study system show carry out
thesis fndings strengthen limit
trend problem synthesise reply
NB: These pairs are commonly synonymous, but not in every situation.
3 Practice A
■ Find synonyms for the words and phrases underlined, rewriting the sentences where
necessary.
a) Professor Hicks questioned the fndings of the research.
b) The statistics show a steady increase in survival rates.
c) The institute’s prediction has caused a major controversy.
d) Cost seems to be the leading drawback to that system.
e) They will concentrate on the frst option.
f) After the lecture she tried to clarify her concept.
g) Three issues need to be examined.
h) The framework can be retained but the goal needs to be altered.
4.5: Synonyms 231
4 Practice B
■ Identify the synonyms in this text by underlining them and linking them to the word
they are substituting for.
A dog’s life?
Keeping pets has become increasingly popular in wealthier countries. In the USA 95% of owners of
domestic animals say that they regard them as part of their family. In Asia, since most city dwellers
live in flats, felines are more popular there, as they require less care from urban apartment dwellers.
Alongside this trend is the growth of businesses that specially cater for dogs and cats. Specialist
companies offer a huge variety of pet foods, including canine ice cream and vegan fare, while luxu-
rious pet hotels pamper their guests in South Korea. But there is debate about the benefits of keeping
animals in the home: there is conflicting evidence of whether owners gain any tangible advantages
from keeping pets, though it is clear that the animals themselves do.
5 Practice C
■ In the following text, replace all the words or phrases in bold type with suitable
synonyms.
Many motor manufacturers are currently introducing electric cars. Their aim is to manufacture
cars which are cheaper to run and less polluting. But these motor manufacturers face several key
difficulties. One key difficulty is the limited range of the battery, while another difficulty is its cost
and weight. But the motor manufacturers predict that these difficulties will soon be overcome
and predict that 20% of cars will be powered by electricity in five years’ time. However, electrical
power must be generated by something, and unless it is generated by renewables (e.g. wind or solar
power) such cars may not be as ‘green’ as their makers claim.
Progress
Check E
These exercises will help you assess your understanding of Part 4 – Lexis.
1 Several of the following should be avoided in academic writing. Which?
a) a cliché b) a synopsis c) a proverb d) an idiom e) a simile
2 Choose the correct form in each sentence.

a) He said that you should never judge a book by its/ it’s cover.
b) I finished the essay accept/ except for the conclusion.
c) The site/ sight of the accident was guarded by police.
d) Please give our compliments/ complements to the doctor for his excellent lecture.
e) She explained the basic principal/ principle of their study: transparency.
3 Give the opposite adjectives:

a) relative
b) literal
c) objective
d) vague
e) unambiguous
f) empirical
4 Rewrite the sentences using verbs of reference (i.e. referring verbs).

a) X: I have found that drinking black coffee is healthier than white.
b) Y: I don’t agree with X’s finding; it is based on very limited research.
c) Z: I support Y’s opinion of X’s work.
5 Add a suitable adverb from the box to each sentence (use each once only).
rarely particularly traditionally locally increasingly continuously
DOI: 10.4324/9781003010210-42
Progress Check E 233
a) The site of London has been occupied …………… since Roman times.
b) As central government was weak, decisions were taken …………….
c) In the past, there was a high mortality rate among children, …………… the youngest.
d) Young adults are …………… delaying marriage until their late 20s.
e) ……………, becoming a carpenter required a seven-year apprenticeship.
f) Students are …………… allowed to park their cars on campus.
6 Find the word class of the following:

a) saleable
b) salvation
c) privatise
d) attendee
e) agnosticism
7 Link the words on the left to the meanings on the right, using the prefixes.
antidote under the skin

exclusive preliminary section of book
foreword relation of one thing to another
polytechnic institute where many scientifc subjects are taught
proportion assess worth of something too cheaply
subcutaneous medicine that works against the effects of poison
undervalue limited to a select few
8 Find synonyms for the underlined words, rewriting the sentence where necessary.
a) Their research method caused serious argument.
b) The statistics demonstrate the benefits of increased investment.
c) There is a possibility of studying the family records.
d) Her findings reinforce Schrödinger’s thesis.
e) My goal was to challenge the conventional theory.
f) They conducted a survey into the behaviour of international students.
Written British and
American English
– A Short Guide
Speakers of British and American English can usually understand each other easily, with only
minor confusions due to some variations in vocabulary or pronunciation. However, with written
academic work more differences need to be understood. The main issues are explained below.
NB: Academic writers in Australia, New Zealand and many other English-speaking areas tend
to use British English; in Canada American English is more common.
1 Vocabulary
There are many vocabulary items which differ between British (UK) and American (US) English,
e.g. autumn (UK) and fall (US). However, these are generally well known and widely understood.
The two main problematic areas in everyday vocabulary are:
a) words which are not commonly understood in both countries, e.g. tap (UK) and faucet (US).
b) words with different meanings in each country, e.g. gas is used for cooking in Britain but in the
USA gas powers cars (or automobiles).
Further examples:
UK US
flat apartment
underground subway
queue line
timetable schedule
high street main street
lift elevator
toilet restroom or bathroom
company corporation
property real estate
trade union labor union
236 Written British and American English – A Short Guide
For a full list of differences see: https://en.oxforddictionaries.com/usage/british-and-american

-terms
2 Spelling
There are many minor differences in spelling, but among those worth noting are:
a) In American English the ‘u’ is commonly dropped from words ending in -our (e.g. neighbour
becomes neighbor, behaviour becomes behavior).
b) Words ending in -ise or -yse in British English (e.g. sanitise, analyse) change to sanitize and
analyze in American English.
c) A group of technical nouns such as haemophiliac and foetus lose the ‘ae’ or ‘oe’ in American
English and become hemophiliac and fetus.
d) British English spells the noun practice but the verb practise. In American English both forms
are spelt with a ‘c’. But defence is British English, defense American.
e) Many words ending in -re in British English (e.g. metre, theatre) become meter and theater in
American English.
NB: Even if you are writing in an environment where British English is used, you should retain
American spelling when quoting or giving references: i.e. do not change the original spelling.
3 Academic language
There are many minor variations between the language of the educational systems of Britain and
the US. These are some of the more important ones:
a) A college in the UK is usually any post-school institution which provides mainly vocational
training but doesn’t award degrees (although a few universities such as Oxford are organised
in colleges). In the US a college is usually part of a university and does give first degrees.
b) Most teaching in UK universities is done by lecturers, while a professor is a senior academic
position. In US colleges and universities teaching is mainly done by professors and assistant
professors.
c) In Britain students read/ do/ study a subject. In the US they study or major in a subject (the
latter as the main part of a two-part degree).
d) Someone studying for a Master’s degree in the UK is a postgraduate, while in the US they are
a graduate student.
e) Students in Britain sit or take exams, but in America exams are just taken. Before taking an
exam, British students may revise the subject, but in the US they review the topic. UK students
generally receive marks for their work, while American students get grades.
f) In the UK a dissertation is written for a Master’s degree, while in the US this is generally
called a thesis. The reverse applies at PhD level, where British students usually write a thesis
but Americans prepare a dissertation.
Written British and American English – A Short Guide 237
4 Punctuation
a) In Britain quotations are shown by single quotation marks, while nested quotations (those
inside quotations) use double. In the US the convention is, confusingly, the opposite.
UK: As Kauffman remarked: ‘His concept of “internal space” requires close analysis’.
US: As Kauffman remarked: “His concept of ‘internal space’ requires close analysis.”
Note that in British English the full stop comes after the quotation marks, while in the US it is
inside them.
b) In American English the ‘Oxford comma’ is standard, i.e. the comma before the final ‘and’ in
a list:
Vision, knowledge, courage, and luck are the attributes of a successful entrepreneur.
In British English this is usually omitted:
Vision, knowledge, courage and luck are the attributes of a successful entrepreneur.
c) Dates are generally written with the month first in American English:
11.30.2019 = November 30, 2021
In British English dates usually begin with the day:
30.11.2019 = 30 November 2021
► See Units 1.7 References and Quotations and 3.7 Punctuation

Glossary
Abbreviation
The short form of a word or phrase (see 4.1)
Abstract
A short summary of the aims and scope of a journal article (see 1.3)
Acknowledgements
A list of people the author wishes to thank for their assistance, found in books and articles
Appendix (plural – appendices)

A section at the end of a book or article containing supplementary information
Assignment
A task given to students, normally for assessment
Authority
A well-known expert or reference work on a subject
Back issue
A previous issue of a journal or magazine
Bias
A subjective preference for one point of view
Bibliography
A list of sources an author has read but not specifically cited
Brainstorm
A process of collecting ideas on a topic at random (see 1.2)
Case study
A section of an essay which examines one example in detail (see 2.4)
Citation
An in-text reference providing a link to the source (see 1.6)
Glossary 239
Cohesion
Linking ideas in a text together by use of reference words (see 3.1)
Coursework
Assessed assignments given to students to complete during a course
Conclusion The final section of an essay or report (see 1.11)
Contraction
A shortened form of pronoun and verb, e.g. she’s, I’d
Criteria (singular – criterion)

The principles on which something is judged or based
Deadline
The final date for completing a piece of work
Draft
An unfinished version of a piece of writing
Edited book
A book with contributions from a number of writers, controlled by an editor
Extract
A piece of text taken from a longer work
Flowchart
A diagram that illustrates the stages of a process
Formality
In written work, the use of a non-idiomatic style and vocabulary
Format
The standard organisation of a text
Heading
The title of a section of text
Higher degree
A Master’s degree (e.g. MSc) or Doctorate (PhD)
Hypothesis
A theory which a researcher is attempting to explore or test
Introduction
The first part of an essay or article (see 1.11)
Journal
An academic publication in a specialised area, usually published quarterly (see 1.3)
240 Glossary
Literature review
A section of an article describing other research on the topic in question (see 2.5)
Main body
The principal part of an essay after the introduction and before the conclusion
Margin
The strip of white space on a page around the text
Module
Most academic courses are divided into modules, each of which focuses on a specified topic
Outline
A preparatory plan for a piece of writing (see 1.2)
Paraphrase
A rewriting of a text with substantially different wording and organisation but similar ideas
(see 1.8)
Peer review
The process of collecting comment from academic authorities on an article before publication
in a journal. This system gives increased validity to the publication
Phrase
A few words which are commonly combined (see 1.1)
Plagiarism
Using another writer’s work without acknowledgement in an acceptable manner (see 1.6)
Primary research
Original research, e.g. a laboratory experiment or a sociological enquiry
Quotation
Use of the exact words of another writer to illustrate an argument or idea (see 1.7)
Redundancy
The unnecessary repetition of ideas or information (see 3.8)
References
A list of all the sources cited in a paper (see 1.7)
Register
The level of formality in language
Restatement
Repeating a point in order to explain it more clearly
Scan
A method of reading in which the eyes move quickly over the page to find a specific item
Glossary 241
Skim
A related reading technique to quickly find out the main ideas of a text
Source
The original text used to obtain an idea or piece of information
Summary
A shorter version of something (see 1.8)
Synonym
A word or phrase with a similar meaning to another (see 4.5)
Synopsis
A summary of an article or book
Term
A word or phrase used to express a special concept
Word class
A grammatical category, e.g. noun, adjective
Answers
ANSWERS 243
Providing answers for a writing course is less clear-cut than for other language areas. In some
exercises there is only one possible answer, but in other cases several possibilities exist. Teachers
need to use common sense, and accept any reasonable answer. In the case of exercises where
students can choose their own topic and it is therefore impossible to provide a definite answer,
students may still appreciate having a model answer, and so some have been given.
Academic writing quiz
1 b (see Unit 1.1) 2 a, b (see Unit 1.1) 3 a (see Unit 1.2) 4 c (see Unit 1.11)
5 a (see Unit 1.11) 6 c (see Unit 1.5) 7 a (see Unit 1.7) 8 b (see Unit 1.8)
9 c (see Unit 1.10) 10 b (see Unit 1.12) 11 c (see Unit 1.4) 12 c (see Unit 3.7)
13 a (see Unit 4.5) 14 b (see Unit 4.2) 15 b (see Unit 1.3) 16 c (see Unit 4.4)
17 b (see Unit 1.5) 18 b (see Unit 3.6) 19 c (see Unit 1.1) 20 a (see Unit 1.11)
PART 1 THE WRITING PROCESS
1.1 Writing Basics
1 The purposes of academic writing

Other reasons might include:
● To present a hypothesis for consideration by others
● To make notes on something read or heard or seen
2 How is academic writing different from other writing genres?

i) Possible genres include journalism, fiction, poetry, advertising.
ii) Academic writing is different from other genres as it employs:
● Semi-formal vocabulary, with a lack of idioms
● Use of citation/references
● Use of both passive and active voices
● Precision
● Caution
● Impersonal, objective style
3 Common types of academic writing

a) Dissertation/thesis
b) Paper
c) Report
d) Essay
e) Case study
f) Reflection
g) Notes
h) Proposal
244 ANSWERS
4 The format of written assignments
– Introduction
– Literature review
– Case study
– Discussion
– Conclusion
– References
– Appendices
a) abstract
b) references
c) appendix
d) acknowledgements
e) literature review
f) case study
g) preface
6 Writing clear sentences

(Example sentences)
a) In 2020 the Human Resources programme had predominantly female students.
b) There was a majority of female students on the Marketing programme.
c) The Finance programme had the greatest gender imbalance: over 70% of the students
were male.
d) There was a small majority of male students studying Economics, but in the Accounting
programme there was a substantial majority of men.
7 Writing in paragraphs
See Unit 1.10.1 Organising Paragraphs for initial questions.
para 2 begins: However, some economists …

para 3 begins: But this effect …
para 4 begins: The macroeconomic model …
8 Practice
(Example sentences)
a) Energy efficiency was thought to benefit both consumers and the environment.
b) More efficient engines should reduce demand for fossil fuel.
c) Recent research has questioned this idea, using the example of the USA from 1960 to
2011.
d) Researchers claim that cheaper energy costs lead to more energy being used, with no
overall benefit for the environment.
ANSWERS 245
1.2 Understanding Essay Questions

and the Planning Process
2 Analysing essay questions

a) Summarise/Discuss
Give the factors behind the development, and explore the possible consequences.
Context: since 2010
b) Describe/Suggest
List the most likely causes of this situation. Propose ways of improvement.
c) What/Are there
Give the advantages and disadvantages.
Context: at primary school (age 6–10)
d) What/Evaluate
List the most important sources, and say how useful they are in reducing CO² emissions.
Context: in the last 15 years
e) Discuss/Indicating
Describe how earthquakes affect different types of structures with reference to the soil
characteristics, and explain how the structures can be made more resilient.
f) To what extent
Explain how much governments can do to make people’s behaviour healthier.
3 Practice: key words

Analyse – Break down into the various parts and their relationships
Assess/Evaluate – Decide the value or worth of a subject
Describe – Give a detailed account of something
Discuss – Look at various aspects of a topic, compare benefits and drawbacks
Examine/Explore – Divide into sections and discuss each critically
Illustrate – Give examples
Outline Trace – Deal with a complex subject by reducing it to the main elements
Suggest/Indicate – Make a proposal and support it
Summarise – Explain a topic briefly and clearly
(NB: ‘summarise’ and ‘outline’ are very similar)
5 Brainstorming
(Possible answers)
Benefits
● Girls often do better academically in single sex schools
● Girls and boys have different academic interests and learning styles
● Children in these schools are less self-conscious
Drawbacks
● Provides poor preparation for adult world
● Can promote gender stereotypes
● Denies opportunities to make friends with the opposite sex
246 ANSWERS
6 Essay length
(NB: These figures are only a guide and individual students may have a different approach)
a) Describe/How can
Approximately 60/40
b) How can/Illustrate
Approximately 60/40
c) Outline/Suggest
Approximately 50/50
7 Outlines
c) Lists can help develop a logical structure and make it easier to allocate space, but are
rather inflexible.
Mind maps are more flexible as extra items can be added easily.
8 Practice
(Model outline – list)
The likely results
● Retailers must compete on logistics (delivery times)
● Increased demand for warehouse space esp. near big cities
● New businesses created (e.g. returns)
● More delivery traffic > demand for drivers
● Many stores will close
● Character of shopping streets will change > more cafes and entertainment
1.3 Reading: Finding Suitable Sources
1 Types of text
(Possible answers)
Text type Advantages Disadvantages

Website Easily accessed, probably Possibly unreliable and/or
up-to-date unedited
Journal article Often focuses on a very May be too specialised or
particular area complex
Offcial report (e.g. from Contains a lot of detail May have a narrow focus
government body)
Newspaper or magazine Easy to read and up-to-date May not be objective and
article not give sources
e-book Easily accessible Must be read on screen
Edited book A variety of contributors May lack focus
provide a range of views
ANSWERS 247
3 Assessing texts
A. Worldwide pressures – Possibly – it mentions two sources, and contains a lot of infor-
mation, but some of the language is subjective e.g. ‘reckless lack of control’, ‘shrinking
alarmingly’.
B. A drying world? – No – no sources are mentioned, and the style is very informal e.g. ‘the
stuff we drink’.
C. Measuring scarcity – Yes – a more critical, formal and objective style, and a citation
provided.
(Possible answers)
Feature Examples
Formal or semi- The more complex indicators are not widely applied because
formal vocabulary data are lacking to apply them and the defnitions are not
intuitive.
Sources are cited Rijsberman (2006)
Objective, It is surprisingly diffcult to determine whether water is
impersonal style truly scarce in the physical sense at a global scale (a supply
problem) or whether it is available but should be used better (a
demand problem).
4 Using reading lists

Books: Author(s), Title, Edition, Publisher, Date
Journals: Author(s), Date, Article title, Journal name, Issue number, Page numbers
5 Searching library catalogues

Title 1 appears to be an edited general study, recently published.
Title 2 is also quite up-to-date and general.
Title 4 is a third edition, so might be worth consulting although rather dated.
The others seem to be too specific or outdated.
7 Reading abstracts
a) How engineering in the context of urban socio-economic challenges is practically and
effectively mobilized has been the subject of some debate. Numerous professional bodies
have encouraged engineers to approach socio-environmental issues through increased
engagement with, and accountability to, the public through effective participatory
practices.
b) This article presents a close empirical analysis of a major engineering project in London
to argue that engineering has a more complex relationship with social, political and
environmental conditions than the idealistic participatory conception supposes. In fact,
the spatial, technical and economic arrangements of engineering practice may limit the
potential for public participation.
248 ANSWERS
c) Through a detailed analysis of the London Water Ring Main (from around 1988 to 1994)
…
d) … this article shows how myriad sometimes conflicting engineering issues and responsi-
bilities interfered with key elements of effective participation.
e) Therefore, although increased public engagement in engineering may be desirable in the-
ory, substantial professional, institutional and political change may have to occur before
this is possible in practice.
8 Practice: varying search terms

Variations/precipitation/rain/trends/SE Asia
10 Reading strategies
Other reading skills – possible answers:

● Text genre recognition
● Dealing with new vocabulary
11 Practice
a) Text is relevant
b) Three sources are mentioned which could be useful
ANSWERS 249
1.4 Reading: Developing Critical Approaches
2 Fact and opinion

A
a) opinion
b) fact (not true)
c) opinion
d) fact (true) + fact (true)
e) fact (true) + opinion
B
(Model objective version with facts [underlined] corrected)
New Zealand is an island nation in the southern Pacific Ocean, consisting of two main islands.
Nearly 1,000 miles east of Australia, it was one of the last places on Earth to be settled by man:
by the Polynesians who arrived in about 1250 CE, and who developed the Maori culture. In the
eighteenth century European settlers started to land, and in 1841 New Zealand became part of
the British Empire. Due to its long period of isolation many distinctive plants and animals
evolved, such as the kiwi, now the nation’s symbol. Today the country is famous for its suc-
cessful rugby team, the All Blacks, and is a popular holiday destination.
4 Domain name suffixes

Judging from the domain names, the websites likely to be biased in favour of vegetarianism
are:
https://www.vegsoc.org
http://www.meatismurder.com
https://www.vegansociety.com
https://www.meatlessfarm.com
https://vegetariantimes.com
5 Practice A
The responses to these questions will vary from student to student, which is the nature of the
critical approach.
(Model Answer)
Statements Comments
A The link between these two
It is claimed that in one year nearly half of Harvard’s situations is not made clear.
history professors were on sabbatical leave. As a
consequence, students work less …
B Who has made this
… it has been calculated that the average UK calculation? What basis is
university graduate will earn £400,000 ($600,000) there for this claim?
more over their lifetime compared to a non-graduate.
250 ANSWERS
The tone of the first article, ‘College concerns’, is more critical and is from a more independent
source, and so seems more reliable.
6 Practice B
(Example answers)
A. Volkswagen plugs in B. How electric cars will change

the world
Negative Subjective language – Rather an uncritical acceptance of the
points ‘tough talking’, ‘exciting scenario with no counter-arguments
new technology’ presented
Inaccurate – ‘11 billion
vehicles’ is clearly a
mistake
Narrow focus on one
company
Positive Some useful information Presents a global view of the situation
points about the economics of Reference to other studies and reports
building vehicles
Contains up-to-date news
of the company
1.5 Finding Key Points and Note-making
1 Why make notes?

(Other answers possible)
b) To avoid plagiarism
c) To keep a record of reading/lectures
d) To revise for exams
e) To help remember main points
2 Finding key points

(Example titles)
The cost of internet fraud

Compensating victims of internet scams
Key points:
● Internet fraud is increasing – in the USA may be + $50bn per year
● Scammers becoming more sophisticated
● Victims often wealthier, retired, well-educated people who overestimate financial ability
● Normally banks refuse to compensate people who have lost money
● In Britain some victims may be compensated – but who will fund the scheme?
ANSWERS 251
3 Finding relevant points

(Key points)
a) The last few years have seen the rise of environmental activists using shame as a weapon
against polluting businesses
b) This includes flygskam (a Swedish word meaning ‘flight shame’) and campaigns against
animal-based products, such as milk
c) … they appear to be having a significant effect on certain companies, for instance the
Dutch airline KLM is suggesting that customers should take a train on some routes
d) This appears to be a worldwide movement – many Chinese consumers are also aware of
the environmental dimension …
e) New startup businesses seek to make a brand out of sustainability – the car maker Tesla
f) Investors are also becoming concerned about the long-term outlook for polluting busi-
nesses like airlines – In Sweden passenger numbers were falling before the Covid-19
outbreak
g) Fashion is another industry in which companies are becoming concerned about the opin-
ions of young buyers
h) In 2019 many of the leading fashion houses agreed to clean up their practices
i) Pressure on the food industry from vegetarians and vegans has been growing for some
time
j) … both McDonalds and Burger King have introduced burgers made from plants
k) … it is not clear how reducing consumption of locally sourced dairy products in favour,
for example, of imported soya milk is going to help the planet
l) … firms should be aware that many of these campaigns have been successful in the past
4 Practice A
The notes are paraphrased, not copied from the text
The source is included
Symbols are used (>)
Abbreviations are used (e.g. esp.) to save space
Notes are organised in numbered lists
6 Practice B
(Example notes)
Is shame an effective behaviour changer?
a) Recent growth in environmental campaigns to shame customers of polluting companies

b) Examples: airlines, animal products, fashion
c) Campaigns are having an effect e.g. KLM encouraging train use, fast food businesses
offering vegetarian meals
d) Investors are concerned about long-term future of polluting companies e.g. airlines
252 ANSWERS
e) Not clear that these campaigns will all result in lower CO² emissions e.g. soya milk
f) Previous campaigns e.g. against apartheid have been effective
7 Practice C
(Model notes)
PISA tests
• The Programme for International Student Assessment publishes its test results every
3 years
• Tests assess performance of 15/16 year-olds in OECD nations in maths, science and
reading
• Aim = compare effectiveness of national educational systems
• In 2000 Finland had best results, with well-respected teachers and well-resourced
schools
• But today China and Singapore have better scores, while overall performance has
changed little
• Now considered that factors other than education system are important influences e.g.
national work ethic/literacy rates
• Local factors are also critical e.g. Estonia scores highly but has small classes due to
significant emigration
1.6 Avoiding Plagiarism
4 Degrees of plagiarism
1. Y
2. Y
3. Y
4. N
5. Y
6. N
7. Y
8. N
9. Y/N
10. Y
ANSWERS 253
5 Avoiding plagiarism by summarising and paraphrasing

a) Plagiarised – no citation given
b) Plagiarised – original wording with minor changes
c) Acceptable – a correctly referenced summary of the original
d) Acceptable – a correctly referenced summary and quotation
e) Technically plagiarism – mistake in spelling the author’s name
6 Avoiding plagiarism by developing good study habits

(Possible further suggestions)
● Check that your quotations are exactly the same wording as the original.
● When paraphrasing, alter the structure as well as the vocabulary.
● Make sure your in-text citations are all included in the list of references.
7 Practice A
Kaufman (2017) argues that wealth (expressed as GDP per head) rather than size of population
is the key to national success in the Olympics.
Large populations alone do not guarantee good national results at the Olympics. Countries
must also be wealthy enough to have healthy citizens and be able to provide resources for train-
ing. As Kaufman points out: ‘When many people are affected by poverty and illness it is not
easy to be ordinarily healthy, let alone be an Olympic athlete’ (Kaufman, 2017: 3).
8 Practice B
Source – The origin of ideas or information
Citation – Short in-text note giving the author’s name and publication date
To summarise – To reduce the length of a text while keeping the main points
Quotation – Using the exact words of the original text in your work
Reference – Full publication details of a text or other source
To cheat – To gain advantage dishonestly
Paraphrase – Using different words or word order to restate a text
Progress Check A
1
a) T see p. 4
b) F see p. 7
c) T see p. 25
d) F see p. 22
e) F see p. 23
f) T see p. 26
g) T see p. 47
h) F see p. 15
254 ANSWERS
i) T see p. 43
j) T see p. 33
k) F see p. 17
2 (Example sentences)
a) A large majority of students have been satisfied with the teaching quality.
b) Student satisfaction with the college facilities has declined since 2018.
c) Satisfaction with teaching quality fell between 2017 and 2019, but increased significantly
in 2020.
d) Overall student satisfaction at Bullbridge College was 73% in 2018, then fell to 62.5% the
following year.
3
a) The objective of this study was to investigate the use of and expenditure on 17 of the most
popular forms of complementary and alternative medicine (CAM) by adult Australians,
the sociodemographic characteristics of CAM users, and communication between CAM
users and their doctors.
b) In May–June 2005, a sample of 1067 adults, 18 years and older, from all Australian states
and territories, was recruited by random-digit telephone dialling and interviewed about
their CAM use in the previous 12 months.
c) In the 12-month period, 68.9% of those interviewed used at least one of the 17 forms of
CAM and 44.1% visited a CAM practitioner. The estimated number of visits to CAM
practitioners by adult Australians in the 12-month period (69.2 million) was almost iden-
tical to the estimated number of visits to medical practitioners (69.3 million). The annual
‘out of pocket’ expenditure on CAM, nationally, was estimated as 4.13 billion Australian
dollars (US $3.12 billion). Less than half of the users always informed their medical prac-
titioners about their use of CAM. The most common characteristics of CAM users were:
age, 18–34; female; employed; well-educated; private health insurance coverage; and
higher-than-average incomes.
d) CAM use nationally in Australia appears to be considerably higher than estimated from
previous Australian studies. This may reflect an increasing popularity of CAM; however,
regional variations in CAM use and the broader range of CAM included in the current
study may contribute to the difference. Most frequently, doctors would not appear to be
aware of their patient’s use of CAM.
4 (Other points possible)
Positive points Negative points

Presents the arguments for relaxing controls Imprecise: ‘Five large English
and provides some relevant facts cities’ – which?
‘Lots of people’ – style
‘Academic research’ – by whom?
‘Rocketing property prices’ – no
fgures provided
Lack of balance in the facts given
ANSWERS 255
1.7 References and Quotations
1 Why give references?

a) N
b) Y
c) Y
d) N
e) Y
f) N
g) Y
2 Citations and references

Smith (2009) argues that the popularity of the Sports Utility Vehicle (SUV) is irrational, as
despite their high cost most are never driven off-road. In his view ‘they are bad for road safety,
the environment and road congestion’ (Smith, 2009:37).
The first is a summary, the second a quotation.
A summary allows the writer to condense ideas, while a quotation uses the words of the origi-
nal author, which have authenticity and may be difficult to improve.
4 Practice A
a) Allinson admitted that he might have made a mistake in his calculations on energy loss.
b) Becher denied saying that women make/made better doctors than men.
c) Curanovic claimed/argued that small firms are/were more dynamic than large ones.
d) De Haas agreed with Curanovic’s views on small firms.
e) Eden presumed that most people work/worked for money.
f) Freire concluded that allergies are/were becoming more common.
g) Gvosdev doubted that electric cars will/would replace conventional ones.
h) Heisbourg hypothesised/suggested a link between crime and sunspot activity.
7 Practice
(Example answers)
a) According to Kelman (2016), McEwan (2015) points out that with an increasingly diverse
body of both students and teaching staff, the need to reduce the gap in their distinct expec-
tations is vital.
b) McEwan maintains that ‘student success at university level is partly dependent on nar-
rowing the difference between student and staff expectations’ (Kelman, 2016:45).
c) According to Kelman, McEwan (2015) points out that with an increasingly diverse body
of both students and teaching staff, the need to reduce the gap in their distinct expecta-
tions is vital: ‘the student body includes an increasing proportion of international stu-
dents, who may take longer to adapt to the university culture’ (Kelman, 2016:45).
11 Organising the list of references

a)
i) Any of: Social Research Methods/A Handbook for Deterring Plagiarism in Higher
Education/Leaving College: Rethinking the Causes and Cures of Student Attrition
256 ANSWERS
ii)‘First year student expectations: results from a university-wide student survey’

iii)
’Canaries in the coalmine: International students in Western universities’
iv)Embracing diversity
v) ‘Differences between students' and lecturers' perceptions of factors influencing stu-
dents' academic success at university’
vi) Introduction to the Practice of Statistics
b) Books: Author/Date/Title/Place of publication/Publisher
Journal article: Author/Date/Article title/Journal name/Issue number/Page numbers
c) Book titles and journal titles
d) Book titles are capitalised/Article titles are not capitalised
e) Name of publication e.g. The Times
f) i) Bryman (2004)
ii) Carroll (2007)
iii) Cook and Leckey (1999)
iv) Crisp et al. (2009)
v) Killen (1994)
1.8 Summarising and Paraphrasing
1 What makes a good summary?

A good summary requires:
● selection of most important aspects
● clear organisation
● accuracy
2 Stages of summarising
1 Read the original text carefully and check any new or difficult vocabulary.
2 Mark the key points by underlining or highlighting.
3 Make notes of the key points, paraphrasing where possible.
4 Write the summary from your notes, reorganising the structure if needed.
5 Check the summary to ensure it is accurate and nothing important has been changed or
lost.
3 Practice A
1 = c (includes all essential details; clearly written)
2 = b (does not specify the advantages of digital cameras)
3 = a (lacks detail and includes information – expensive film – not in original)
4 Practice B
(Model answers)
b)
i) Mobile phones have helped to establish new businesses in Africa.
ii) Link between higher phone ownership and increase in GDP.
ANSWERS 257
iii) Only half of Africans (wealthier and urban) have a mobile phone.
iv) New developments should reduce costs and increase availability of telecom services.
v) But growth is still held back by high levels of taxation on telecom companies.
c)
(Model summary)
The impact of mobile phones in Africa

Recently, mobile phones have helped to establish new businesses in Africa, and there is a link
between higher phone ownership and an increase in GDP. However, only half of Africans (mainly
the wealthier and urban ones) currently have a mobile phone. New technical developments should
reduce costs and increase the availability of telecom services, but growth is still held back by high
levels of taxation on telecom companies.
d)
(Example summary)
Although mobiles help create new businesses in Africa, their use is limited to wealthier people.
Advanced technology may make them more accessible, but high taxes threaten the providers.
5 Practice C – The uneasy rise of videoconferencing

(Example summary)
The trend to using videoconferencing to save time and money travelling to meetings was
increased by the Covid-19 pandemic in 2020. The technology allows users to watch the facial
expressions of other participants, but the drawback is that many find they become self-con-
scious on camera, while technical glitches with sound or picture quality can also be stressful.
(57 words)
7 Practice D – The causes of the Industrial Revolution

1) b. The best paraphrase, with all main points included and a significantly different structure.
2) a. Quite good, but lack of precision (at that time) and unsuitable register (bosses).
3) c. A poor paraphrase, with only a few words changed and extra and inaccurate informa-
tion added (Britain was the only country …).
9 Practice E – Team players

(A number of possibilities are acceptable here. These are suggestions)
a) Teams allow members to specialise, both in a game of football and in a company. In a
football team, for instance, success depends on both defenders and attackers cooperating
successfully. The same applies to business, where a sales expert complements a colleague
who is an excellent accountant. But the crucial question in many areas is, what is the opti-
mum number for a team?
b) In sport this may be dependent on the size of the playing area, so that indoor sports like
basketball have smaller teams (five) than outdoor ones such as football (11). Seemingly
fifteen (rugby) is the maximum size, and in practice this may be the limit in terms of
258 ANSWERS
coaching and management. In armies, units tend to be around 100, as used by the Romans;
today an American army company has 180. Presumably there would be difficulties build-
ing and maintaining relationships with a larger body.
c) The way groups of primates interact has been studied by Robin Dunbar, an Oxford
University anthropologist, who argues that brain size is critical in forming bands. Humans
can benefit from greater specialisation due to their larger brains, which permit larger
groups. Many people belong to a range of groups of varying sizes, he thinks, having about
five close friends, 15 good friends and around 50 social friends.
d) Small businesses have distinct advantages, since decisions can be made rapidly and
explained speedily to every worker. According to Dunbar the best size of committee for
decision-making is four or five. Actually, small businesses are more crucial to the British
economy than is generally understood: under 1% of British firms had more than 150 staff,
according to research in 2015. Unlike workers in huge organisations, employees may feel
more positive about their roles if they know the majority of their colleagues.
10 Practice F – The past below the waves

(Example answers)
a)
Archaeologists can learn about multiple aspects of historic societies by studying ship-
wrecks, but most of the millions lying on the ocean floor are too deep for divers to examine.
They can only work above 50 metres; restricting them to coastal wrecks which are more
likely to have been disturbed. Research in mid-ocean has required expensive submarines
with their support vessels, limiting the number of wrecks that can be explored. But this
may change due to the latest craft, called an automatic underwater vehicle (AUV). Not
requiring a support ship and operating independently, this will be used by an American
team to examine part of the sea bed off the northern Egyptian coast close to the site of a
harbour used around 2,000 BCE.
b)
There are millions of shipwrecks on the sea floor, providing historians with a vital insight
into past trade and technology. Previously, most wrecks were too deep to explore eco-
nomically, but a new small automatic submarine (called an AUV) has been developed
which should allow these deeper sites to be investigated.
1.9 Contrasting Sources
1 Referring to sources
a) 6 (Ramsden and Crisp are cited twice)
b) Dalglish and Chan
c) academic support
d) Ramsden
e) Source is a journal article
ANSWERS 259
2 Practice A
a) Difficulties faced by international students
b)
ii) Period of adjustment to new academic environment needed by international students
iii) Cultural adjustments international students must make
iv) Linguistic adjustments
v) Length of time these adjustments require
3 Contrasting sources
(Example answers)
3.2 Ziadah 3.3 Summary

However, it appears that most of the change Ziadah (2018), however, points
has been seen in offce work, and in other out that as there has been little
areas there has been little recent progress. progress in employment patterns
In fact, across the economy men still work since the 1970s and 80s, the
mainly with other men, and women with process may have stalled.
women.
… women … are less likely than men to Discrimination and the demands
get work in that feld, and are more likely of their families, she maintains,
to leave it, possibly due to discrimination. are probably both signifcant
Motherhood poses a further barrier to contributory factors.
integration.
a) emphasises, considers, points out, argues, maintains

b) however
c) though
5 Practice B
(Example answer)
One of the most intriguing scientific questions of the past century has been the reason for
the extinction of the dinosaurs, the huge reptiles that dominated life on Earth for over one
hundred million years. According to Sunderland (2016), huge volcanic eruptions leading to
rapid climate cooling were seen as a likely cause of the extinction until the 1980s. Then Luis
and Walter Alvarez claimed that the agent was the devastation caused by the impact of a large
meteor, which struck near the Yucatan Peninsula about 66 million years ago, a theory that has
been widely accepted.
Nevertheless, the Alvarez hypothesis has been challenged by Gerta Keller (Kazepov, 2018).
She argues for the role of volcanoes (in what is now India) in cooling the planet, hundreds of
thousands of years before the meteor struck, thereby making the Earth inhospitable for the
dinosaurs.
260 ANSWERS
1.10 Organising paragraphs
a) Decentralising government
b) By using conjunctions
2 Practice A
Topic Today’s civil servants no longer need to all work in the same district
sentence and be able to meet face-to-face.
Reason Recent developments such as video-conferencing make this pattern
of dispersal, which has many apparent benefts, more feasible.
Result 1 One beneft of dispersal is to improve the quality of life of the civil
servants, detached from overcrowded and expensive capitals.
Result 2 Moreover, away from the pressures of the capital with its lobbyists
and politicians, workers may have a more objective and detached
viewpoint.
Result 3 Finally, there should be economic benefts for remote and possibly
run-down regions in receiving an injection of well-paid employment.
3 Practice B
a)
Topic sentence Despite these advantages there are serious drawbacks to

relocating government departments.
Supporting One of the gravest is that many employees, especially younger
point 1 ones, are reluctant to leave lively capital cities to live in remote
provincial towns.
Example 1 In some cases, more than half the staff has resigned rather than
move, fearing the loss of social life.
Supporting In addition, new locations may be chosen for political rather than
point 2 economic reasons.
Example 2 Politicians may attempt to bring jobs to their own constituencies,
as when Pinochet moved Chile’s congress to his home town,
Valparaiso.
Summary So although there are many apparent gains from relocation,
putting such a move into practice can be full of problems.
b) One of the/In some cases/In addition/as when/So although

c) Despite these
ANSWERS 261
4 Practice C
(Example answers)
Title: Decentralising government
1 Background > Current trend + examples

2 Reasons + Advantages of process
3 Disadvantages of process
6 Practice D
(Example answer)
Trams
Trams were first introduced in the late nineteenth century, when they provided cheap and con-
venient mass transport in many cities in America and Europe. But their drawbacks were that the
rail-based systems were expensive to maintain, and the fixed tracks made them inflexible as cities
developed. Consequently, by the 1950s many European and Asian cities had closed their tramway
systems.
Today, however, trams are regaining their popularity. They are seen as less polluting than cars
and relatively cheap to operate. As a result, cities such as Paris and Manchester have built new sys-
tems. Despite this, the high cost of constructing tramways and difficulties with traffic congestion
blocking the tracks mean that trams remain a controversial transport option.
1.11 Introductions and Conclusions
1 Introduction components
a)
Components Y/N
i) A defnition of any unfamiliar terms in the title Y
ii) Your personal opinion on the subject of the essay N
iii) Mention of some sources you have read on the topic Y
iv) A provocative idea or question to interest the reader N
v) A suitable quotation from a famous authority N
vi) Your aim or purpose in writing Y
vii) The method you adopt to answer the question Y
viii) Some background or context of the topic Y
ix) Any limitations you set yourself Y
x) An outline of the main body Y
262 ANSWERS
b)
A) Background (viii)
B) Outline (x)
C) Method (vii)
D) Sources (iii)
E) Definition (i)
F) Limitation (ix)
G) Aim (vi)
2 Introduction structure
a) Definition: … in this paper ‘e-learning’ refers to any type of learning situation where
content is delivered via the internet.
b) Context: Learning is one of the most vital components of the contemporary knowledge-
based economy. With the development of computing power and technology the internet
has become an essential medium for knowledge transfer.
c) Reference to other researchers: Various researchers (Webb and Kirstin, 2003; Honig
et al., 2006) have evaluated e-learning in a healthcare and business context …
d) Aim: The purpose of this study was to examine students’ experience of e-learning in an
HE context.
e) Method: A range of studies was first reviewed, and then a survey of 200 students was
conducted to assess their experience of e-learning.
f) Limitations: Clearly a study of this type is inevitably restricted by various constraints,
notably the size of the student sample … students of Pharmacy and Agriculture.
g) Outline: The paper is structured as follows …. the delivery of e-learning programmes.
3 Opening sentences
(Example answers)
a) In recent years there has been steady criticism of the lack of women in senior management
positions.
b) In the past decade global warming or climate change has become one of the most pressing
issues on the international agenda.
c) In the developing world there has been some decline in rates of infant mortality over the
last 20 years, but in many countries progress has been slow.
d) Steady internal migration from the countryside to the cities is a feature of many develop-
ing societies.
e) Although the rate of incarceration has increased in many countries, there is concern that
this is not accompanied by a decrease in crime.
4 Conclusions
i) Yes
ii) Yes
iii) No
iv) Yes
v) Yes
vi) Yes
ANSWERS 263
vii) Yes
viii) No
A) vi
B) ii
C) v
D) i
E) vii
F) iv
6 Practice
1. e
2. c
3. a
4. b
5. d
1.12 Editing and Proofreading
2 Practice A
Comments on the first draft might include some of the following:
a) No sources are mentioned

b) Too much space given to basic points
c) Sentences are too short
d) Style: e.g. I personally think not suitable
e) Question in title not fully addressed
3 Practice B
(Example rewrite)
Organisations inevitably face risks by permitting researchers to interview employees, so these
must be understood and minimised by the design of the research project. If employees criticise
other workers in the organisation they may be punished, or alternatively they may feel unable
to express their true feelings and so invalidate the interview. Consequently, researchers must
protect the reputation of the organisation and the value of their own work by carefully explain-
ing the purpose of the study and insisting on strict anonymity through the use of false names.
This will protect the credibility of the project and by doing this both parties should benefit from
the research.
5 Practice C
i) Africa is not a country: such as Nigeria
ii) Relative is an adjective. Adverb is needed: relatively
264 ANSWERS
iii) Question mark needed

iv) Present perfect needed with ‘since’: Since 2017 there have been …
v) Money is incorrect. Use currency
vi) ‘pervious’ is incorrect: previous
vii) ‘one of the …’ needs plural noun: one of the largest cities …
viii) Repetition: a multinational business by definition operates in many countries
ix) Time periods need the definite article: the nineteenth century
x) Three skills are needed for success …
xi) Use of etc. is poor style: recent studies mention racism and misogyny
xii) Verb should agree with ‘intensity’: … is different
6 Practice D
a) Style – avoid adverbs which express opinions: The study shows … (xi)
b) Singular/plural – their lines (vii)
c) Vocabulary – ‘torment’ is too strong, use ‘frustration’ (v)
d) Word ending – different effects (ii)
e) Factual – 1973 (i)
f) Word order – Many students applied for the grant (x)
g) Punctuation – its (iii)
h) Spelling – Hungary (vi)
i) Missing word – the world (ix)
j) Tense: were (iv)
k) Agreement: advantages (xii)
7 Practice E
(Model introduction)
In the past five years, cyberbullying has become an increasingly grave international problem,
because of rapid development in Information and Communication Technology (ICT). The most
frequently used feature of ICT is computer-mediated communication (McCleod, 2019), which
provides a medium for the development and growth of a plethora of social media channels.
Social media has enjoyed fast-growing popularity, providing benefits for socialising and com-
municating in people’s lives. Despite the benefits, the rise of social media has also brought
risks. Studies (Nitoiu, 2017, Allen and Cairney, 2019) point out that the growth in the use of ICT
or social media has resulted in new means of cyber aggression emerging, such as hate speech,
vulgar language and cyberbullying. Among this negative behaviour, the global phenomenon of
cyberbullying presents some new challenges, as well as opportunities, for researchers.
8 Practice F
(Corrections underlined)
The Panama Canal
Ship canals are an important element in the development of world trade, as most manufactured
goods travel by ship. Unlike the Suez Canal in Egypt, crossing the Panamanian isthmus involves
lifting ships 26 metres and then lowering them on the other side. Construction was so difficult
ANSWERS 265
and dangerous that the original French engineers were defeated by disease, after over 20,000 men
had died working on the project. In the early twentieth century the American government became
involved and after ten years’ work the canal opened to shipping in 1914, thereby avoiding the diffi-
cult route around South America. But since the 1970s container ships have steadily grown too large
to fit the canal’s locks, and so in 2007 the Canal Authority began a major development to expand
the canal’s capacity with locks 60% wider. When this was completed in 2016, at a cost of over $5
billion, the canal was able to handle almost all ships, including the giant cruise vessels now being
operated.
9 Summary
1. E/P
2. E
3. P
4. E
5. P
6. E
7. P
8. E
Progress Check B
1 (Other answers may be possible)

a) title
b) schedule, timetable
c) outline, plan
d) sources
e) making, taking
f) techniques, skills
g) draft
h) plagiarism
i) conclusion
j) carefully, thoroughly
k) references
l) proofread
2
a) T
b) T
c) T
d) F
e) F
f) F
g) T
h) T
i) F
j) T
266 ANSWERS
3 (Model summary)
Wild bison nearly became extinct in Europe 100 years ago, but today herds have been re-estab-
lished in several eastern European countries. This has been made possible by the expansion
of forests which happened during the Communist period, which was followed by an exodus of
population from rural areas after 1989. This has created a richly diverse habitat in which large
animals can thrive alongside birds and insects. Today new businesses are being established to
cater for the eco-tourists attracted by these developments.
Nitoiu, C. (2019) Rewilding Europe. Frankfurt: Freihaus
4 (Model paraphrase)
Crow behaviour has been studied by a team of Oxford University scientists, and they have discov-
ered that crows have a remarkable tool-making ability, ‘a skill which was thought to be unique to
man and other primates’ (Grummitt, 2010:15). They set up an experiment in which a crow had to
fashion a piece of wire in order to extract some meat from inside a glass cylinder. The bird did this
by bending the wire using its beak and feet. The hook was then used to reach the meat, usually in
under two minutes.
PART 2: WRITING TYPES
2.1 Argument and Discussion
1 Discussion vocabulary
(Model paragraph)
Universities are increasingly using online teaching to deliver certain courses. This has distinct
benefits for students, as they can listen to lectures at any time, from anywhere. This also brings
advantages for the university, since it does not have to provide a lecture hall, thereby sav-
ing money, and can also teach larger numbers of students. However, many students find such
online classes impersonal, and miss the chance to meet their fellow students and discuss the
content of the lecture with them.
2 Organisation
Vertical: a simpler pattern suitable for short essays
Horizontal: this allows a more complex approach in longer essays
3 Practice A
Possible ideas include:
+ −
No time wasted commuting to work Employees may feel isolated
Gives employees more fexibility May not suit all employees
Saves expensive offce space Home may contain distractions
Reduces infection during Covid-19 pandemic Requires different management style
Example outline with vertical structure:

ANSWERS 267
a) Introduction: Reasons for growth of home-working: development in communication

technology, demand for more flexible work patterns.
b) Drawbacks: Employees may feel isolated and be distracted by activities at home.
May not suit all employees, some prefer more direct management.
c) Benefits: Companies need to provide less office space, less time spent on
commuting = more work time, employees have more flexibility.
d) Discussion: Of benefit to certain employees in some roles, but necessary to have
regular contact with colleagues and managers.
6 Practice B
Counter-arguments: It is claimed that prisons are needed to isolate dangerous criminals from
society, and to provide punishment for wrong-doing.
The writer’s position is essentially critical of the way prisons currently work.
(Example answers)
Counter-argument Your position

It has been claimed that employees may waste but in practice there seems little
time at home, evidence for this.
Although home-working may save companies employees need to have a well-
money by reducing the need for expensive equipped workspace in their
offce space, home.
7 Providing evidence
a) 2
b) The education system
c) Many young people do not use ‘digital tools’
d) Sceptical of the ‘digital native’ theory
8 Practice C
(Example answer)
At present marijuana is an illegal drug in most countries, although a few states have now legal-
ised it. The advantages of legalisation are considered to be the removal of a fairly harmless
drug from the black economy, thereby reducing criminal activity. As a legal product, the state
could raise money by taxing its sale, as is done with tobacco and alcohol.
But critics of this policy maintain that marijuana is a gateway to more harmful drugs such
as cocaine, and legalisation would eventually encourage the use of these ‘harder’ drugs. They
insist that marijuana can often do serious damage to users’ mental health, which will create
medical costs for society.
Few conclusions can yet be drawn from those countries which have legalised the drug. But
there is no evidence of significant negative effects, and police forces claim that they can focus
on more serious crime. These cases are worth monitoring, and may suggest new approaches to
a difficult issue.
268 ANSWERS
2.2 Cause and effect
1 Causes and effects

The 2008–2009 recession resulted from a loss of confidence in the international financial sys-
tem and led to a housing price crash, higher unemployment and the failure of various banks.
The trigger may have been rash mortgage lending to unsuitable borrowers in the USA, caus-
ing house-price inflation. When this bubble burst some financial institutions, such as Lehman
Brothers, found they were holding worthless assets, and this led to their collapse. Other con-
sequences of the recession were higher government debt, reduced government spending and
more unemployment.
3 Practice A
(Example answers)
a) Higher rates of literacy often lead to greater demand for secondary education.
Greater demand for secondary education may result from higher literacy rates.
b) As a result of the new airport more tourists arrived.
More tourist arrivals were due to the construction of a new airport.
c) Due to last year’s national election a new government was formed.
A new government was formed because of the national election last year.
d) Installing speed cameras on main roads leads to a fall in the number of fatal accidents.
A fall in the number of fatal accidents results from installing speed cameras on main
roads.
e) Opening a new hospital in 2019 reduced infant mortality.
The reduction in infant mortality was due to the opening of a new hospital in 2019.
f) More people shopping on the internet results in stores closing on the high street.
Stores are closing on the high street owing to more people shopping on the internet.
4 Practice B
(Example answers)
a) The violent storms last week damaged power lines in the region.
b) The new vaccine for tuberculosis (TB) will result in lower child mortality.
c) Building a high-speed railway line caused journey times to fall by 25%.
d) The invention of the jet engine made cheap mass travel possible.
e) The high price of bread is owing to the poor harvest last summer.
f) The increase in obesity is a result of a more sedentary lifestyle.
g) Earthquakes are often caused by movements in tectonic plates.
h) The rising prison population was due to a harsher sentencing policy.
5 Practice C – Unhappy workers

owing to the stress …
resulting from restructuring …
due to a feeling …
because of industry-wide …
creating a sense …
ANSWERS 269
lead to a fear …
leads to a concern …
generates an awareness …
6 Practice D
(Example chart and paragraph)
a)
b) The introduction of driverless cars and trucks would have various significant results. First,
it would lead to many redundancies among truck drivers, but would also result in reduced
freight costs, since driverless trucks could work 24 hours a day. Taxi firms would also be
able to lower their prices, but fewer taxi drivers would be needed. In addition, demand for
driver training would fall, leading to some driving schools having to close, with the loss of
jobs for instructors. Moreover, potential customers would postpone purchases while they
assessed the new technology, causing a fall in sales of new vehicles and then lay-offs and
short-time working at vehicle manufacturers.
2.3 Problems and Solutions
1 Vocabulary
a) issue/question
b) answer/approach
c) approach/avenue/suggestion/proposal
d) remedy/approach
e) approach/avenue/suggestion/proposal
f) solution/answer
270 ANSWERS
4 Practice A – The housing dilemma

(Example answer)
In many expanding urban areas there is a serious housing shortage, caused by people mov-
ing from the country to seek urban opportunities. There are various possible answers to this
problem, but each has its drawbacks. The traditional response is to build family houses with
gardens, which offer privacy and space but require a lot of land. Building these is slow and the
growth of suburbs creates longer journeys to work.
A second option is to build prefabricated three-storey houses, which can be erected more
quickly and cheaply than traditional houses, and can be designed to achieve a higher density of
population. In some places these may be the best solution, but they also require a lot of space
and are too expensive for the average citizen. A better solution is to construct tall blocks of
flats, which will accommodate more people at a high density quite cheaply, while preventing
cities from sprawling too widely. Although some families may find them cramped, for the
majority they are a convenient and affordable answer to the housing problem.
5 Practice B
(Model paragraph)
There is widespread concern that the common use of plastic for packaging is causing serious
problems on both land and sea. Various solutions have been proposed; for instance to use bio-
degradable plastic, although this material is still under development. Another proposal is to use
glass containers which can be recycled, but their weight is likely to increase freight costs. More
effort should be made to recycle all types of plastic, yet this is rarely an economic process.
Perhaps the best answer is simply to use less plastic packaging in the first place.
6 Practice C
(Model answer)
Problem Solution A Solution B Solution C

Night clubs in city Close the Move the night Make the clubs ft
centres create a night clubs clubs to industrial sound-proofng
noise nuisance zones
Night clubs in city centres often create a noise nuisance for their neighbours in nearby flats. Clearly
one response is just to close the clubs if they continue to disturb the district, but this seems rather
harsh. Another answer might be to relocate the clubs to industrial zones where there is no housing,
but this would be expensive and inconvenient. Perhaps the best solution is to force the clubs to fit
effective sound-proofing.
ANSWERS 271
2.4 Case Studies
1 Using case studies
Topics Case studies

The social effects of developing wind A comparison of wind farms and
farms in rural areas community response in two regions of
central Spain
Improving crop yields in semi-deserts Using solar power to operate irrigation
pumps in Ethiopia
Reducing infant mortality A programme to cut smoking among
pregnant women in a Greek clinic
Ecological implications of Releasing wolves in the mountains of
reintroducing large mammals into the northern Italy
wild
Dealing with reoffending among Work and learning – how a Brazilian
prisoners scheme encouraged convicts to stay out of
jail
Improving recycling rates in large The Berlin experiment: increasing public
cities participation in collecting and sorting waste
3 Background research
Possible benefits include: storing water for irrigation or domestic and industrial use, flood pre-
vention, electricity generation.
Possible drawbacks could be: flooding of agricultural land, displacement of local people, loss
of cultural sites, loss of animal habitats, cost.
4 Model case study

(Additional answers are possible here)
a)
Competition from rivals offering free delivery
Some products e.g. single beds not suited to Chinese tastes
b)
Store layouts match Chinese apartments
Products linked to New Year celebrations
Reduced prices by sourcing production locally
Produces thinner but more frequent catalogues
Uses local characters in adverts
Attempts to provide better service
Stores located in downtown areas for public transport
c)
More financial details of IKEA’s sales and profits in the Chinese market
More information about IKEA’s main competitors in this market
272 ANSWERS
2.5 Literature reviews
2 Examples of literature reviews

B. only a few studies/this scant literature
C. to bring together developing insights from co-production and urban labs and to explore
the novel institutional personae …. Our discussion builds on ongoing debates …
A = alphabetical, B and C = chronological
4. Model literature review

a) 2 (content & process)
b) 7 (Maslow, McClellan, Herzberg, Vroom, Locke, Adams, Alderfer)
c) 5
d) It is more convenient to use secondary sources in this kind of short literature review. If
you were studying just one of these theorists e.g. Herzberg you might be expected to use
primary sources.
2.7 Reports
1 Essays and reports

Essays: Deal with topics in a more general or theoretical way/Generally use secondary sources/
Use signposting expressions (e.g. ‘Moving on to …’)
Reports: Tend to be more specific/May deal with a particular situation in past or future pro-
posal/Often use primary sources/Usually use numbering system for sections
2 Writing reports
1. Essay
2. Report
3. Report
4. Either
5. Essay
4 Practice
i) d
ii) a
iii) c
iv) f
v) e
vi) b
(Other comments possible)

a) There is a lack of detail in the report, and no mention is made of the cost of running and
maintaining student residences on campus. Nor does it really consider the situation of the
students who prefer to live on campus for convenience and socialising.
ANSWERS 273
b) The report should examine the question of whether companies are prepared to build new
halls off-campus, since this is an essential part of the alternative proposal.
2.8 Refective Writing
2 Example
a) She has learned that she needs to be more confident about giving her opinions as she had
correctly predicted some of the difficulties they met.
b) She suggests that with a large group it may be productive to form subcommittees to deal
with particular issues.
c) This report covers all six stages of the Gibbs model. However the first paragraph is all
description, and it could be argued that the remaining five stages need more development.
3 Structure
Introduction The frst stage … local public transport.

Description Our group decided … yes/no format.
The survey was carried out … was more reliable.
Interpretation I was quite nervous …
I feel that the format … more productive.
I had thought about this earlier … to the group.
Outcome I think we could have trialled … questions.
In future I must … for the team.
Overall it seems … to deal with this.
5 Practice A
(Model answer)
I went to the first seminar in our new module on Economic History last week. Professor Lee
outlined the course and then we watched a short film about inflation in Weimar Germany. I
realised that I should have read the article he had sent us last week as background reading,
since I knew nothing about this period. I found that I couldn’t take part in the discussion. I shall
have to prepare better for these seminars in future or I won’t be able to keep up.
Progress Check C
1 (Model paragraph, other answers possible)
One important advantage of battery-powered vehicles is their lack of polluting emissions. Another
benefit is that they are simpler to construct, while lower running costs are a further positive aspect.
However, one serious drawback must be their restricted range, as they require recharging after
about 250 miles. Price is an additional disadvantage, since the cost of the battery makes these
274 ANSWERS
vehicles more expensive than petrol-driven models. A final issue may be the source of the electric-
ity, because if it is generated by coal or gas there is little benefit for the environment.
2 (Model sentences)
a) … for most users 200 miles is sufficient.
b) … this depends on the source of the electricity.
c) … in future they will become cheaper.
3 (Other answers possible)
a) Because/Since
b) cancel flights
c) plane/air
d) led to/caused
e) were laid off/made redundant
f) consequence/result
4 (Other answers possible)
a) issue/difficulty
b) remedy/answer
c) challenge/issue
d) dilemma/question
answer/remedy
5 (Possible revisions of incorrect sentences)
a) Case studies are used by students of many subjects, including Medicine.
c) A good literature review will often contain both primary and secondary sources.
d) When writing a longer paper you should start by writing the main body.
f) Reflective writing will often be subjective.
h) Reports can deal with both an analysis of past events and proposals for future action.
6. (Model report)
Introduction
e)
d)
b)
c)
a)
Proposals
Plan A suggests a central green area, with trees and seats. To one side is a small car park with
40 spaces, and on the other side is a set of tennis courts. In contrast, Plan B proposes a larger
car park of 100 spaces along Access Road, and behind that a small lake, a café and a shop. The
cost of the two schemes is roughly the same, but Plan B would generate some income from the
shop and café.
Discussion
It can be argued that Plan A is the healthier option, since it encourages sport and provides
a pleasant outdoor space. The students who were consulted tended to favour this proposal.
ANSWERS 275
However, Plan B would help to alleviate the shortage of on-campus parking, and was popular
with members of staff in the consultation exercise. But there are several cafes on the campus,
and it is not clear that another one is needed.
Recommendations
It seems clear that Plan A would have a more positive visual impact on the campus, with the
green area, instead of the site being dominated by a large car park. This is the students’ pre-
ferred scheme, combining sports facilities with tree planting, although the alternative (Plan B)
might generate some income from the shop and café. Overall the students’ preferences should
be the main consideration, and so Plan A appears the better option.
PART 3: WRITING TOOLS
3.1 Cohesion
2 Practice A – Capital glamour?
Reference Reference word/phrase

Warwick the former
15 British universities they
some students international ones
an outpost in the capital is attractive for that reason
campuses in London these
more vocational subjects such courses
4 Practice B – Famous for?

a) he
b) his
c) his
d) it/this
e) his
f) he
g) they/he
h) This
i) He
j) his
6 Practice C – Velcro
Velcro is a fabric fastener used with clothes and shoes. It was invented by a Swiss engineer
called George de Mestral. His idea was derived from studying the tiny hooks found on some
276 ANSWERS
plant seeds. They cling to animals and help disperse the seeds. Velcro has two sides, one of
which is covered in small hooks and the other in loops. When they are pressed together they
form a strong bond.
Mestral spent eight years perfecting his invention, which he called ‘Velcro’ from the French
words ‘velour’ and ‘crochet’. It was patented in 1955 and today over 60 million metres of
Velcro are sold annually.
7 Practice D – Gillette’s blades

a) He
b) it/this
c) His/it
d) he
e) them
f) This
g) his
h) they
i) he
8 Practice E
(Model answer)
Kevlar was developed by Stephanie Kwolek (1923–2014), whose parents were Polish immi-
grants to the USA. After studying for a BSc at Carnegie Mellon University she took a tem-
porary job with the DuPont Corporation as a research chemist. There she developed Kevlar, a
synthetic fibre which is stronger than steel. Among its applications are car tyres, bullet-proof
vests and skis. It was patented in 1965 and first produced commercially in 1971.
3.2 Comparison
2 Practice A
One result of the Covid-19 pandemic has been to further increase the popularity of online
shopping. Choosing and ordering goods via a mobile phone or laptop has significant advan-
tages compared to visiting the high street or a shopping centre. Many people find it more con-
venient to be able to shop at any time of day, rather than when a shop is open. Online shopping
also offers significantly greater choice, since a much wider range of goods can be kept in large
warehouses rather than in showrooms. It is also generally less expensive, as the retailer does
not have the cost of running a physical store, while reading reviews from other buyers is help-
ful for many customers. Clearly, it is also much quicker compared with making a journey to the
shops.
However, physically handling goods, whether furniture or clothes, can be more reassuring
than seeing the same products on a screen. In addition, many people enjoy the interaction of
shopping in person, and find it more satisfying to speak to an assistant. Overall, it seems inevi-
table that more shopping will take place online, but the pleasure of browsing will ensure that
some brick-and-mortar shops remain open.
ANSWERS 277
4 Practice B
a) largest/greatest
b) significantly/substantially
c) than
d) same
e) largest
f) substantially/considerably
6 Practice C
(Model answers)
a) FC Barcelona had the highest income among the top European clubs.
b) Real Madrid’s income was almost twice as much as Juventus’.
c) FC Barcelona earned substantially/significantly more than Chelsea.
d) Tottenham had less revenue than Liverpool.
e) Liverpool’s income was slightly less than Manchester City’s.
f) Liverpool earned approximately the same as Manchester City.
7 Practice D
a) There are wide variations in the percentage of GDP spent on health globally.
b) The USA spends four times as much as Bangladesh.
c) South Africa spends slightly more than Denmark.
d) Madagascar’s spending on health is approximately the same as Indonesia’s.
e) Canada spends three times as much on health as Oman.
f) Swiss health spending is significantly higher than Bangladeshi.
8 Practice E
(Model paragraph)
Among various European nations, Sweden produced the greatest amount of its energy from
renewable sources in 2016, while Denmark and Finland produced between a third and a half of
their energy from these. For Austria, Portugal and Romania the proportion was around a third.
But with Italy, Germany and the UK less than 20% of the total came from renewable sources.
3.3 Defnitions
2 Category words
(Model examples)
Malaria is a disease transmitted by mosquito bite.
Autocracy is a political system in which the ruler has total power.
Weaving is the process of making cloth from threads.
Oats is a cereal crop that grows in cool damp climates.
A limited company is a type of business organisation with limited liability.
A parking fine is a penalty imposed for breaking parking rules.
278 ANSWERS
Sculpture is a branch of the visual arts that employs metal, wood or stone.
a) instrument
b) organs
c) organisation
d) fabric/textile
e) behaviour
f) process
g) period
(Example answers)
h) A lecture is an academic talk used for teaching purposes.
i) Tuberculosis (TB) is a disease mainly affecting the lungs.
j) The Red Cross is a humanitarian organisation which helps people affected by disasters.
k) An idiom is a colloquial phrase.
3 Complex definitions
a) a failed project
b) development
c) attachment
d) self-brightening
e) globalisation
i) c
ii) a
iii) b, d, e
iv) b, c
4 Practice A
(Example definitions)
a) Capital punishment means the execution by the state of convicted criminals.
b) An entrepreneurial business is set up by somebody who demonstrates the effective
application of a number of enterprising attributes, such as creativity, initiative, risk-tak-
ing, problem-solving ability and autonomy, and will often risk his or her own capital.
c) E-books are books in digital form which can be read on electronic devices.
d) Urban areas are predominantly built-up areas in which roads, housing or commercial
buildings are found.
e) Obesity is a medical term meaning unhealthily overweight.
3.4 Examples
1 Using examples – Droning on

For some years there have been predictions that drones could be used to deliver goods to cus-
tomers. Amazon was one company that expressed an interest. Yet issues with regulators have
delayed the arrival of airborne parcels in most countries, owing to concerns with privacy and
safety. However, in remote rural regions drone deliveries are already in operation. In Rwanda,
ANSWERS 279
for instance, an American startup called Zipline is flying medical supplies, especially blood,
to isolated clinics and hospitals. There are various reasons for beginning to operate in these
places: medicines are valuable yet lightweight, while most deliveries are between a small num-
ber of fixed points. By comparison, travel by road is likely to be slower and more expensive.
The pioneer companies such as Zipline and Matternet claim to be operating profitably already,
and there are plans to begin the service in less remote places: Zipline will bring its expertise
from Africa to North Carolina.
2 Phrases to introduce examples

(Example answers)
a) Some twentieth-century inventions, such as TV and the internet, affected the lives of most
people.
b) Lately many countries, for instance China, have introduced fees for university courses.
c) Various companies have built their reputation on the strength of one product; a case in
point is Microsoft Windows.
d) In recent years more women, e.g. Angela Merkel, have become political leaders.
e) Certain countries such as Japan are frequently affected by earthquakes.
f) Many musical instruments, for example guitars, use strings to make music.
g) Ship canals, for instance the Panama Canal, facilitate world trade.
h) Politicians have discussed a range of possible alternative punishments to prison, for
instance community work.
3 Practice A – Eating for health

(Model answer)
A hundred years ago most people’s diets consisted of a few staple items that were cheap and
also filling, for example bread or rice. Today many people are able to afford more variety, and
regularly eat more expensive foods, such as fruit and meat. But along with the wider choice
has come anxiety about the possible threats to health contained in certain foods. In recent
years a broad range of products including eggs, butter, salt, sugar, fats and smoked meat have
been considered a risk to health. This has left many people confused, as much of the ‘research’
behind these claims is contradictory, in other words, a food may be condemned by one scientist
but approved by another. One beneficiary of this process is the health food industry, a booming
sector which promotes food and drink products such as Diet Coke to health-conscious young
people. In fact, many doctors argue that instead of focusing exclusively on what they eat or
drink, people’s health would be improved by doing more exercise e.g. swimming, running or
cycling.
4 Practice B – Climate chaos?

(Model answer)
In the last ten years extreme weather events such as hurricanes and heatwaves have become
more common, and climate scientists generally agree that they are partly a product of global
warming, as a result of the increase of carbon dioxide in the atmosphere. These events have
two types of negative consequences: the immediate damage and injuries caused by the event,
for instance flooded homes, and the long-term effects for farmers and others, for example loss
of soil fertility. Although engineers point out that the dangers can be minimised by investing
280 ANSWERS
in better defences e.g. flood barriers, those countries which are most at risk, especially island
states, are also those least able to afford this investment.
5 Restatement
a) The company’s overheads, in other words the fixed costs, doubled last year.
b) The Roman empire (27 BCE–476 CE) was a period of autocratic rule.
c) Two Spanish cities, namely Madrid and Barcelona, are long-standing football rivals.
d) Survival rates for the most common type of cancer, i.e. breast cancer, are improving.
e) Participation rates in many democracies are in decline, that is to say, fewer people are
voting.
3.5 Generalisations
1 Using generalisations
a) This may often be the case but there are some exceptions!
b) A widely accepted fact, supported by evidence.
c) Similar to b), this is a well-researched link.
d) This may be true in some cases but is a very sweeping generalisation.
e) Although technically true, this ignores time spent at airports.
3 Practice A
(Example answers)
a) Regular rainfall is necessary for good crop yields.
b) Honest judges are needed to ensure respect for the law.
c) Adequate sleep is vital for academic success.
d) Industrial growth tends to cause pollution.
e) Cold weather is likely to increase demand for gas.
f) Job satisfaction generally depends on having interesting work.
g) Regular training is essential for sporting success.
h) Creativity and skill are both needed to produce great art.
4 Practice B
(Example generalisations)
a) Graduates are more likely than undergraduates to study in the library.
b) Female undergraduates generally prefer to work in silence.
c) Few students choose to study outdoors.
d) Male graduates prefer to study in the library, while females prefer their own room.
e) More undergraduates than graduates work in bed.
5 Building on generalisations – The wood and the trees

a) To introduce the topic.
b) To provide explanations and examples.
c) The text would seem very theoretical.
ANSWERS 281
6 Practice C
Urbanists have shown how modernist ideals of the orderly and healthy metropolis have been
at the heart of liberal projects of state-making. In the latter half of the nineteenth century, for
instance, engineers were at the forefront of efforts at instilling ideals of urban sanitation, clean-
liness and order in rapidly industrialising Western cities.
(Example)
a) The growth of tourism is often seen as being detrimental to the host society. It is claimed
that growth in visitor numbers causes pollution, overcrowding and even leads to crime.
But the weakness of this argument can be shown by comparing several countries which
have experienced equally rapid growth in tourist numbers, with very different results,
both positive and negative.
3.6 Numbers and Visual Information
2 Percentages
a) 50%
b) 100%
c) 400%
3 Simplification
a) Scores of students applied for the scholarship.
b) Since 1975 dozens of primary schools have been rebuilt.
c) Various/several names were suggested but rejected for the new chocolate bar.
d) Last year several books were published on biogenetics in French.
4 Further numerical phrases

(Example answers)
a) The price of petrol has increased tenfold since 1973.
b) The new high-speed train halved the journey time to Madrid.
c) The number of students applying for the Psychology course has risen by 50% since last
year.
d) More than twice as many British students as Italian students complete their first degree
course.
e) Tap water is 700 times cheaper than bottled water.
f) A majority of members supported the suggestion, but a large proportion of these expressed
some doubts.
5 Practice A
(Example answers)
b) There were twice as many sports at the Paris Olympics compared to the Athens games.
c) The number of athletes competing doubled between the Tokyo and Beijing Olympics.
d) In the Barcelona Olympics nearly a third of the athletes were women.
e) The number of Olympic sports rose threefold between 1896 and 2008.
f) A substantial minority of athletes at the London Olympics were women.
282 ANSWERS
6 Visual information – Types of visuals
Types Example
1. Diagram F
2. Table B
3. Map H
4. Pie chart D
5. Flow chart E
6. Line graph A
7. Bar chart C
8. Plan G
9. Scatter graph/plot I
8 Describing visuals
i) is better. It comments on the main features of the chart but does not repeat the statistics.
10 Practice B
a) shows/illustrates
b) between
c) majority
d) substantially/significantly
e) Spain
f) rise/increase
g) than
11 Practice C
(Example paragraph)
Figure 3 compares the maximum speeds attained by some of the fastest mammals on earth.
Humans are only capable of running at about 28 mph, while the fastest creature, the cheetah, can
reach 70 mph. This is much greater than the speed lions or hares can reach (50 mph), while ani-
mals such as greyhounds, horses and tigers are only capable of speeds in the 40–45 mph range.
3.7 Punctuation
1 Capital letters
The Polish polish can be used on wood or leather.
9 Practice A
a) The study was carried out by Christine Zhen-Wei Qiang of the National University of
Singapore.
ANSWERS 283
b) Professor Rowan’s new book ‘The End of Privacy’ (2019) is published in New York.
or
Professor Rowan’s new book The End of Privacy (2019) is published in New York.
c) As Keynes said: ‘It’s better to be roughly right than precisely wrong’.
d) Banks such as HSBC and Barclays were in penny-pinching mode in the 1990s.
e) As Matheson (1954) wrote: ‘It was the germ that was the villain’.
f) Thousands of new words such as ‘vlog’ enter the English language each year.
g) The BBC’s World Service is broadcast in 33 languages including Somali and Vietnamese.
h) She scored 56% on the main course; the previous semester she had achieved 67%.
i) Their article, a reassessment of the changing patterns of the Indian monsoon 2015–2020,
was well received.
j) Before submitting her essay on TS Eliot she checked it for spelling, grammar and
punctuation.
10 Practice B
Studying will play a vital part in your life as an Oxford student, but you will also find an enor-
mous amount to do in Oxford in your spare time. Oxford is the youngest city in England and
Wales and has two universities: Oxford University and Oxford Brookes. Thirty-five per cent
of people who live here are aged 15–29 and 27% (40,000 of a total population of 150,000) are
university students. If you ever feel like a change of scene, the bus to London takes around
90 minutes and runs 24 hours a day. There are now two railway stations: the central Oxford
station and the recently opened Oxford Parkway. Oxford is a youthful and cosmopolitan city
with plenty to see and do. There are dozens of historic and iconic buildings, including the
Bodleian Library, Ashmolean Museum, Sheldonian Theatre, the cathedral and the colleges. In
the city centre you will find lots of shops, cafés, restaurants, theatres, cinemas, pubs and
clubs. There are plenty of green spaces too: riverside walks, England’s oldest botanic garden,
the University Parks and college gardens.
3.8 Style
3 Practice A
(Example sentences)
a) Another factor to consider is the possibility of crime increasing.
b) Currently the rate of unemployment is high.
c) In the near future a vaccine for malaria may be discovered.
d) The firefighters were quickly able to control the fire.
e) The statistics in that report are unreliable.
f) The severe inflation led to poverty and social unrest.
g) He was delighted to win the prize.
h) Students should be paid to study.
i) Women were enfranchised in 1987.
j) The main causes of the Russian revolution were war and misgovernment.
284 ANSWERS
4 Avoiding repetition and redundancy

(Model answer)
All around Europe, people are living longer and having fewer children. There are several rea-
sons for this trend. One is that people are marrying later, and this is partly due to the cost of
housing. Other reasons are the cost of childcare and women’s preference for building their
careers. If women prefer to work rather than stay at home they have to pay nurseries to do that
caring. But a negative result of the trend is that there are fewer young taxpayers to support the
old people who are living longer.
5 Varying sentence length

(Example answers)
Worldwide, enrolments in higher education are increasing. In many European countries
over half of all young people enter college, while similar trends are seen in China and
South America. This growth has put financial strain on state university systems, so that
many countries are requiring students and parents to contribute to the cost. This leads
to a debate about whether students or society benefit from tertiary education.
China is one country (but not the only one) which has imposed fees on university
students, starting in 1997. But the results have been surprising: enrolments, especially
in the most expensive universities, have continued to rise steeply. It seems in this case
that higher fees attract rather than discourage students, who see them as a sign of a
good education. They compete more fiercely for places, leading to the result that a place
at a good college can cost $10,000 per year for fees and maintenance.
6 The use of caution

Caution may also be shown by phrases such as:
It is commonly seen that …

In general, most cases are …
7 Using modifiers
a) The company’s efforts to save energy were quite/fairly successful.
b) The survey was (a fairly/quite a) comprehensive study of student opinion.
c) His second book had a rather hostile reception.
d) The first year students were quite fascinated by her lectures.
e) The latest type of arthritis drug is rather expensive.
f) This mountain tiger has become quite/rather rare.
8 Practice B
(Example answers)
a) Private companies are often more efficient than state-owned businesses.
b) Exploring space seems to be a waste of valuable resources.
c) Older students may perform better at university than younger ones.
d) Word-of-mouth is commonly the best kind of advertising.
e) Some cancers may be caused by psychological factors.
ANSWERS 285
f) Most shopping may be done on the internet in 10 years’ time.

g) Online education can be inferior to taught classes.
h) By 2025 driverless cars might be in common use.
Progress Check D
1 (Model paragraph)
William Shakespeare was born in Stratford on Avon in 1564, into a wealthy landowning fam-
ily. When he was only 18 he married Anne Hathaway, who was six years older than him.
Anne subsequently had three children, but their only son, Hamnet, died young. Apparently
William spent most of his time in London after their marriage, where he acted and started to
write plays. These were mainly comedies at first, and were very successful. In the early 1600s
his work became darker, and this is when he wrote his most famous plays, such as ‘Hamlet’
and ‘King Lear’, which have secured his worldwide reputation as a great dramatist and poet.
William Shakespeare died in 1616, aged only 52, while Anne lived for another seven years.
2 (Model examples)
Australia is approximately 30 times larger than New Zealand.
The population density of New Zealand is substantially higher than Australia’s.
Australians are significantly wealthier than New Zealanders.
3 (Model definitions)
a) A semester is each of the two divisions of the academic year.
b) A thesis is a lengthy paper usually written by a candidate for a higher degree.
c) A midwife is a medical professional specialising in delivering babies.
d) Influenza is a common disease causing fever and muscular pain.
e) A hammer is a tool with a metal head used for driving in nails.
4 (Model examples)
a) Certain capital cities e.g. Canberra are smaller than the commercial centres of their
country.
b) Many varieties of fruit, such as oranges, contain vital vitamins.
c) A few kinds of mammals e.g. whales and seals live in the sea.
d) Most planets in our solar system, for example Jupiter, have moons.
5
In the past century, photography has gone from being an exclusive hobby to something
accessible to everyone. This is largely due to the invention of the digital camera. In the last
twenty years this has made it simple to take colour photographs cheaply, and also to modify
pictures easily by using editing programmes. So now that everyone has a smart phone, with
its built-in camera, photography has become democratic and high-quality photographs can
be produced by anybody.
286 ANSWERS
6
a) change over time
b) function
c) proportion
d) statistical display
(Model example)
The table illustrates the results of a survey of student evaluation of library facilities, con-
trasting undergraduate with graduate opinion. Most facilities are rated highly by both groups,
especially the café and staff helpfulness. Both student groups are least satisfied with the avail-
ability of short loan stock. In most areas graduates seem slightly more critical of facilities than
undergraduates.
The School of Biomedical Sciences at Borchester University is offering two undergraduate degree
courses in Neuroscience this year. Students can study either Neuroscience with Pharmacology or
Neuroscience with Biochemistry. There is also a Master’s course which runs for four years and
involves a period of study abroad during November and December. Professor Andreas Fischer is
course leader for Neuroscience and enquiries should be sent to him via the website.
8 (Model example)
Currently, many children do not take sufficient exercise, choosing instead to sit indoors watch-
ing television or playing games on their smartphones. This behaviour may be one cause of child-
hood obesity, and there is considerable research showing that their health would be improved by
outdoor exercise, and which would have the additional benefit of enhancing their state of mind.
PART 4: LEXIS
4.1 Approaches to Vocabulary
3 Language features
The following are not generally found in academic writing:
Cliché, euphemism, idiom, proverb, saying, slogan (ambiguity may be used in certain situations).
4 Confusing pairs
a) principles
b) lose
c) affect
d) compliments
e) its
f) sights
ANSWERS 287
12 Practice B
a) information and communications technology/higher education/Smith and others
b) take note/curricula vitae/Human Resources/September 30th
c) Doctor of Philosophy/tuberculosis/south east
d) Vice Chancellor/Post-Graduate Certificate in Education/Students’ Union
e) With reference to/Annual General Meeting/as soon as possible
f) Doctor/Master of Science/Master of Arts
4.2 Academic Vocabulary: Nouns and Adjectives
2 Nouns
a) intuition
b) provision
c) thesis/theory
d) phenomena
e) process
f) correlation
3 Nouns and adjectives

Noun Adjective
strategy strategic
necessity necessary
exterior external
particularity particular
danger dangerous
relevance relevant
reason rational/reasonable
confdence confdent
(Model examples)
Sherlock Holmes solved crimes by analytical methods; examining each clue.
Although quite famous, the professor was always approachable for students.
Her book is the most authoritative work on the subject.
My objection to the book is ideological, despite it being well written.
California offers an innovative culture where new ideas are welcomed.
She had an intuitive feeling she would get the job.
In addition to money, praise and recognition are both highly motivational.
The Harry Potter books have been a phenomenal publishing success.
Until it is approved by the council the agreement is only provisional.
288 ANSWERS
The courses in this faculty are sequential: you must pass one to move to the next.
The synthetic fabric is much stronger than natural materials.
Technical support for computer users is available 24/7.
Your bus pass is valid until October next year.
5 Academic adjectives
concrete
inaccurate
unambiguous
synthetic
ineffective
inclusive
illogical
literal
approximate/vague
irrational
unreliable
irrelevant
non-specific
objective
practical/empirical/pragmatic
6 Practice A
a) irrelevant
b) subjective/irrational
c) Concrete/Relevant
d) approximate/rough
e) relative
f) logical/rational
g) theoretical/abstract
h) unambiguous
i) empirical
j) relevant
k) subjective
7 Practice B
a) strategic – strategy
b) analytical – analysis
c) synthetic – synthesis
d) major – majority
e) theoretical – theory
f) frequent – frequency
g) critical – criticism/critic
h) practical – practice
ANSWERS 289
4.3 Academic Vocabulary: Verbs and Adverbs
1 Understanding main verbs

This article scrutinises the relationship between governmental reform and infrastructural
change in Singapore. Focusing on the role of engineers, it is argued that neoliberal decen-
tralisation has occurred through the physical reconfiguration of drainage. Neoliberalisation
is conceived of as a localised technical response to a public health crisis resulting from infra-
structural enclosure, which is orchestrated on and through the material-ecological environ-
ment. A closed drainage system consisting of trapezoidal canals and concrete culverts had
produced an ideal breeding ground for dengue-carrying mosquitoes, undermining the state’s
centralised approach to water governance.

(in order)
scrutinises to scrutinise to examine
focusing on to focus on to concentrate on
argued to argue to claim
occurred to occur to happen
conceived of to conceive of to understand
resulting from to result from to arise
orchestrated to orchestrate to develop
consisting of to consist of to comprise
produced to produce to create
undermining to undermine to weaken
Since the 1960s, local catchment has been progressively expanded into Singapore’s urban
areas to augment imported water from Malaysia and protected reservoirs in the Central Water
Catchment Area (CWCA). Amounting to a mere 11% in 1965, catchment areas now constitute
two-thirds of Singapore’s limited land surface, which divert rainwater into 17 reservoirs as
part of a separate sewerage and storm water system.
(Other synonyms possible)
Verb in text Infnitive form Synonym

expanded to expand to increase
augment to augment to supplement
amounting to to amount to to consist of
constitute to constitute to comprise
divert to divert to reroute
2 Common academic verbs

(Approximate synonyms – infinitive form)
adapt = modify
arise = occur
290 ANSWERS
conduct = carry out

characterise = have features of
clarify = explain
concentrate on = look at closely
be concerned with = deal with
demonstrate = show
determine = find
discriminate = distinguish
establish = found
exhibit = show
focus on = look at closely
generate = create
hold = be true
identify = pick out
imply= suggest
interact = work together
interpret = explain
manifest = show
overcome = defeat
propose = suggest
prove = turn out
recognise = accept
relate to = link to
supplement = add to
undergo = experience
yield = produce
4 Practice A
(Other adverbs may be possible)
a) Clearly
b) Originally
c) Alternatively
d) Recently
e) Similarly
f) Crucially
g) broadly
h) factually
5 Practice B – A key history

Originally, the earliest keys were made by the Egyptians from wood, and (significantly/sub-
stantially) improved by the Romans, who used metal. Today’s keys are basically the same: a
piece of metal with teeth, conventionally produced by cutting and stamping. But recently a
new technology, 3D printing, has made it possible to manufacture much more intricate designs
which are virtually impossible to copy illicitly. Although (substantially/significantly) more
expensive, these high-tech keys offer remarkable security.
ANSWERS 291
4.4 Prefxes and Suffxes
2 Prefixes
(Approximate meanings)
auto by itself
bio life
co together
eco environmental
ex (i) previous
(ii) outside
fore in front/in advance
inter between
intra inside one group
macro large
meta transcending
micro small
multi many
neo new
over too much
pan across
poly many
post later
pro in support of
quasi partially
re again
self autonomous
sub below
tele distance
trans across
under (i) below
(ii) not enough
3 Practice A
a) human interaction removed
b) very local climate
c) economy based on information not production
d) holiday in local area, instead of abroad
e) disappointed
292 ANSWERS
f) before marriage
g) able to anticipate and control situations
h) focussed on his experience
5 Practice B
a) noun
b) adjective
c) adverb
d) adjective
e) adverb
f) adjective
g) adjective
h) noun
i) noun
j) noun
4.5 Synonyms
1 How synonyms work
Word/phrase Synonym
business company, frm
largest giant
oil hydrocarbon
in the world global/internationally
people employees
Britain the UK
surgeon doctor who specialises in surgery

specialist doctor who focusses on one area e.g. skin conditions
quack derogatory term for unqualifed doctor
physician a valid synonym
GP a valid synonym
ANSWERS 293
2 Common synonyms in academic writing

(NB: Some of these pairs are approximate synonyms)
Nouns Verbs
authority source accelerate speed up
behaviour conduct analyse take apart
beneft advantage assist help
category type attach join
component part challenge question
controversy argument clarify explain
diffculty problem concentrate on focus on
drawback disadvantage conduct carry out
expansion increase confne limit
feeling emotion develop evolve
framework structure evaluate examine
goal target found establish
interpretation explanation maintain insist
issue topic predict forecast
method system prohibit ban
option possibility raise increase
results fndings reduce decrease
statistics fgures respond reply
study research show demonstrate
thesis theory strengthen reinforce
trend tendency synthesise put together
3 Practice A
(Others are possible)
a) Professor Hicks challenged the results of the study.
b) The figures demonstrate a steady rise in survival rates.
c) The institute’s forecast has caused a major debate.
d) Cost seems to be the principal disadvantage to that method.
e) They will focus on the first possibility.
f) After the lecture she tried to explain her idea.
g) Three topics need to be evaluated.
h) The structure can be kept but the aim needs to be modified.
4 Practice B
cities/urban
flats/apartment
felines/cats
businesses/companies
dogs/canine
food/fare
benefits/advantages
domestic/home
294 ANSWERS
5 Practice C
(Example answers – others possible)
build/make vehicles
car makers
principal problem
obstacle
automobile producers
challenges
forecast
energy
produced
vehicles/machines
Progress Check E
1 Generally, clichés, proverbs and idioms should be avoided.

2
a) its
b) except
c) site
d) compliments
e) principle
3
a) absolute
b) metaphorical
c) subjective
d) precise
e) ambiguous
f) theoretical
4 (Other verbs possible)

a) X claims/claimed that drinking black coffee is healthier than white (coffee).
b) Y disputes/disputed X’s finding as it was based on very limited research.
c) Z agrees/agreed with Y about X’s work.
5 (Others may be possible)

a) continuously
b) locally
c) particularly
d) increasingly
e) traditionally
f) rarely
ANSWERS 295
6
a) adjective
b) noun
c) verb
d) noun
e) noun
7
antidote – medicine that works against the effects of poison
exclusive – limited to a select few
foreword – preliminary section of a book
polytechnic – institute where many scientific subjects are taught
proportion – relation of one thing to another
subcutaneous – under the skin
undervalue – assess worth of something too cheaply
8
a) system/debate
b) figures/show/advantages
c) option/researching
d) results/strengthen
e) aim/question/standard
f) carried out/conduct
Index
abbreviations in citations 63 counter-arguments 108

abbreviations in writing 210 critical thinking 31
abbreviations, common 209
abbreviations, types of 208 definitions 162
abstracts, reading 26 definitions, complex 164
academic adjectives 215 definitions, simple 162
academic vocabulary 212 describing visuals 183
academic writing, format of 5, 132 discussion 105
academic writing, types of 4 discussion language 105, 107
acknowledging sources 46 discussion organisation 106
adjectives, academic 215 discussion, vocabulary of 105
adverbs 220 domain name suffixes 34
adverbs and verbs 217
apostrophes 188 editing 95
argument 108 electronic resources, searching 25
argument, organisation of 106 essay length 15
assessing internet sources critically 33 essay questions 12
evaluation criteria 13
brainstorming 15 evidence, providing 109
examples 166
capital letters 186 examples, introductory phrases 167
case studies 120
case study, model 122 format of academic writing 5, 132
category words 162 full stops 187
cause and effect 111
caution 197 generalisations 171
change, language of 182 generalisations, structure 172
citation and quotation 58
citation and summary 58 hyphens 190
citations and references 58
citations, abbreviations in 63 implied language 153
cohesion 151 internet references 64
colons 189 internet resources, assessing critically 33
commas 187 introductions 89
comparison structures 159 introductions, contents 89
comparisons 156 introductions, structure 90
conclusion structure 94 inverted commas 189
conclusions 93
confusing pairs 207 key points, finding 39
contrasting sources 77 key words in titles 13
Index 297
labelling visuals 184 reference words 151

language features 205 references 57
language of change 182 references, list of 64
language of discussion 105, 107 references, secondary 64
library catalogues 23 reflective writing 141
library websites 25 relevant points, finding 40
linking paragraphs 86 repetition and redundancy, avoiding 197
list of references 64 reports 134
literature review, model 127 reports, scientific 136
literature reviews 125 resources, academic 19
longer papers 130 restatement 169
main verbs, understanding 217 searching electronic resources 27

modifiers 198 secondary references 64
semi-colons 188
note-making 39 sentence length, varying 196
note-making methods 43 sentences, opening 92
nouns and adjectives 212 sentences, simple and longer 7
numbers 175 sources, acknowledging 46
numbers, simplification of 176 sources, balancing 80
numerical phrases 177 sources, contrasting 77
sources, finding 19
opening sentences 92 sources, mentioning 76
organisation of argument 106 study habits, positive 51
organising paragraphs 83 style 192
outlines 16 style guidelines 193
suffixes 226
paragraph structure 83, 117 summarising 49, 67
paragraphs 9 summarising, stages of 68
paragraphs, linking 86 superlatives 158
paragraphs, organising 83 synonyms 228
paraphrasing 49, 71
paraphrasing techniques 72 text features 7, 27
percentages 176 texts, assessing 20
plagiarism 47 titles, essay 12
plagiarism, degrees of 48 titles, key words in 13
planning essays 131 titles, understanding 12
planning process 11 types of academic writing 4
prefixes 224 types of reading texts 19
problems and solutions, structure 117
problems and solutions, vocabulary 116 varying sentence length 196
proofreading 97 verbs and adverbs 217
providing evidence 109 verbs of reference 58
punctuation 186 verbs, academic 218
purposes of writing 3 verbs, understanding main 217
visual information 179
quotation marks 189 visuals, describing 183
quotations 61 visuals, labelling 184
vocabulary approaches to 203
reading academic texts 19 vocabulary, academic 203
reading lists 22 vocabulary, new 204
reading methods 28
reading texts, types of 19 words from other languages 207
reference systems 60 writing, reflective 141
reference verbs 58
ACADEMIC WRITING: A HANDBOOK FOR
INTERNATIONAL STUDENTS
Now in its ffth edition, Academic Writing helps international students succeed in writing
essays and reports for their English-language academic courses. Thoroughly revised and
updated, it explains and practises every stage of essay writing, from choosing the best
sources, reading and note-making, through to referencing and proofreading. A progress
check at the end of each part allows students to assess their learning. All units are fully
cross-referenced, and a complete set of answers to the practice exercises is included. Written
to deal with the specifc language issues faced by international students, this practical, user-
friendly book is an invaluable guide to academic writing in English.
© 2018 – Routledge B • 344 pages // Pb: 9781138048744 • Hb: 9781138048737 • eBook: 9781315169996
THE ESSENTIALS OF ACADEMIC WRITING FOR

INTERNATIONAL STUDENTS
The Essentials of Academic Writing is designed to help international students achieve
success in their written work. This concise book explains the essential skills writing
process from start to fnish. From selecting and reading suitable sources to note-making,
summarising and referencing, this book provides clear examples and effective exercises.
The Essentials of Academic Writing teaches students critical skills such as generalising,
referencing, making comparisons and using graphs. All international students wanting to
achieve academic success will fnd this practical and easy-to-use book a valuable guide to
improving their written English— quickly!
© 2015 – Routledge • 230 pages // Pb: 9781138885622 • Hb: 9781138885615 • eBook: 9781315715346
3RD EDITION
ACADEMIC WRITING FOR INTERNATIONAL
STUDENTS OF BUSINESS AND ECONOMICS
Academic Writing for International Students of Business and Economics has
been written to assist overseas students studying Business or Economics
courses in English. Both accessible and practical, it explains the writing
process from start to fnish and also encourages users to practice key writing
skills. This new edition has been thoroughly revised and updated to refect the interests
and issues of contemporary Business and Economics studies. This user-friendly text is an
invaluable guide to academic writing in English.
© 2020 – Routledge • 346 pages // Pb: 9780367280314 • Hb: 9780367280307 • eBook: 9780429299278

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Praise for Stephen Bailey’s Academic Writing: A Handbook for International Students, 5th edition

Routledge is an imprint of the Taylor & Francis Group, an informa business

© 2022 Stephen Bailey

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British Library Cataloguing-in-Publication Data

Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data

Typeset in Times New Roman

1.1 Writing Basics 3

1.2 Understanding Essay Questions and the Planning Process 11

1.3 Reading: Finding Suitable Sources 19

1.4 Reading: Developing Critical Approaches 31

1.5 Finding Key Points and Note-making 39

1.6 Avoiding Plagiarism 46

1.7 References and Quotations 57

1.8 Summarising and Paraphrasing 67

1.9 Contrasting Sources 76

1.10 Organising Paragraphs 83

1.11 Introductions and Conclusions 89

1.12 Editing and Proofreading 95

Progress Check B 101

2.1 Argument and Discussion 105

2.2 Cause and Effect 111

2.3 Problems and Solutions 116

2.4 Case Studies 120

2.5 Literature Reviews 125

2.6 Writing Longer Papers 130

2.7 Reports 134

2.8 Reflective Writing 141

Progress Check C 145

3.2 Comparison 156

3.3 Definitions 162

3.4 Examples 166

3.5 Generalisations 171

3.6 Numbers and Visual Information 175

3.7 Punctuation 186

3.8 Style 192

Progress Check D 199

4.1 Approaches to Vocabulary 203

4 Confusing pairs 206

4.2 Academic Vocabulary: Nouns and Adjectives 212

4.3 Academic Vocabulary: Verbs and Adverbs 217

4.4 Prefixes and Suffixes 223

4.5 Synonyms 228

Progress Check E 232

Written British and American English – A Short Guide 235

Part Topic Main application

3 Writing Tools Classroom, self-study and reference

Using the book

Instructions are printed like this:

■ Read the following text

Cross-referencing to relevant sections in other units is provided like this:

► See Unit 3.4 Examples

The glossary on page 240 explains academic terms.

The index on page 299 can be used to find specific information.

Discuss the following questions with a partner.

a) What experience do you have of academic writing?

The challenge of writing at university

● Writing about a topic helps you to understand the subject better.

The aim of the book

Part Topic Main application

Using the book

Instructions are printed like this:

1 The purposes of academic writing