Some Observations on....
LIGHTWEIGHT CONCRETE
YIELD PROBLEMS
O ne of the most commonly encountered problems
in structural lightweight aggregate concrete con-
struction is yield, for it can often prove to be confusing.
But before we discuss yield, perhaps a review of some of
the basic properties of lightweight aggregate concrete
is in order. Table I contrasts some physical properties
of lightweight vs. normal weight aggregates. These val-
ues are, of course, only typical and are not to be con-
strued as absolutes. Neither do these values include air-
cooled slag which is a normal weight aggregate.
Maximum size of lightweight aggregates ordinarily is
less than that of normal weight aggregates although
quite a few of the rotary kiln shales are available in 1-
inch top size. Ordinarily, however, expanded slags and
shales are generally available in top size of from 3/8 inch
to 3/4 inch.
Lightweight aggregate particle shape, although quite
varied, usually is more angular and rough textured than
normal weight aggregates. The particle shape and sur-
face characteristics of the aggregate will often have an
important effect on the workability, cement content, and
proportioning of the mixes which utilize them.
The specific gravity of lightweight aggregates natural-
ly is considerably less than that of normal weight aggre-
gates. Determining specific gravity of lightweight aggre-
gates is difficult due to the complexity of obtaining a
saturated, surface-dry condition. Larger particles will
have lower specific gravities than smaller ones.
Absorption by lightweight aggregates is always greater
than with conventional aggregates varying up to 15 per-
cent. Equally important is the rate of absorption since
this determines the water available for cement hydra-
tion, a critical factor in preparing the mix design.
The unit weight of lightweight aggregates is, of course,
less than that of normal weight aggregate. This charac-
teristic is the one which makes lightweight aggregate
concrete so desirable for certain types of construction—
shell roofs, long spans, and cantilevers, for example.
Aggregate proportions are different in a lightweight
aggregate mix than those found in a conventional aggre-
gate design. Lightweight aggregates usually require a
higher proportion of fine materials by weight than nor-
mal aggregates.
Effect of mix design on yield
As defined in ASTM C138, yield is the volume of con-
crete obtained per sack of cement. Yield is sometimes
expressed as the number of cubic feet in a theoretical cu-
bic yard of concrete. The latter definition of yield, also
called the “return,” can be derived from the following
equation:
Total batch weight for nominal 1 cubic yard actual cubic
Fresh unit weight of concrete = feet of concrete
Even under well controlled conditions, a loss of ap-
proximately 2 percent in actual volume of air-entrained
concrete and from 1 to 1 1/2 percent of non-air-en-
trained concrete can be expected for concrete in place.
This is the result of a partial loss of entrained air, evapo-
ration of water, bleeding, settlement, and other factors
on the jobsite.
Unless changes of aggregate properties are anticipat-
ed, such as a result of heavy rain, or apparent stockpile
segregation, it is normally sufficient to check the yield
of the concrete about once every 50 cubic yards.
If the unit weight of the concrete mix varies more than
2 pounds per cubic foot from the established fresh
weight, the change is usually due to changes in air con-
tent or in moisture, and will become apparent with
slump and air content determinations. If not, there may
be a change in aggregate gradation, possibly a change in
the specific gravity of the aggregate, or a change in the
handling and batching procedures. In any event the mix
should be adjusted immediately. There are three com-
monly used methods for designing lightweight concrete.
VOLUMETRIC: Since lightweight aggregates vary in
weight from 1,100 to 1,850 pounds per cubic yard, the
volumetric method is the one most commonly used. The
initial design is made using known volumes of aggre-
gates. Mixing water is then added until the desired
slump is obtained. After a satisfactory trial mix is
achieved in this manner, it is converted to a practical mix
design (1) by taking into consideration previous unit
weight determinations made on the separate aggregate
sizes; and (2) making corrections to compensate for the
moisture content of the aggregates in the field. The spe-
cific gravity of expanded shale aggregates increases sub-
stantially as particle size decreases. Such a change would
affect the absolute volume yield of the combined aggre-
gates in the mix, which in turn would alter the concrete
yield.
 PHYSICAL PROPERTIES OF AGGREGATES
FOR STRUCTURAL CONCRETE
PROPERTY NORMAL WEIGHT
Top Size 1 to 1 1/2 in.
Particle Shape Cubical to Rounded
2.4 to 2.9
Specific Gravity
ave. = 2.65
(apparent)
Same for coarse and fine
Absorption 1 to 5%
Strength High crushing resistance
Unit Weight 90 to 105 pcf
Same for coarse and fine
Aggregate Proportions 30 to 45%
Concrete mix by weight
(fine to total)
Courtesy of the Expanded Shale Clay and Slate Insti-
tute
ABSOLUTE VOLUME: Although occasionally used for
lightweight aggregate concrete mixes, the absolute vol-
ume method—based on the determinations of absorp-
tion and specific gravity for the separate sizes of saturat-
ed surface-dry aggregates—is used less often because
the absorption and specific gravity of lightweight aggre-
gates are difficult to determine with present tests. Varia-
tions in yield often result that are beyond stipulated tol-
erances unless proper field adjustments are made in the
proportions.
SPECIFIC GRAVITY FACTOR: This method, set forth in
ACI 613A-59, is recommended when prior experience
with the materials involved is not available. It is used
when preparing trial mixes for strength to cement con-
tent to unit weight relationships. This method is also of
value for all-lightweight aggregate mixes and for light-
weight mixes where natural sand is used as part or all of
the fine aggregate.
The moisture demands of lightweight aggregates will
vary with the type and brand of aggregate. As has been
mentioned earlier, the total amount and rate of absorp-
tion are important in determining a mix design which
will prove satisfactory in terms of yield, strength and
workability. This information can generally be obtained
from the aggregate producer, and trial mix proportions
are usually obtainable from him, also. In order to control
yield, it is necessary to know and control the extent of
saturation of the aggregates. Lightweight aggregates are
often wetted before shipment to minimize segregation
and loss of fines. When the shipment arrives at its desti-
nation it is often sprinkled and allowed to stand
overnight before unloading. In other cases, a spray bar
over the conveyor belt is used or additional water is
LIGHTWEIGHT
3/8 to 3/4 in.
Angular - rough - irregular to cubical
to smooth rounded
1.2 to 2.1
Varies from high (fine) to low (coarse)
7 to 15%
Most - tough and hard
40 to 70 pcf
Coarse 40 to 55 pcf
Fine 50 to 70 pcf
40 to 65%
by volume
(approximately 45 to 70% by weight)
added at the mixer. It takes experience to acquire the
“know-how” that enables a producer to control water
content.
The air content of lightweight concrete is at least as
high, and sometimes higher, than that of conventional
concrete to promote workability and accommodate the
generally smaller maximum size aggregate. This has a
considerable bearing on yield if the air content varies
significantly from the design values. Air content can be
checked by the volumetric method (ASTM C173). If fre-
quent checks of the unit weight indicate variations of
more than 2 percent from the established fresh unit
weight value, the air content or aggregate batch weights
should be adjusted to obtain the proper unit weight.
Initial air content should be increased to compensate
for losses that will occur while in transit and also, as
much as possible, that which will be lost due to jobsite
practices.
Some instances of long haul in transit mix can reflect
as much as a two percent loss in air content accompa-
nied by a slump loss, resulting in an increase in plastic
weight, a harsh mix and a loss in yield. With a mixing
procedure following the practices recommended in
ASTM Designation C-94 and with frequent unit weight
air content and slump determinations, proper yield can
be maintained.
Underyielded mixes are costly since more cement is
used per delivered cubic yard than is necessary. This al-
so results in shortage claims by the contractor who will
require financial adjustment from the ready mix pro-
ducer. Overyielding mixes result in lower compressive
strengths due to the reduced cement content. Proper
control is an adjunct to good construction.
Another factor which sometimes results in unaccept-
able variations in yield is contamination of the aggregate
stockpiles. It is important that lightweight aggregates be
effectively separated from standard weight sand, gravel
and stone. Assume we are given a mix design calling for
564 pounds of cement, 1300 pounds of sand, 900 pounds
of lightweight aggregate and 39 gallons of water with 6
percent air content. What would be the effect of a 10 per-
cent by weight contamination of the lightweight aggre-
gate by gravel? The inadvertent change in batching
weights would alter the 564, 1300, 900, and 39 gallons to
564, 1390, 810, and 39 gallons. The loss in yield would
be more than 1 percent.
To maintain yield, the ready-mix producer manufac-
turing structural lightweight concrete should obtain a
workable mix design; keep close tabs on unit weight, air
content and uniformity of materials; and keep his stock-
piles of aggregates uniformly moist and free of contami-
nation. In this work, the order of introduction of materi-
als into the mixer is important due to the high
absorption of lightweight aggregate particles. Although
several procedures have proven successful, the one most
commonly employed introduces first, 1/2 to 2/3 of the
mixing water and all of the aggregates, and after 5 or 10
revolutions the cement, remainder of the water and ad-
mixtures are added and the required number of revolu-
tions is carried out.
The contractor should also be aware of some facts in-
volving yield of lightweight concrete. If the contractor
does not schedule concrete deliveries accurately, yield
will vary due to loss in air and water content as the trucks
wait at the jobsite. If the concrete is transported and
placed in a manner that excessively reduces air content
and slump, the yield may be reduced. Because light-
weight aggregate concretes have a higher percentage of
mortar and do not slump as much as standard weight
concretes they should be ordered with a lower slump
and care should be taken to avoid excessive vibration.
In some structural members, such as high walls and
columns, consolidation of the mix forces out air and re-
sults in increases in density which, in turn, decreases
yield.
The problem of maintaining yield in lightweight con-
crete is really not that much more complex than in stan-
dard weight concrete. It does, however, entail some dif-
ferences in approach and an understanding of the
characteristics of lightweight concrete. Usually, prob-
lems arise when exactly the same techniques used in or-
dinary work are applied unchanged to lightweight con-
crete projects. The increased versatility and economy
that the lightweight aggregates have brought to concrete
are well worth the effort involved in learning the varia-
tions in techniques required to assure their proper use.

PUBLICATION #C670383
Copyright © 1967, The Aberdeen Group
All rights reserved