ILP - 2023 - NCERT MODULE (HISTORY) VAN - Part 2

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ILP - 2023
Integrated Learning Programme
NCERT MODULE (HISTORY)

VAN - PART 2
Integrated Learning Programme (ILP) 2023 – History VAN (Part 2)
NCERT HISTORY MODULE 1 Notes
Following are your sources for today:
THEMES IN INDIAN HISTORY-PART I

• Sources-12th NCERT
Note:
Some of the most important aspects of history will be covered under ‘Themes
in Indian History’. This section should not be taken lightly from examination
point of view. An elaborate coverage of the same falls under Mains Syllabus
and advance Prelims coverage of Indian History to be done in later modules.
THE HARAPPAN CIVILISATION
Indus Valley Civilization (IVC) is one of the three early civilizations of the
ancient world considered to be the cradles of civilization, along with Egypt and
Mesopotamia civilization.
The Indus Valley Civilization or Harappan Civilization was the culmination of a

long and sustained cultural evolution in the Indus Valley and surrounding areas.
It is considered to be the continuation of the Neolithic Mehrgarh culture which

existed between 7000 BCE to 5000 BCE. The Indus Valley Civilization developed
in three phases viz..,
i. Early Harappan Phase (3300 BCE-2600 BCE),
ii. Mature Harappan Phase (2600 BCE-1900 BCE),
iii. Late Harappan Phase (1900 BCE-1300 BCE).
Note-BCE stands for Before Common Era, CE stands for the Common Era. c.
stands for the Latin word circa and means “approximate.”
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Notes
The main centers of this Civilization were Punjab and Sindh regions from
where it extended in all directions from modern northeast Afghanistan to
Pakistan and northwest India.
Notes
Do you know:
• IVC was the most widespread among the three early civilizations. The
total geographical stretch of Harappan civilization was about 1,250,000
sq. km which is more than 20 times of the area of Egypt and more than
12 times of the combined area of Egyptian and Mesopotamian
civilizations.
• It is called the Indus valley civilization because it flourished on the bank

of River Indus and several nearby rivers such as Ghaggar– Hakra and
the now dried up Saraswati.
• It is also called the Harappan Civilization, after Harappa, the first site
excavated in the 1921 by a team led by Daya Ram Sahni.
• In 1924, John Hubert Marshall, Director-General of the Archaeological

Survey of India, announced the discovery of a new civilization in the
Indus valley to the world. The term “Indus Valley Civilization” was
coined by John Hubert Marshall.
• It was a trade-based civilization which had overseas trade links with

Mesopotamia and Egypt.
• The Indus valley Civilization is noted for its urban planning, baked brick
houses, elaborate drainage systems, water supply systems, clusters of
large, non-residential buildings, new techniques in metallurgy, seal Notes

making etc.
Architecture and Town Planning of Indus Valley Civilization:

The architecture of the Indus Valley Civilization is mainly utilitarian. The
buildings and structures of the IVC period are simple and practical. They lack
artistic magnificence/grandeur seen in the buildings of Egyptian and
Mesopotamian civilizations.
There is an absence of grand palaces, temples or other places of worship. The
Indus Valley architecture gave prominence to more useful structures such as
granaries, dams etc.
The IVC architecture is noted for its urban planning, baked brick houses,
elaborate drainage systems, water supply systems, clusters of large non-
residential buildings etc.
Town Planning:
Town planning is a unique feature of Indus valley civilization. Their town
planning proves that they lived a highly civilised and developed life.
There was a sophisticated concept of town planning in the Indus Valley
Civilization. From the excavated remains, it is clear that it possessed a
flourishing urban architecture.
The Indus cities were built on a uniform plan. Almost every city had well
planned architecture, public granaries, and efficient drainage and sewage
systems.
Salient Features of Indus Valley Town Planning:
1. The Citadel and the lower city:
• A typical IVC city was divided into two sections, one section was located
on an artificially raised mound (called Citadel or acropolis) while the
other level was on level ground.
• The Citadel was usually built on the western side of the city and the
lower town was on the eastern side.
• The Citadel area was built on the highest part of the mound in the city
showing the importance and status of the area was much higher than
the rest of the area. Another feature which suggests the Citadel is of
higher importance is that the fortifications around the area were bigger Notes
and stronger than those around the rest of the city.
• The Citadel contained the important buildings of the city, like the
assembly halls, religious structures, granaries and in the great bath in
case of Mohenjo-Daro.
• The lower section of the city was where the housing for the inhabitants
was located.
2. The uniform chess-board or grid pattern planning of towns and cities:
• The grid plan or gridiron plan is a type of city plan in which streets run
at right angles to each other, forming a grid. The streets and roads
divide the city into rectangular blocks.
• IVC people-built houses and other buildings by the side of roads.
• The streets were straight and cut each other at right angles. They were
13 to 34 feet wide and were well lined.
• Archaeologists have discovered the lamp posts at intervals. This Notes

suggests the existence of street lights. Dustbins were also provided on
the streets. These prove the presence of good municipal
administration.
3. Buildings:
• People of Indus valley civilization-built houses and other buildings by

the side of roads. The materials used to construct the buildings
depended on the location of the building. They used both burnt bricks
and sun-dried bricks. Stone and mud buildings are very rare and are
seen in very few sites.
• The bricks had a ratio of length to width to thickness at 4:2:1.
• Every house had two or more rooms. There were more than one
storied house.
• The houses were designed around an inner courtyard and contained

pillared halls, bath rooms, paved floors, kitchen, wells etc.
• There was an excellent system of water supply. There were public wells
by the side of the streets.
• Almost every house had its own wells, drains and bathrooms. The in-
house well is a common and recognizable feature of the Indus Valley
Civilization.
• Indus Valley civilization was perhaps the first in the world to have
houses with attached bathrooms/toilets.
• Besides residential quarters, elaborate structures such as granaries,

assembly hall, and workmen quarters are also found.
4. Drainage System: Notes
• One of the most remarkable features of the Indus valley civilization is

that the city was provided with an excellent closed drainage system.
• Each house had its own drainage and soak pit which was connected to
the public drainage.
• Brick laid channels flowed through every street. They were covered and
had manholes at intervals for cleaning and clearing purposes.
• Thus, Indus people had a perfect underground drainage system. No

other contemporary civilization gave so much attention to it.
Trade and Economy:

The Harappan economy was based on agriculture, animal husbandry, and
trade.
Agriculture:
• Agriculture was flourishing because Harappan sites were mostly
situated near the flood plains and also due to availability of various
sources of irrigations.
• Furrows discovered at Kalibangan show that the fields were ploughed
in the Harappan period.
• The Harappans used the wooden ploughshare. But it’s not known
whether the plough was drawn by men or oxen.
• Stone sickles may have been used for harvesting the crops.
• The principal crops were wheat and barley. A good quantity of barley
has been discovered at Banawali in Haryana.
• Rice was also grown by IVC people. Remains of rice have been found
from -Lothal & Rangpur. Notes

• The cultivation of lentils, mustard, linseed, Sesamum, finger millet,
Ragi, Bajra, Jawar, dates was also done by IVC people.
• The earliest traces of cotton in the world were found here. The earliest
evidence for the use of cotton was found in Mehrgarh dating back to
the sixth millennium B.C. The Indus Valley farmers were the first ones
to spin and weave cotton. Cotton was also one of the export items.
• Fragments of cotton cloth found at Mohenjo Daro and other sites show
that cotton was also grown.
• Canals irrigation was mainly absent but was found at Shortughai in
Afghanistan and not in Punjab or Sindh, indicating the usage of well
water for irrigational purposes at other sites in Harappa.
• The cultivated field excavated at Kalibangan shows crisscross furrow
marks indicating that two crops were grown simultaneously. This
method is followed even today in Rajasthan, Haryana, and western
Uttar Pradesh.
Animal Husbandry:
• Although the Harappans practised agriculture, animals were kept on a
large scale.
• Animals like sheep, goat, humped bull, buffalo were domesticated by
the Harappans. The humped bulls were favoured by the Harappans.
• From the very beginning dogs were regarded as pets. Cats were also
domesticated. Asses and camels were used as beasts of burden.
• Even though bones of horses have been reported from Surkotada and
terracotta figurines of the horse have been found at Lothal, Indus
civilization was not horse centred.
• Wild animals were hunted for food. Bones of animals like spotted deer,
sambar deer, hog deer, wild pig, etc. found in the excavation prove it.
Besides, several types of birds as well as fish were also hunted for food.
• Remains of Antelopes and Rhinoceros have been reported from Amri.
Trade:
• Intensive agricultural production and large-scale trade played
significant roles in the flourishing of the Harappan civilization.
• The Indus Valley people undertook both internal and external trade.
• Agricultural produce, industrial raw materials (including copper ores, Notes

stone, semi-precious shells, etc.) were traded on a large scale.
• Harappans had well established external trade with Greece, Egypt,
Mesopotamia and Central Asian people.
• The occurrence of Harappan seals and other artefacts in contemporary
Mesopotamian civilization, and some of the Mesopotamian and
Egyptian objects in Harappan civilization, and the evidence of
Mesopotamian documents established that the Harappans had the
trading relationship with other civilizations.
• IVC people exported cotton to Greece which was called ‘Sindhon” by
the Greeks.
• Harappa had intense trade relations with Mesopotamia, well attested
by Mesopotamian literature. The historical records of Mesopotamia
mention a place called Meluha which seems to be name of the Indus
River region.
• They also exported gold jewellery, ivory seals & boxes, timber, Cotton
textiles, Copper & bronze fish-hooks, Carnelian & precious stone beads,
chicken, Shell & bone inlays.
Arts and Crafts of IVC:

The arts of the Indus Valley Civilization emerged during the second half of the
third millennium BCE (i.e. from 2500 BCE onwards). This period is known as the
Bronze Age. The artists of that time had fine artistic sensibilities and a vivid
imagination. Their description of human and animal figures was highly realistic
in nature.
The people of Harappan Civilisation were very well acquainted with the
manufacture of bronze. Bronze was made by mixing tin with copper.
Objects of gold are reasonably common; silver makes its earliest appearance
in the Indus civilization and was relatively more common than gold. Lead,
arsenic, antimony and nickel were also used by the Harappan people.
The forms of art found from various sites of the civilization include sculptures,
seals, pottery, jewellery, terracotta figures, etc.
Stone Statues:
The stone statues found at Harappa and Mohenjodaro are excellent examples
of handling three-dimensional volumes.
In stone are two male figures—one is a torso in red sandstone and the other is
a bust of a bearded man in soapstone (Steatite). Notes
Male Torso:
• Found in Harappa.
• Made of Red Sandstone.
• There are socket holes in the neck and shoulders for the attachment of
head and arms.
• Legs are broken.
• The shoulders are well baked and the abdomen slightly prominent
Bearded Man (Priest Man, Priest-King):

• Found in Mohenjo-Daro and is made of Steatite or Soapstone.
• The figure is interpreted as a priest and is draped in a shawl coming
under the right arm and covering the left shoulder.
• The shawl is decorated with a trefoil pattern.
• The eyes are elongated and half closed as in a meditative concentration.
• The Nose is well formed and medium size.
• Short cut moustache and a short beard and whiskers.
• Hair is parted in the middle and a plain-woven fillet is passed round the
head.
• An armlet on the right hand and holes around the neck suggest a
necklace.
• A slight touch of the Greek style of statues can be seen overall.
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Notes
Metal Sculptures
• Gold, copper, silver, bronze metals were known to Indus Valley
Civilization but not iron.
• Harappans procured –
i. Copper from Khetri mines of Rajasthan;
ii. Chert blades from Rohri hills of Sindh;
iii. Carnelian beads from Gujarat and Sindh;
iv. Lead from south India;
v. Lapis-lazuli from Kashmir and Afghanistan;
vi. Turquoise and jade from central Asia or Iran;
vii. Amethyst from Maharashtra;
viii.Agate, chalcedony, and carnelian from Saurashtra.
ix. Copper was also brought from Oman. Tin may have been
brought from present day Afghanistan and Iran
• The art of bronze-casting was practised on a wide scale by the
Harappans. Their bronze statues were made using the ‘lost wax’
technique".
• In the ‘lost wax’ technique the wax figures were first covered with a
coating of clay and allowed to dry. Then the wax was heated and the
molten wax was drained out through a tiny hole made in the clay cover.
The hollow mould thus created was filled with molten metal which took
the original shape of the object. Once the metal cooled, the clay cover
was completely removed.
In bronze we find human as well as animal figures. Examples of Bronze casting Notes
are:
Bronze Dancing Girl:
• Discovered in Mohenjo-Daro. It is approximately 4-inch-high figure of a
dancing girl.
• Made up of Bronze, it is one of the best-known artefacts from the Indus
valley.
• This exquisite casting depicts a girl whose long hair is tied in the bun
and bangles cover her left arm.
• A cowry shell necklace is seen around her neck.
• Her right hand is on her hip and her left hand is clasped in a traditional
Indian dance gesture.
• She has large eyes and a flat nose.
Bronze Bull:
• A bronze figure of a bull was discovered from Mohenjo-Daro.
• The animal is shown standing with his head turned to the right. There is
a cord around the neck.
Terracotta figures:
• The Indus Valley people also made terracotta images. Terracotta is a
hollow figurine of clay which is baked on fire.
• They were either used as toys or objects of worship and represented
birds, dogs, sheep, cattle and monkeys. Men and women also found
place in those figurines.
• Compared to the stone and bronze statues the terracotta Notes

representations of human form are crude in the Indus Valley.
• Examples of terracotta figures are - Mother goddess, toys, carts with
wheels, whistles, birds and animals.
Seals: Notes
• Most of the seals were made of steatite, which is a kind of soft stone. A
few of them were also made of terracotta, gold, and ivory.
• The standard Harappan seal was square in shape with a 2X2 dimension.
• It is believed that the seals were used for commercial purposes.
• A few seals were also carried as amulets, perhaps as a kind of identity
card. Some seal impressions, were used to create clay tags for sacks of
traded goods such as grain. Indus Valley seals have been found in places
as far as Mesopotamia.
• All the seals have pictures of animals with something written in a
pictographic script (which is yet to be deciphered).
• The seals bear a great variety of motifs, most often of animals including
those of the bull, with or without the hump, the elephant, tiger, goat
and also monsters. Sometimes trees or human figures were also
depicted. Most of the seals have been written on both sides. The
writings are from right to left.
• The most famous seal is the Pashupati Seal from Mohenjo Daro. It is a
seal with a figure seated cross-legged in the centre with animals
around; an elephant and a tiger to the right of the figure and rhino and
a buffalo to its left.
Pottery: Notes
• In Indus Valley Civilization, pottery was an important industry. Indus
valley pottery consists of very fine wheel made wares, very few being
handmade.
• Plain pottery is more common than painted ware.
• Harappan pottery includes goblets, basins, flasks, dishes, cylindrical
pottery such as glazed (earliest example of its kind in the ancient world),
incised, polychrome, and perforated were used by Harappan people.
• Glazed pottery method involves coating of a substance to a ceramic
body through firing. Glaze can serve to colour, decorate or waterproof
an item.
• Incised pottery is a type of pottery decoration in which the soft surface
of the clay is cut with a sharp instrument.
• Perforated potteries usually have flat bases, Geometrical design along
with paintings depicting flora and fauna are observed.
Beads, Ornaments and Cosmetics:

• The Harappan men and women were conscious of fashion. They
decorated themselves with a large variety of ornaments produced from
every conceivable material ranging from precious metals and
gemstones to bone and baked clay.
• White necklaces, fillets, armlets and finger rings were commonly worn
by both sexes.
• Jewellery found at Mohenjo-Daro and Lothal include necklaces of gold
and semi-precious metal stones, copper bracelets and beads, gold
earrings and head ornaments.
• A cemetery has been found at Harappa where dead bodies were buried
with ornaments.
• Well-developed bead industries were present at Chanhudaro and
Lothal. Notes
• Some beads were made of two or more stones cemented together.
• Spinning of cotton and wool was very common
• Men and women wore two separate pieces of attire similar to dhoti and
shawl.
• Different hair styles were in vogue and beards were popular.
• Cinnabar ore (a bright red mineral consisting of mercury sulphide,
sometimes used as a pigment) was used as a cosmetic and face-paint,
lipstick and eyeliner were also known to them.
Transport and Travel:

• Pictures of ships and boats are found on some seals and drawings on
pottery from Harappa and Mohenjo Daro.
• A ship or a boat, with a stick-impressed socket for the mast, has been
found from Lothal.
• The boats depicted on seals and pottery resemble the boats used in
Sindh and Punjab areas (even today).
• For land transport, bullock-carts and pack animals like bull, camel, and
ass were used.
• The terracotta models of bullock-cart found from various sites indicate
that carts used in those days were of the same size and shape used in
the present day.
Notes
Weights and Measures:

• Standard weights and measures were developed by the Indus Valley
Civilization. The centralised weight and measure system served the
commercial interest of Indus merchants as smaller weight measures
were used to measure luxury goods while larger weights were
employed for buying bulkier items, such as food grains etc.
• The weights and measures of the Indus civilization also reached Persia
and Central Asia where they were further modified.
• Numerous articles used for weights have been found. They show that
in weighting mostly 16 or its multiples were used; for instance, 16, 64,
160, 320 and 640.
• Harappan weights and measures were cubicle and spherical in shape
and were made up of chert, jasper, and agate.
• A measurement scale made of ivory has been discovered from Lothal.
• The Harappans also knew the art of measurement. The measures of
length were based upon a foot of 13.2 inches and a cubit of 20.6 inches.
Several sticks inscribed with measure marks have been discovered.
Notes
Measuring Scale and Weights of IVC
Religious practices of IVC:

• The numerous seals and figurines discovered in the excavations point
to the religious beliefs of the Indus Valley people.
• Worship of Mother Goddess: A large number of excavated terracotta
figurines are those of semi-nude figures which are identified with some
female energy or Shakti or Mother Goddess, who is the source of all
creation. She is wearing numerous ornaments and a fan-shaped head
dress. It is concluded from the smoke-stained figures that the people
offered burnt incense before her. A seal of Mother Goddess with plant
growing from the womb has been discovered from Harappa.
• Worship of Pashupati: The Pashupati seal in which the three faced male
god is shown seated in a yogic posture, surrounded by a rhino and a
buffalo on the right, and an elephant and a tiger on the left, make the
historians conclude that the people of those days worshipped Lord
Shiva who is the Lord of the Beast (Pashupati) and the male principle of
creation.
Notes
Pashupati seal
• Worship of Trees: Harappans were nature worshipers. The worship of
trees was widespread. The Pipal tree was considered the most sacred.
One of the seals shows a god standing between the branches of a Pipal
tree and being worshipped by a devotee.
• Animal Worship: People also worshipped animals. The most sacred
animals of the IVC people were one horned Unicorn and the humped
bull.
• Faith in Magic, Charms and Sacrifices: The discovery of amulets
suggests that the Indus valley people had belief in magic and charms.
Some seals have figures of men and animals in acts of sacrifice. This
shows that sacrifices played some part in their religion.
• Belief in Life after Death: The people of Indus Valley disposed of their
dead either by burial or by cremation. They buried their dead together
with household pottery, ornaments and other articles of daily use. Even
when they cremated the dead, they preserved the ashes of the bodies
in clay urns. Both these practices show that people believed in life after
death.
• Worship of Linga and Yoni: Harappans also worshiped sex symbols like
linga and yoni symbols. Lingas found from Harappa and Kalibangan are
very similar to those worshipped even today.
• No Temples: Harappans did not build temples or other places of Notes

worship. There are no religious structures of any kind except the Great
bath of Mohenjo-Daro.
• Ritual bathing: The existence of public baths suggests that people
believed in ritual bathing. The religious beliefs such as the worship of
Shiva, animals and trees, show that the religious beliefs of the Indus
Valley people were the foundation on which the modern-day Hinduism
grew up.
Script and Language:

• The Harappans invented the art of writing like the people of ancient
Mesopotamia.
• Although the earliest specimen of Harappan script was noticed in 1853 and
the complete script discovered by 1923, it has not been deciphered so far.
• There are nearly 4,000 specimens of Harappan writing on stone seals and
other objects. Unlike the Egyptians and Mesopotamians, the Harappans did
not write long inscriptions.
• The Harappan script is not alphabetical but mainly pictographic.
• It is written from left to right.
Social and Political life of IVC:

• There is no clear idea about the political organisation of the Harappans.
• Some archaeologists are of the opinion that Harappan society had no
rulers, and that everybody enjoyed equal status. Others feel there was
no single ruler but several, that Mohenjodaro had a separate ruler,
Harappa another, and so forth.
• But some others take into account the cultural homogeneity of the
Indus civilization and argue that this cultural homogeneity would not Notes
have been possible to achieve without a central authority.
• There are numerous specimens of weapons such as axes, spearheads,
bows, arrowheads but evidence of large-scale warfare is not found.
• The Harappan society appears to be stratified on the basis of Class.
• The elite class was associated with the Citadel.
• Women enjoyed freedom in the Harappan society.
Decline of the Indus Valley Civilization:

• The Indus Valley civilization declined around 1800 BCE. By 1700 B.C.,
the Indus civilization had gradually broken up into smaller cultures,
called late Harappan cultures and post-Harappan cultures.
• The actual reasons behind its demise are still debated.
• The decline of the civilization was attested by the following major
changes:
1. Disappearance of seals, the script, distinctive beads and pottery.
2. The shift from the standardised weight system to use of local weights.
3. The decline and abandonment of cities.
The following reasons are put forward for its abrupt end:
1. The neighbouring desert encroached on the fertile area and made it

infertile.
2. Regular floods and earthquakes destroyed the area.
3. Aryan invasion theory says Aryans killed people and destroyed the
Indus Valley Civilization. The Harappan people were peace loving. So,
they could not defend themselves against the invaders. Though more
recent evidence tends to contradict this claim
4. According to theory of changing river patterns the drying up of the

Hakra River and changes in the course of the Indus River disrupted
agricultural and economic systems, and many people left the cities of
the Indus Valley region. Some experts believe the drying of the
Saraswati River, which began around 1900 BCE, was the main cause.
5. As per a recent study by IIT Kharagpur and Archaeological Survey of

India, a weaker monsoon might have been the cause of the decline of
Indus Valley Civilization. Environmental changes, coupled with a loss of
power of rulers (central administration) of Indus valley to sustain the Notes

city life might be the cause There might be a resource shortage to
sustain the population, and then people moved towards south India.
6. Another theory states that interpersonal violence, infectious diseases

and climate change had played a major role in the demise of the Indus
Valley Civilization.
Previous Years Questions: Notes
Q1. Which of the following characterises/characterise the people of the Indus

Valley Civilization? (2013)
1. They possessed great palaces and temples
2. They worshipped both male and female deities
3. They employed horse-drawn chariots
Select the correct statement/statements using the codes given below:
a. 1 and 2 only
b. 2 only
c. 1, 2 and 3
d. None of the statements given above is correct.
Q2. Regarding the Indus Valley Civilisation, consider the following

statements; (2011)
1. It was predominantly a secular civilization and the religious element,
though present, did not dominate the scene,
2. During this period, cotton was used for manufacturing textiles in India.
Which of the statements given above is/are correct?
a. 1 only
b. 2 only
c. Both 1 and 2
d. Neither 1 nor 2
Notes
EARLY STATES AND
ECONOMIES
There were several developments in different parts of the subcontinent during

the long span of 1,500 years following the end of the Harappan civilisation. This
was also the period during which the Rigveda was composed by people living
along the Indus and its tributaries.
Note-Rig Veda is the earliest of the four Vedas and consists of ten mandalas or
books and 1028 hymns. It is the oldest text in any Indo-European language. It
was compiled as early as 1700 BC.
Agricultural settlements emerged in many parts of the subcontinent, including

north India, the Deccan Plateau, and parts of Karnataka. Besides, there is
evidence of pastoral populations in the Deccan and further south.
Note-Pastoral farming (also known in some regions as ranching, livestock

farming or grazing) is aimed at producing livestock.
New modes of disposal of the dead, including the making of elaborate stone
structures known as megaliths, emerged in south India. In many cases, the
dead were buried with a rich range of iron tools and weapons. In India,
archaeologists trace the majority of the megaliths to the Iron Age (1500 BCE to
500 BCE).
Note- Megaliths, or structures built with large stones, are present all around
the world in large numbers. The Megaliths have existed since the middle Stone
Age, and also in the neolithic periods. However, the Indian megaliths are
mainly from the Iron Age.
From the sixth century BCE, there is evidence that there were other trends as Notes
well. Perhaps the most visible was the emergence of early states, empires and
kingdoms. Simultaneously, new towns appeared almost throughout the
subcontinent.
JAMES PRINCEP:
Some of the most momentous developments in Indian epigraphy took place in

the 1830s. In 1838 James Prinsep, an officer in the mint of the East India
Company, deciphered Brahmi and Kharosthi, two scripts used in the earliest
inscriptions and coins.
Note-Epigraphy is the study of inscriptions.
This gave a new direction to investigations into early Indian political history as
European and Indian scholars used inscriptions and texts composed in a variety
of languages to reconstruct the lineages of major dynasties that had ruled the
subcontinent. As a result, the broad contours of political history were in place
by the early decades of the twentieth century.
THE EARLIEST STATES:
The sixteen mahajanapadas
The sixth century BCE is often regarded as a major turning point in early Indian
history. It is an era associated with early states, cities, the growing use of iron,
the development of coinage, etc. It also witnessed the growth of diverse
systems of thought, including Buddhism and Jainism. Early Buddhist and Jaina
texts mention sixteen states known as Mahajanapadas. Although the lists vary,
some names such as Vrijji/Vajji, Magadha, Koshala, Kuru, Panchala, Gandhara
and Avanti occur frequently. Clearly, these were amongst the most important
mahajanapadas.
Note-Janapada means the land where a jana (a people, clan or tribe) sets its Notes
foot or settles.
While most mahajanapadas were ruled by kings,some, known as ganas or

sanghas, were oligarchies where power was shared by a number of men, often
collectively called rajas. Both Mahavira and the Buddha belonged to such
ganas.
Note- Vajji Mahajanapada was related to both Mahatma Buddha and
Gautama Buddha. Mahavir was born in Kundagram near Vaishali in 599 BC.
Vaishali was the capital of "Vajji Mahajanapada”. Gautama Buddha was born
in Lumbini near Kapilavastu around 563 BC.Gautama Buddha's father was the
head of Shakyagan and the Shakya republic was one of the 8 republics of Vajji
republic.
In some instances, as in the case of the Vajji sangha, the rajas probably
controlled resources such as land collectively. Although their histories are often
difficult to reconstruct due to the lack of sources, some of these states lasted
for nearly a thousand years.
Each mahajanapada had a capital city, which was often fortified. Maintaining
these fortified cities as well as providing for incipient armies and bureaucracies
required resources.
From sixth century BCE onwards, Brahmanas began composing Sanskrit texts
known as the Dharmasutras. These laid down norms for rulers (as well as for
other social categories), who were ideally expected to be Kshatriyas. Rulers
were advised to collect taxes and tribute from cultivators, traders and artisans.
Raids on neighbouring states were recognised as a legitimate means of Notes

acquiring wealth. Gradually, some states acquired standing armies and
maintained regular bureaucracies. Others continued to depend on militia,
recruited, more often than not, from the peasantry.
First amongst the sixteen: Magadha

Between the sixth and the fourth centuries BCE, Magadha (in present-day
Bihar) became the most powerful mahajanapada.
Magadha was a region where agriculture was especially productive. Besides,

iron mines (in present-day Jharkhand) were accessible and provided resources
for tools and weapons. Elephants, an important component of the army, were
found in forests in the region. Also, the Ganga and its tributaries provided a
means of cheap and convenient communication.
Early Buddhist and Jaina writers who wrote about Magadha attributed its
power to the policies of individuals: ruthlessly ambitious kings of whom
Bimbisara, Ajatasattu and Mahapadma Nanda are the best known, and their
ministers, who helped implement their policies.
Initially, Rajagaha (present day Rajgir in Bihar) was the capital of Magadha.
Interestingly, the old name means “house of the king”. Rajagaha was a fortified
settlement, located amongst hills.
Later, in the fourth century BCE, the capital was shifted to Pataliputra, present-
day Patna, commanding routes of communication along the Ganga.
AN EARLY EMPIRE:
• The growth of Magadha culminated in the emergence of the Mauryan
Empire. Chandragupta Maurya, founded the empire in 321 BCE.
• The Maurya Empire ruled by the Mauryan dynasty, was a geographically
extensive and powerful political and military empire in ancient India.
• Chandragupta Maurya founded the Empire in 321 B.C.E., after
overthrowing the Nanda Dynasty.
• In the wake of the death of Alexander the Great in 323 BCE,
Chandragupta Maurya, conquered the Punjab region from Alexander’s
former empire.
• Now enjoying peace along the western border, Chandragupta was free
to focus his military exploits to the east and to the south. By the end of
his reign, he had extended his empire across northern India.
• His son, Bindusara, continued the empire’s expansion well into the
Deccan, stopping around the region known today as Karnataka.
• Bindusara’s son, Ashoka (273–232 BCE), added Kalinga (present-day Notes

Orissa).
• Historians have used a variety of sources to reconstruct the history of
the Mauryan Empire. These include archaeological finds, especially
sculpture. Also valuable are contemporary works, such as the account
of Megasthenes (a Greek ambassador to the court of Chandragupta
Maurya). Another source that is often used is the Arthashastra,
composed by Kautilya or Chanakya, traditionally believed to be the
minister of Chandragupta. Besides, the Mauryas are mentioned in later
Buddhist, Jaina and Puranic literature, as well as in Sanskrit literary
works.
Note-Megasthenes was a Greek Diplomat, Historian and ethnographer whose

extensive writings about the cultures of India gave an insight into the lives of
ancient Indians during the rule of Chandragupta Maurya. He was sent to the
court of Chandragupta by Greek general Selecus Nicator. Although his book,
the Indica was lost in the currents of time, it has been reconstructed to a certain
extent using literary sources from later authors.
• While these are useful, the inscriptions of Asoka on rocks and pillars are
often regarded as amongst the most valuable sources.
Note-The inscriptions and edicts of Asoka refer to a collection of 33 inscriptions

on the Pillars as well as boulders and cave walls, made by the emperor Asoka
during his reign dispersed throughout the areas of modern-day Pakistan,
Afghanistan, Nepal and India.
• Asoka was the first ruler who inscribed his messages to his subjects and
officials on stone surfaces – natural rocks as well as polished pillars. He
used the inscriptions to proclaim his dhamma.
• Most Ashokan inscriptions in India were written in Prakrit language
using Brahmi script. Some inscriptions in the northwest of the
subcontinent were written in Prakrit language using Kharosthi script.
Inscriptions in the parts of modern-day Afghanistan were written in
Aramic and Greek language.
• The name of the ruler, Asoka, is not mentioned in most of the
inscriptions. What is used instead are titles adopted by the ruler –
devanampiya, often translated as “beloved of the gods” and piyadassi,
or “pleasant to behold”.
Note- The name Asoka is mentioned in the Maski inscription discovered in

1915. Maski is a village in Raichur district, Karnataka.
Notes
Asoka's Dhamma:
• The Dhamma policy of Ashoka was a way of life and code of behaviour
that the people were to follow. In his edicts, he emphasised his
Dhamma policies. The majority of Ashoka's inscriptions are on Dhamma
(the Prakrit word for dharma). The topic of Dhamma was widely
appealing to people of all faiths.
• This included respect towards elders, generosity towards Brahmanas

and those who renounced worldly life, treating slaves and servants
kindly, and respect for religions and traditions other than one’s own.
• Special officers, known as the dhamma mahamatta, were appointed to

spread the message of dhamma.
THE MAURYAN ADMINISTRATION: Notes
• There were five major political centres in the empire – the capital
Pataliputra and the provincial centres of Taxila, Ujjayini, Tosali and
Suvarnagiri.
• The Mauryan administration was highly centralized. It started with the
Emperor being the supreme power and root of all authority.
• A Council of Ministers cooperated in ruling the state, they were called
‘Mantriparishad’.
• The highest-ranking category of officials in the Mauryan administration
was known as Tirthas.
• Ranked next to Tirthas were the Adhyakshya. They had economic and
military functions.
• There were also high-ranking officials that had administrative and
judicial roles, they were known as Amatyas.
• Megasthenes mentions a committee with six subcommittees for
coordinating military activity. Of these, one looked after the navy, the
second managed transport and provisions, the third was responsible for
foot-soldiers, the fourth for horses, the fifth for chariots and the sixth
for elephants.
NEW NOTIONS OF KINGSHIP: Notes
EARLY KINGDOMS OF THE SOUTH:
The southern end of the Indian peninsula situated south of the Krishna River
was divided into three kingdoms – Chola, Pandya and Chera. They were
contemporaries of Mauryans.
We know about these states from a variety of sources. For instance, the early
Tamil Sangam texts contain poems describing chiefs and the ways in which
they acquired and distributed resources.
Pandyas
• The Pandya territory occupied the southernmost and the south-eastern

portion of the Indian Peninsula. The Pandyas are first mentioned by
Megasthenes, wherein he refers to a Pandya kingdom celebrated for
pearls and ruled by a woman, suggesting that the Pandya society was
matriarchal.
• The Sangam literature mentions Pandya rulers and describes the
kingdom as wealthy and prosperous. The Pandya kings benefited from
the trade with the Roman empire and even sent embassies to the
Roman emperor Augustus.
• Nediyon, Palshalai Mudukudumi were the notable early Pandyan kings.
Cholas Notes
• The Chola kingdom was called Cholamandalam and was situated to the
north-east of the territory of the Pandyas, between the Pennar and the
Velar rivers.
• Their chief centre of political power and capital Uraiyur was famous for
cotton trade. It seems that in the middle of the 2nd century BCE, a
Chola king named Elara conquered Sri Lanka and ruled over it for nearly
50 years.
• The Cholas also maintained an efficient navy. The main source of wealth
of the Cholas was their trade in cotton cloth.
• Karikala, Tondaiman and Elara were the notable early Chola kings.
Cheras
• The Chera or the Kerala country was situated to the west and north of
the land of the Pandyas. It included the narrow strip of land between
the sea and the mountains and covered a portion of modern Kerala
state.
• It was an important and prosperous kingdom owing to its trade with the
Romans. The Romans set up two regiments at Muziris (near modern
Kochi) to protect their interests and also built a temple of Augustus.
• Unicameral, Nedunjeral and Senguttuvan were among the early notable
Chera kings.
• Senguttuvan was also known as the Red Chera or Good Chera.
Many chiefs and kings, including the Satavahanas who ruled over parts of
western and central India (c. second century BCE-second century CE) and the
Shakas, a people of Central Asian origin who established kingdoms in the north-
western and western parts of the subcontinent, derived revenues from long-
distance trade.
Note-The Satavahanas emerged out of the ruins of the Mauryan Empire that
declined and disintegrated by the first half of the 2nd century BCE. Satavahanas
first king, Simuka began his rule around 230 BCE. The Satavahana kingdom
majorly comprised present Andhra Pradesh, Maharashtra and Telangana. At
times, their rule also included parts of Gujarat, Karnataka as well as Madhya
Pradesh.
Notes
Note-Scythians (referred to as Sakas in Indian sources) were a group of Iranian

nomadic pastoral tribes. In the second century BC, central Asian nomadic tribes
and tribes from the Chinese region invaded the region of present-day
Kazakhstan whose inhabitants were Scythians. This promoted the Scythians to
move towards Bactria and Parthia. After defeating the Parthian king, they
moved towards India. Scythians who migrated to India are known as Indo-
Scythians. The Sakas had an Indian kingdom larger than the Indo-Greeks.
Maues, also known as Moga was the earliest Indo-Scythian king. King
Rudradaman I (Reign 130 AD – 150 AD) was the greatest of Saka rulers.
Notes
Do you Know: The Junagarh inscription gives the information about the
Sudharshan lake (Gujarat) that the lake was an artificial reservoir, built by the
Mauryan emperors for checking floods. Around 150 AD, the lake was repaired
by the Shaka ruler Rudradaman I. It was done by Rudradaman from his own
resources without imposing any additional tax on the people.
THINK: The Junagarh inscription
Divine kings
One means of claiming high status was to identify with a variety of deities. This
strategy is best exemplified by the Kushanas who ruled over a vast kingdom
extending from Central Asia to northwest India. Their
The notions of kingship they wished to project are perhaps best evidenced in
their coins and sculpture. Colossal statues of Kushana rulers have been found
installed in a shrine at Mat near Mathura (Uttar Pradesh). Similar statues have
been found in a shrine in Afghanistan as well. Some historians feel this indicates
that the Kushanas considered themselves godlike. Many Kushana rulers also
adopted the title devaputra, or “son of god”, possibly inspired by Chinese
rulers who called themselves sons of heaven.
Note-As per the Chinese sources, the Kushanas (mentioned in Chinese texts as
Guishuang) were one of the 5 tribes of Yueh-Chi or Yuezhi. Kushanas were also
known as Tocharians. They were nomadic tribes. Kujula Kadphises (AD 30-AD
80) was the first Yueh Chi chief who crossed the Hindukush Mountains and laid Notes
down the foundation of the Kushana Empire. He established himself in Kabul
and Kashmir and is credited for the defeat of Last Greek Kings.
Do you Know: Kushana King Vima Kadphises: (AD 95-AD 127) first to introduce
the Gold Coins in India in addition to the Copper and Silver coins.
Do you Know: Kanishka [127 AD – 150 AD] was the greatest among the
Kushana rulers. He patronised Sanskrit and Buddhism. He is called as 'Second
Asoka'.
By the fourth century there is evidence of larger states, including the Gupta
Empire. Many of these depended on samantas, men who maintained
themselves through local resources including control over land. They offered
homage and provided military support to rulers. Powerful samantas could
become kings: conversely, weak rulers might find themselves being reduced to
positions of subordination.
Note-The period of the Gupta Empire is popularly known as the “Golden Age
of India”. It is because of the widespread research and development in science,
engineering & technology, art, literature, logic, mathematics, astronomy,
religion and philosophy that illuminated the elements of Hindu culture. The
Gupta empire was founded by Sri Gupta in around 275 AD.
Notes
Do you know: The Allahabad Pillar Inscription was composed in Sanskrit by

Harishena, the court poet of Samudragupta, arguably the most powerful of the
Gupta rulers.
Do you Know: In the coins of the Gupta Empire, Samudra Gupta is represented
as playing Veena.
Notes
A CHANGING COUNTRYSIDE:
Popular Perceptions of Kings:

Ordinary people rarely left accounts of their thoughts and experiences.
Nevertheless, historians have tried to solve this problem by examining stories
contained in anthologies such as the Jatakas and the Panchatantra. Many of
these stories probably originated as popular oral tales that were later
committed to writing.
Jatakas:
• The Jatakas are a body of literature that consists of various narratives
of the life of Gautam Budhha taking birth in both human and animal
forms.
• The exact dates of the Jataka literature cannot be determined owing to
several branches of the writing dating to different periods. A metrical
analysis indicates that the contents were developed in around 300 BCE
to 400 AD.
• The Jatakas were written in Pali language.
Panchatantra:
• Vishnu Sharma wrote the book Panchtantra during the Gupta period in
the 3rd century AD.
• It is an ancient Indian collection of interrelated animal fables in Sanskrit.
Land grants and new rural elites
From the early centuries of the Common Era, we find grants of land being
made, many of which were recorded in inscriptions. Some of these inscriptions
were on stone, but most were on copper plates which were probably given as
a record of the transaction to those who received the land.
The records that have survived are generally about grants to religious Notes
institutions or to Brahmanas. Most inscriptions were in Sanskrit. In some cases,
and especially from the seventh century onwards, part of the inscription was in
Sanskrit, while the rest was in a local language such as Tamil or Telugu.
One inscription sheds light on Prabhavati Gupta, daughter of one of the most
important rulers in early Indian history, Chandragupta II. She was married into
another important ruling family, that of the Vakatakas, who were powerful in
the Deccan. According to Sanskrit legal texts, women were not supposed to
have independent access to resources such as land. However, the inscription
indicates that Prabhavati had access to land, which she then granted. This may
have been because she was a queen (one of the few known from early Indian
history), and her situation was therefore exceptional.
Note-The Vakatakas originated in the central Deccan in the mid-3rd century CE

and their empire is believed to have extended from Malwa and Gujarat in the
north to the Tungabhadra in the south and from the Arabian Sea in the west to
the Bay of Bengal in the east.
Do you know: Prabhavatigupta was the chief queen of the Vakataka king
Rudrasena II and took over as queen after the sudden death of her husband.
She ruled for about 10 years until her son Pravarasena II succeeded.
Land grants have been found in several parts of the country, especially during Notes
the Gupta period. There were regional variations in the sizes of land donated –
ranging from small plots to vast stretches of uncultivated land – and the rights
given to donees (the recipients of the grant).
Some feel that land grants were part of a strategy adopted by ruling lineages
to extend agriculture to new areas. Others suggest that land grants were
indicative of weakening political power: as kings were losing control over their
samantas, they tried to win allies by making grants of land.
An agrahara was land granted to a Brahmana, who was usually exempted from
paying land revenue and other dues to the king, and was often given the right
to collect these dues from the local people.
Trade in the subcontinent and beyond
From the sixth century BCE, land and river routes criss-crossed the
subcontinent and extended in various directions – overland into Central Asia
and beyond, and overseas, from ports that dotted the coastline – extending
across the Arabian Sea to East and North Africa and West Asia, and through the
Bay of Bengal to Southeast Asia and China. Rulers often attempted to control
these routes.
Successful merchants, designated as masattuvan in Tamil and setthis and

satthavahas in Prakrit, became enormously rich.
Coins and kings
Numismatics is the study of coins, including visual elements such as scripts and
images, metallurgical analysis and the contexts in which they have been found
The first coins to bear the names and images of rulers were issued by the Indo-
Greeks, who established control over the north-western part of the
subcontinent in the second century BCE.
Note-After the decline of the Mauryas, northern India was split into several
kingdoms. Northwest India was constantly under attack from powers in Central
Asia and northwest. The Indo-Greek Kingdom was established around 180 BC
when the Graeco-Bactrian king Demetrius invaded the Indian subcontinent.
The kushanas were the first to issue gold coins.
Some of the most spectacular gold coins were issued by the Gupta rulers. The
earliest issues are remarkable for their purity. These coins facilitated long-
distance transactions from which kings also benefited.
Deciphering Brahmi: Notes
Most scripts used to write modern Indian languages are derived from Brahmi,
the script used in most Ashokan inscriptions.
It was only after decades of painstaking investigations by several epigraphists

that James Prinsep was able to decipher Brahmi in 1838.
Note- Devanagari is the script used to write Hindi and Sanskrit.
EARLY SOCIETIES Notes
In the previous chapter we saw that there were several changes in economic
and political life between 600 BCE and 600 CE. Some of these changes
influenced societies as well. For instance, the extension of agriculture into
forested areas transformed the lives of forest dwellers; craft specialists often
emerged as distinct social groups; the unequal distribution of wealth
sharpened social differences.
Historians often use literary sources to understand these processes. Some texts
lay down norms of social behaviour; others describe and comment on a wide
range of social situations and practices.
Each text (and inscription) was written from the perspective of specific social
categories. So, we need to keep in mind who composed what and for whom.
We also need to consider the language used, and the ways in which the text
circulated. Texts allow us to piece together attitudes and practices that shaped
social histories.
MAHABHARATA
Mahabharata is one such colossal epic running in its present form into over
100,000 verses with depictions of a wide range of social categories and
situations. It was composed over a period of about 1,000 years (500 BCE
onwards), and some of the stories it contains may have been in circulation even
earlier. The central story is about two sets of warring cousins. The text also
contains sections laying down norms of behaviour for various social groups.
Note- Mythologically, it is believed that a Sage Vyasa narrated the story of

Mahabharata and it was written down by lord Ganesha.
The Critical Edition of The Mahabharata:
One of the most ambitious projects of scholarship began in 1919, under the
leadership of a noted Indian Sanskritist, V.S. Sukthankar. A team comprising
dozens of scholars initiated the task of preparing a critical edition of the
Mahabharata by collecting Sanskrit manuscripts of the text, written in a variety
of scripts, from different parts of the country.
Note-Vishnu Sitaram Sukthankar, also known as V. S. Sukthankar, was an

Indologist and scholar of Sanskrit. He is principally known as the General Editor
of the Critical Edition of the Mahabharata published by the Bhandarkar Oriental
Research Institute in Pune, India.
The team worked out a method of comparing verses from each manuscript.
Ultimately, they selected the verses that appeared common to most versions Notes
and published these in several volumes, running into over 13,000 pages. The
project took 47 years to complete.
Two things became apparent: there were several common elements in the
Sanskrit versions of the story, evident in manuscripts found all over the
subcontinent, from Kashmir and Nepal in the north to Kerala and Tamil Nadu
in the south.
Also evident were enormous regional variations in the ways in which the text
had been transmitted over the centuries. These variations were documented
in footnotes and appendices to the main text. Taken together, more than half
the 13,000 pages are devoted to these variations.
These variations are reflective of the complex processes that shaped early (and
later) social histories – through dialogues between dominant traditions and
resilient local ideas and practices.
Our understanding of these processes is derived primarily from texts written in

Sanskrit by and for Brahmanas. When issues of social history were explored
for the first time by historians in the nineteenth and twentieth centuries, they
tended to take these texts at face value – believing that everything that was
laid down in these texts was actually practised.
Subsequently, scholars began studying other traditions, from works in Pali,

Prakrit and Tamil. These studies indicated that the ideas contained in Sanskrit
texts were on the whole recognised as authoritative but some of them were
also questioned and occasionally even rejected.
Kinship And Marriage: Many Rules and Varied Practices
Finding out about families
Not all families are identical: they vary in terms of numbers of members, their
relationship with one another as well as the kinds of activities they share.
Families are usually parts of larger networks of people defined as relatives, or
to use a more technical term, kinfolk.
Note-The social relationships deriving from blood ties and marriage are
collectively referred to as kinship.
While familial ties are often regarded as “natural” and based on blood, they are
defined in many different ways. For instance, some societies regard cousins as
being blood relations, whereas others do not.
For early societies, historians can retrieve information about elite families fairly
easily; it is, however, far more difficult to reconstruct the familial relationships Notes
of ordinary people. Historians also investigate and analyse attitudes towards
family and kinship. These are important, because they provide an insight into
people’s thinking; it is likely that some of these ideas would have shaped their
actions, just as actions may have led to changes in attitudes.
The ideal of patriliny
Mahabharata is a story about a feud over land and power between two groups
of cousins, the Kauravas and the Pandavas, who belonged to a single ruling
family, that of the Kurus, a lineage dominating one of the janapadas.
Ultimately, the conflict ended in a battle, in which the Pandavas emerged

victorious. After that, patrilineal succession was proclaimed. While patriliny
had existed prior to the composition of the epic, the central story of the
Mahabharata reinforced the idea that it was valuable. Under patriliny, sons
could claim the resources (including the throne in the case of kings) of their
fathers when the latter died.
Most ruling dynasties (sixth century BCE onwards) claimed to follow this
system, although there were variations in practice: sometimes there were no
sons, in some situations brothers succeeded one another, sometimes other
kinsmen claimed the throne, and, in very exceptional circumstances, women
such as Prabhavati Gupta exercised power.
The practice of patriliny was not unique to ruling families. It is possible that
these attitudes were shared by wealthy men and those who claimed high
status, including Brahmanas.
Rules of Marriage Notes
While sons were important for the continuity of the patrilineage, daughters
were viewed rather differently within this framework. They had no claims to
the resources of the household. At the same time, marrying them into families
outside the kin was considered desirable. This system, called exogamy (literally,
marrying outside), meant that the lives of young girls and women belonging to
families that claimed high status were often carefully regulated to ensure that
they were married at the “right” time and to the “right” person. This gave rise
to the belief that kanyadana or the gift of a daughter in marriage was an
important religious duty of the father.
With the emergence of new towns, social life became more complex. People
from near and far met to buy and sell their products and share ideas in the
urban milieu. This may have led to a questioning of earlier beliefs and practices.
Faced with this challenge, the Brahmanas responded by laying down codes of
social behaviour in great detail. These were meant to be followed by
Brahmanas in particular and the rest of society in general. From 500 BCE, these
norms were compiled in Sanskrit texts known as the Dharmasutras and
Dharmashastras. The most important of such works, the Manusmriti, was
compiled between 200 BCE and 200 CE.
The Dharmasutras and Dharmashastras recognised as many as eight forms of

marriage. Of these, the first four were considered as “good” while the
remaining were condemned. It is possible that these were practised by those
who did not accept Brahmanical norms.
Note- The 8 forms of marriage were- Brahma Marriage, Daiva Marriage, Arsha
Marriage, Prajapatya Marriage, Gandharva Marriage, Asura Marriage,
Rakshasa Marriage, Paishacha Marriage.
THINK: Meaning of each form of marriage. Notes
The Gotra of Women
One practice evident from 1000 BCE onwards, was to classify in terms of gotras.
Each gotra was named after a Vedic seer, and all those who belonged to the
same gotra were regarded as his descendants.
Two rules about gotra were particularly important:
i. women were expected to give up their father’s gotra and adopt that of
their husband on marriage and,
ii. members of the same gotra could not marry.
Satavahana rulers were identified through metronymics (names derived from

that of the mother).
Some of the Satavahana rulers were polygynous (that is, had more than one
wife). An examination of the names of women who married Satavahana rulers
indicates that many of them had names derived from gotras such as Gotama
and Vasistha, their father’s gotras. They evidently retained these names
instead of adopting names derived from their husband’s gotra name as they
were required to do according to the rules. What is also apparent is that some
of these women belonged to the same gotra. As is obvious, this ran counter to
the ideal of exogamy recommended in the Brahmanical texts. In fact, it Notes

exemplified an alternative practice, that of endogamy or marriage within the
kin group, which was prevalent amongst several communities in south India.
Such marriages amongst kinfolk ensured a close-knit community.
SOCIAL DIFFERENCES: WITHIN AND BEYOND THE FRAMEWORK OF CASTE
Caste refers to a set of hierarchically ordered social categories. The ideal order
was laid down in the Dharmasutras and Dharmashastras. Brahmanas claimed
that this order, in which they were ranked first, was divinely ordained, while
placing groups classified as Shudras and “untouchables” at the very bottom of
the social order. Positions within the order were supposedly determined by
birth.
The “Right” Occupation
The Dharmasutras and Dharmashastras also contained rules about the ideal
“occupations” of the four categories or varnas.
i. Brahmanas were supposed to study and teach the Vedas, perform

sacrifices and get sacrifices performed, and give and receive gifts.
ii. Kshatriyas were to engage in warfare, protect people and administer

justice, study the Vedas, get sacrifices performed, and make gifts.
iii. The Vaishyas were expected to engage in agriculture, pastoralism and

trade.
iv. Shudras were assigned only one occupation – that of serving the three
“higher” varnas. They could not perform any rituals.
The Brahmanas evolved two or three strategies for enforcing these norms.
One, as we have just seen, was to assert that the varna order was of divine
origin. Second, they advised kings to ensure that these norms were followed
within their kingdoms. And third, they attempted to persuade people that their
status was determined by birth. However, this was not always easy. So,
prescriptions were often reinforced by stories told in the Mahabharata and
other texts.
Notes
Note-Mricchakatika is a play set in the ancient city of Ujjayanai under the reign Notes
of Pradyota dynasty King Plaka. The major plot is around Charudatta, a noble
but destitute young Brahmin who falls in love with Vasantasena, daughter of a
rich courtesan. Despite their mutual passion, the couple's life and love are
jeopardised when a vulgar courtier, Samsthanaka, commonly known as
Shakara, begins to pursue Vasantasena relentlessly.
Non-Kshatriya Kings
According to the Shastras, only Kshatriyas could be kings. However, several

important ruling lineages probably had different origins.
The social background of the Mauryas, who ruled over a large empire, has
been hotly debated. While later Buddhist texts suggested they were Kshatriyas,
Brahmanical texts described them as being of “low” origin.
The political power was effectively open to anyone who could muster support
and resources, and rarely depended on birth as a Kshatriya.
Other rulers, such as the Shakas who came from Central Asia, were regarded
as mlechchhas, barbarians or outsiders by the Brahmanas.
It is also interesting that the best-known ruler of the Satavahana dynasty,

Gotami-puta Siri-Satakani, claimed to be both a unique Brahmana (eka
bamhana) and a destroyer of the pride of Kshatriyas.
Note-Gautamiputra Satakarni ruled the Satavahana Empire in India's present-

day Deccan region. He was referred to as the Satavahana Dynasty's most
important and powerful ruler. His reign is variously dated as 86-110 CE,or106-
130 CE.
As you can see from this example, integration within the framework of caste
was often a complicated process. The Satavahanas claimed to be Brahmanas,
whereas according to the Brahmanas, kings ought to have been Kshatriyas.
They even practised endogamy instead of the exogamous system
recommended in the Brahmanical texts.
Beyond the four varnas: Subordination and Conflict
While the Brahmanas considered some people as being outside the system,
they also developed a sharper social divide by classifying certain social
categories as “untouchable”.
This rested on a notion that certain activities, especially those connected with
the performance of rituals, were sacred and by extension “pure”. Those who
considered themselves pure avoided taking food from those they designated
as “untouchable”. Notes
Some activities were regarded as particularly “polluting”. These included

handling corpses and dead animals. Those who performed such tasks,
designated as chandalas, were placed at the very bottom of the hierarchy.
Their touch and, in some cases, even seeing them was regarded as “polluting”
by those who claimed to be at the top of the social order.
The Manusmriti laid down the “duties” of the chandalas. They had to live
outside the village, use discarded utensils, and wear clothes of the dead and
ornaments of iron. They could not walk about in villages and cities at night.
They had to dispose of the bodies of those who had no relatives and serve as
executioners. Much later, the Chinese Buddhist monk Fa-Xian wrote that
“untouchables” had to sound a clapper in the streets so that people could avoid
seeing them. Another Chinese pilgrim, Xuan Zang (c. seventh century),
observed that executioners and scavengers were forced to live outside the city.
Note-Fa-Xian also known as Fa-Hien, Fa-hsien, and Sehi, was a Chinese

Buddhist monk and translator who travelled from China to India on foot to
acquire Buddhist texts. He began his arduous journey around the age of 60,
visiting sacred Buddhist sites in Central, South, and Southeast Asia between 399
and 412 CE. He spent ten years in India.
Do you Know: Fa-Hien visited India during the reign of Chandragupta II.
Note-Hiuen Tsang also known as Xuan Zang was a Chinese Buddhist monk,
scholar, traveller, and translator from the 7th century. He is remembered for his
seminal contributions to Chinese Buddhism, the travelogue of his journey to
India from 629 to 645 CE.
Do you Know: Hiuen Tsang visited India during the reign of King Harsha
Vardhan.
Beyond Birth: Resources and Status:
Gendered Access to Property:
Issues of ownership were discussed in the Dharmasutras and Dharmashastras.

According to the Manusmriti, the paternal estate was to be divided equally
amongst sons after the death of the parents, with a special share for the eldest.
Women could not claim a share of these resources.
However, women were allowed to retain the gifts they received on the
occasion of their marriage as stridhana (literally, a woman’s wealth). This
could be inherited by their children, without the husband having any claim on
it. At the same time, the Manusmriti warned women against hoarding family Notes
property, or even their own valuables, without the husband’s permission.
Social differences between men and women were sharpened because of the
differences in access to resources.
Varna and Access to Property
According to the Brahmanical texts, another criterion (apart from gender) for
regulating access to wealth was varna. As we saw earlier, the only “occupation”
prescribed for Shudras was servitude, while a variety of occupations were listed
for men of the first three varnas.
If these provisions were actually implemented, the wealthiest men would have
been the Brahmanas and the Kshatriyas. That this corresponded to some
extent with social realities is evident from descriptions of priests and kings in
other textual traditions. Kings are almost invariably depicted as wealthy; priests
are also generally shown to be rich, though there are occasional depictions of
the poor Brahmana.
Even as the Brahmanical view of society was codified in the Dharmasutras and
Dharmashastras, other traditions developed critiques of the varna order. Some
of the best-known of these were developed within early Buddhism.
The Buddhists recognised that there were differences in society, but did not
regard these as natural or inflexible. They also rejected the idea of claims to
status on the basis of birth.
CULTURAL DEVELOPMENTS Notes
In this chapter we shall read about philosophers and their attempts to

understand the world they inhabited. We will also see how their ideas were
compiled as oral and written texts as well as expressed in architecture and
sculpture. These represent the enduring influence these thinkers had on
people.
The sources that historians use to reconstruct this exciting world of ideas and
beliefs include Buddhist, Jaina and Brahmanical texts, as well as a large and
impressive body of material remains including monuments and inscriptions.
THE BACKGROUND: SACRIFICES AND DEBAETS
The mid-first millennium BCE is often regarded as a turning point in world

history: it saw the emergence of thinkers such as Zarathustra, in Iran, Kong Zi
in China, Socrates, Plato and Aristotle in Greece, and Mahavira and Gautama
Buddha, among many others, in India.
They tried to understand the mysteries of existence and the relationship

between human beings and the cosmic order. This was also the time when new
kingdoms and cities were developing and social and economic life was changing
in a variety of ways in the Ganga valley. These thinkers attempted to
understand these developments as well.
Note- The 1st millennium BCE, also known as the last millennium BCE, was the
period of time lasting from the years 1000 BCE to 1 BCE.
Note-Zoroaster also known as Zarathustra, Zarathushtra Spitama, or Ashu

Zarathushtra, is regarded as the spiritual founder of Zoroastrianism.
Zoroastrianism is an ancient Persian religion that may have originated as early
as 4,000 years ago, it's one of the oldest religions still in existence.
Note-Kong Zi also known as Confucius was a Chinese philosopher and politician

of the Spring and Autumn period who is traditionally considered the paragon of
Chinese sages. Confucius's teachings and philosophy underpin East Asian
culture and society, remaining influential across China and East Asia to this
day.He was born in 551 BCE.
THINK: Socrates, Plato and Aristotle.
The Sacrificial Tradition Notes
There were several pre-existing traditions of thought, religious belief and

practice, including the early Vedic tradition, known from the Rigveda, compiled
between 1500 BCE and 1000 BCE.
The Rigveda consists of hymns in praise of a variety of deities, especially Agni,

Indra and Soma. Many of these hymns were chanted when sacrifices were
performed, where people prayed for cattle, sons, good health, long life, etc. At
first, sacrifices were performed collectively. Later (c. 1000 BCE-500 BCE
onwards) some were performed by the heads of households for the well-being
of the domestic unit. More elaborate sacrifices, such as the rajasuya and
ashvamedha, were performed by chiefs and kings who depended on Brahmana
priests to conduct the ritual.
Note-Considered the earliest literary records of Sanskrit Literature, the Vedas

are the oldest holy books in Hinduism. The Vedas are a large body of vast
knowledge and text, the religious and spiritual teachings of all aspects of life.
Veda means “Knowledge.” It is a Sanskrit word from the root “Vid,” which
means finding, knowing, acquiring, or understanding. There are four Vedas: Rig
Veda, Yajur Veda, Sama Veda, and Atharva Veda, and all of them together are
attributed to as ‘Chaturveda.’
Do you Know: The Rig Veda, the oldest of 4 Vedas, was authored in and around
1600 BCE.
Note-Rajasuya (Imperial Sacrifice or the king's inauguration sacrifice) is a ritual

of the Vedic religion. It is a consecration of a king. The rajasuya, emphasised
royal power and endowed the king with a divine charisma, raising him, at least
for the duration of the ceremony, to the status of a god.
Do you Know: Consecration means the act or process of officially making

something holy and able to be used for religious ceremonies.
Note- The Ashvamedha yagna refers to an ancient ritual followed by the

sacrifice of a horse in order to prove the imperial sovereignty of a king. A horse
was left to wander freely. If it wandered into another kingdom and the king of
that kingdom stopped it, they had to fight. The king who succeeded in the
challenge was recognised as stronger. He would then perform the sacrifice of
the horse, in which other kings would also come.
New Questions Notes
Many ideas found in the Upanishads (c. sixth century BCE onwards) show that
people were curious about the meaning of life, the possibility of life after death
and rebirth. Was rebirth due to past actions? Such issues were hotly debated.
Thinkers were concerned with understanding and expressing the nature of the
ultimate reality.
And others, outside the Vedic tradition, asked whether or not there even was
a single ultimate reality. People also began speculating on the significance of
the sacrificial tradition.
Note-The Upanishads are Hindu philosophy books written in Sanskrit that

served as the foundation for subsequent Hindu philosophy. They deal with
meditation, philosophy, consciousness, and ontological knowledge. The word
Upanishad means to sit down near someone and denotes a student sitting
near his guru to learn.
Debates and Discussions
We get a glimpse of lively discussions and debates from Buddhist texts, which
mention as many as 64 sects or schools of thought. Teachers travelled from
place to place, trying to convince one another as well as laypersons, about the
validity of their philosophy or the way they understood the world. Debates took
place in the Kutagarashala – literally, a hut with a pointed roof – or in groves
where travelling mendicants halted.
If a philosopher succeeded in convincing one of his rivals, the followers of the

latter also became his disciples. So, support for any particular sect could grow
and shrink over time.
Many of these teachers, including Mahavira and Buddha, questioned the

authority of the Vedas. They also emphasised individual agency -suggesting
that men and women could strive to attain liberation from the trials and
tribulations of worldly existence.
This was in marked contrast to the Brahmanical position, wherein, as we have

seen, an individual’s existence was thought to be determined by his or her birth
in a specific caste or gender.
BEYOND WORLDLY PLEASURES: THE MESSAGE OF MAHAVIRA Notes
The basic philosophy of the Jainas was already in existence in north India
before the birth of Vardhamana, who came to be known as Mahavira, in the
sixth century BCE. According to Jaina tradition, Mahavira was preceded by 23
other teachers or tirthankaras, those who guide men and women across the
river of existence.
Note-Mahavira was born to King Siddhartha of Kundagrama and Queen

Trishala, a Lichchhavi princess in the year 540 BCE in the Vajji kingdom,
identical with modern day Vaishali in Bihar. Mahavira belonged to the Ikshvaku
dynasty.He is the 24th Jaina tirthankara.
Do you Know: Rishabhanatha was the first Jaina tirthankara and

Parshvanatha was the 23rd tirthankara.
The most important idea in Jainism is that the entire world, even stones, rocks
and water have life. Non-injury to living beings, especially to humans, animals,
plants and insects, is central to Jaina philosophy.
According to Jaina teachings,

i. The cycle of birth and rebirth is shaped through karma.
ii. Asceticism and penance are required to free oneself from the cycle of
karma.
iii. This can be achieved only by renouncing the world; therefore, monastic
existence (Monasticism or monkhood, is a religious way of life in which
one renounces worldly pursuits to devote oneself fully to spiritual
work).is a necessary condition of salvation.
iv. Jaina monks and nuns took five vows: to abstain from killing, stealing
and lying; to observe celibacy; and to abstain from possessing property.
The Spread of Jainism
Gradually, Jainism spread to many parts of India. Jaina scholars produced a

wealth of literature in a variety of languages – Prakrit, Sanskrit and Tamil. For
centuries, manuscripts of these texts were carefully preserved in libraries
attached to temples.
Some of the earliest stone sculptures associated with religious traditions were
produced by devotees of the Jaina tirthankaras, and have been recovered from
several sites throughout the subcontinent.
THE BUDDHA AND THE QUEST FOR ENLIGHTENMENT: Notes
One of the most influential teachers of the 6th century BCE was the Buddha.
Over the centuries, his message spread across the subcontinent and beyond –
through Central Asia to China, Korea and Japan, and through Sri Lanka, to
Myanmar, Thailand and Indonesia.
How do we know about the Buddha’s teachings? These have been

reconstructed by carefully editing, translating and analysing the Buddhist texts
mentioned earlier. Historians have also tried to reconstruct details of his life
from hagiographies. Many of these were written down at least a century after
the time of the Buddha, in an attempt to preserve memories of the great
teacher.
Note-Hagiography is a biography of a saint or religious leader. Hagiographies

often praise the saint’s achievements, and may not always be literally accurate.
They are important because they tell us about the beliefs of the followers of
that particular tradition.
According to these traditions, Siddhartha, as the Buddha was named at birth,

was the son of a chief of the Sakya clan. He had a sheltered upbringing within
the palace, insulated from the harsh realities of life.
One day he persuaded his charioteer to take him into the city. His first journey
into the world outside was traumatic. He was deeply anguished when he saw
an old man, a sick man and a corpse. He realised in that moment that the decay
and destruction of the human body was inevitable.
He also saw a homeless mendicant, who, it seemed to him, had come to terms
with old age, disease and death, and found peace. Siddhartha decided that he
too would adopt the same path. Soon after, he left the palace and set out in
search of his own truth.
Note-Gautama Buddha, was born in 563 BCE on the at Lumbini, near

Kapilvastu, presently in Nepal. His father was Suddhodhana, his mother Maya
Devi died after his birth. His stepmother, Gautami brought him up. He was
married at 16 to Yashodhara and had a son named Rahula.
Do you Know: Buddha left his home when he was 29 years old.
Siddhartha explored several paths including bodily mortification which led him
to a situation of near death. Abandoning these extreme methods, he meditated
for several days and finally attained enlightenment. After this he came to be
known as the Buddha or the Enlightened One. For the rest of his life, he taught
dhamma or the path of righteous living.
Note-After 49 consecutive days of meditation, Gautama attained Bodhi Notes

(enlightenment) under a pipal tree at Bodhgaya, a village in Bihar when he
was 35 years of age.
Do you Know: The Budhha is also known as Sakyamuni or Tathagata.
Note-Buddha died at the age of 80 in 483 BCE at a place called Kushinagara, a

town in UP. The event is known as Mahaparinirvana.
THE TEACHINGS OF BUDDHA
The Buddha’s teachings have been reconstructed from stories, found mainly in
the Sutta Pitaka. Although some stories describe his miraculous powers, others
suggest that the Buddha tried to convince people through reason and
persuasion rather than through displays of supernatural power.
For instance, when a grief-stricken woman whose child had died came to the
Buddha, he gently convinced her about the inevitability of death rather than
bring her son back to life. These stories were narrated in the language spoken Notes
by ordinary people so that they could be easily understood.
Do you Know: Tripitakas were written in the Pali language. The language of
common people.
According to Buddhist philosophy,

i. the world is transient (anicca) and constantly changing;
ii. it is also soulless (anatta) as there is nothing permanent or eternal in
it.
iii. Within this transient world, sorrow (dukkha) is intrinsic to human
existence.
iv. It is by following the path of moderation (Madhyam Marg or Middle
Path) between severe penance and self-indulgence that human beings
can rise above these worldly troubles.
The Buddha emphasised individual agency and righteous action as the means
to escape from the cycle of rebirth and attain self-realisation and nibbana-
extinguishing of the ego and desire – and thus end the cycle of suffering for
those who renounced the world.
According to Buddhist tradition, his last words to his followers were: “Be lamps
unto yourselves as all of you must work out your own liberation.”
Followers of Buddha:
Soon there grew a body of disciples of the Buddha and he founded a sangha,
an organisation of monks who too became teachers of dhamma. These monks
lived simply, possessing only the essential requisites for survival, such as a bowl
to receive food once a day. As they lived on alms, they were known as
bhikkhus.
Initially, only men were allowed into the sangha, but later women also came
to be admitted. According to Buddhist texts, this was made possible through
the mediation of Ananda, one of the Buddha’s dearest disciples, who
persuaded him to allow women into the sangha.
The Buddha’s foster mother, Mahapajapati Gotami was the first woman to be
ordained as a bhikkhuni. Many women who entered the sangha became
teachers of dhamma and went on to become theris, or respected women who
had attained liberation.
The Buddha’s followers came from many social groups. They included kings,
wealthy men and gahapatis, and also humbler folk: workers, slaves and
craftspeople. Once within the sangha, all were regarded as equal, having shed Notes
their earlier social identities on becoming bhikkhus and bhikkhunis. The
internal functioning of the sangha was based on the traditions of ganas and
sanghas, where consensus was arrived at through discussions. If that failed,
decisions were taken by a vote on the subject.
Buddhism grew rapidly both during the lifetime of the Buddha and after his
death, as it appealed to many people dissatisfied with existing religious
practices and confused by the rapid social changes taking place around them.
The importance attached to conduct and values rather than claims of
superiority based on birth, the emphasis placed on metta (fellow feeling) and
karuna (compassion), especially for those who were younger and weaker than
oneself, were ideas that drew men and women to Buddhist teachings.
STUPAS
From earliest times, people tended to regard certain places as sacred. These
included sites with special trees or unique rocks, or sites of awe-inspiring
natural beauty. These sites, with small shrines attached to them, were
sometimes described as chaityas. Buddhist literature mentions several
chaityas.
Note-Chaityas were halls of worship.Viharas were monasteries constructed to

shelter the monks.
It also describes places associated with the Buddha’s life – where he was born
(Lumbini), where he attained enlightenment (Bodh Gaya), where he gave his Notes
first sermon (Sarnath) and where he attained nibbana (Kusinagara). Gradually,
each of these places came to be regarded as sacred. About 200 years after the
time of the Buddha, Asoka erected a pillar at Lumbini to mark the fact that he
had visited the place.
Do you Know: Buddha gave his first sermon in the village of Sarnath, near the
city of Banaras in UP. This event is known as Dharma-Chakra-Pravartana.
Why were stupas built?
There were other places too that were regarded as sacred. This was because
relics of the Buddha such as his bodily remains or objects used by him were
buried there. These were mounds known as stupas.
The tradition of erecting stupas may have been pre-Buddhist, but they came to
be associated with Buddhism. Since they contained relics regarded as sacred,
the entire stupa came to be venerated as an emblem of both the Buddha and
Buddhism.
According to a Buddhist text known as the Ashokavadana, Asoka distributed

portions of the Buddha’s relics to every important town and ordered the
construction of stupas over them. By the second century BCE a number of
stupas, including those at Bharhut, Sanchi and Sarnath had been built.
Note-Ashokavadana is a Sanskrit text that describes the birth and reign of

Emperor Ashoka. It contains legends as well as historical narratives, and
glorifies Ashoka as a Buddhist emperor whose only ambition was to spread
Buddhism far and wide.
Notes
The structure of the stupa
The stupa (a Sanskrit word meaning a heap) originated as a simple semi-

circular mound of earth, later called anda. Gradually, it evolved into a more
complex structure, balancing round and square shapes. Above the anda was
the harmika, a balcony like structure that represented the abode of the god.
Arising from the harmika was a mast(a tall wooden or metal pole)called the
yashti, on top of it was a chhatri or umbrella. Around the mound was a railing.
Notes
Sanchi Stupa:
• The Sanchi Stupa is one of India's most important Buddhist landmarks,

and it houses some of the country's earliest stone buildings.
• It is possibly India's best-preserved Buddhist monument complex.
• It was commissioned in the third century BCE by Mauryan ruler Ashoka
the Great. It began with a basic hemispheric brick edifice erected over
the Buddha's relics.
• Sanchi is a historical city nestled in the Vindhya Range 46 kilometres
from Madhya Pradesh's capital Bhopal
• The beautiful carvings and inscriptions show Indian architecture from
the Mauryan era (3rd century BCE).
• The Mahastupa (Great Stupa), the Ashokan pillar (with its inscriptions),
and the beautiful torans are all noteworthy features of the Sanchi
complex (gateways).
• Since 1989, Sanchi Stupa has been a UNESCO World Heritage Site.
• The importance of this monument lies in the fact that relics of two of
Buddha's disciples, Shariputra and Maudgalyayana, were enshrined
within the solid dome. Fragments of bone, several beads and other
objects were found inside the caskets.
Notes
DISCOVERING STUPAS: THE FATE OF AMARAVATI AND SANCHI
In 1796, a local raja who wanted to build a temple stumbled upon the ruins of
the stupa at Amaravati. He decided to use the stone, and thought there might
be some treasure buried in what seemed to be a hill. Some years later, a British
official named Colin Mackenzie visited the site. Although, he found several
pieces of sculpture and made detailed drawings of them, these reports were
never published.
Note-The Amaravati Stupa is a ruined Buddhist monument, probably built-in

phases between the third century BCE and about 250 CE, at Amaravathi,
Andhra Pradesh, India. The site is under the protection of the Archaeological
Survey of India. The campus includes the stupa itself and the Archaeological
Museum.
In 1854, Walter Elliot, the commissioner of Guntur (Andhra Pradesh), visited

Amaravati and collected several sculpture panels and took them away to
Madras. (These came to be called the Elliot marbles after him.) He also
discovered the remains of the western gateway and came to the conclusion
that the structure at Amaravati was one of the largest and most magnificent
Buddhist stupas ever built.
By the 1850s, some of the slabs from Amaravati had begun to be taken to Notes
different places: to the Asiatic Society of Bengal at Calcutta, to the India Office
in Madras and some even to London. It was not unusual to find these sculptures
adorning the gardens of British administrators. In fact, any new official in the
area continued to remove sculptures from the site on the grounds that earlier
officials had done the same.
One of the few men who had a different point of view was an archaeologist
named H.H. Cole. He wrote: “It seems to me a suicidal and indefensible policy
to allow the country to be looted of original works of ancient art.” He believed
that museums should have plaster-cast facsimiles of sculpture, whereas the
originals should remain where they had been found. Unfortunately, Cole did
not succeed in convincing the authorities about Amaravati, although his plea
for in situ preservation was adopted in the case of Sanchi.
Note- In Situ means in the original place.
Why did Sanchi survive while Amaravati did not? Perhaps Amaravati was
discovered before scholars understood the value of the finds and realised how
critical it was to preserve things where they had been found instead of
removing them from the site.
When Sanchi was discovered in 1818, three of its four gateways were still
standing, the fourth was lying on the spot where it had fallen and the mound
was in good condition. Even so, it was suggested that the gateway be taken to
either Paris or London; finally, a number of factors helped to keep Sanchi as it
was, and so it stands, whereas the mahachaitya at Amaravati is now just an
insignificant little mound, totally denuded of its former glory.
Note: British Gen. Henry Taylor discovered Sanchi Stupa in 1818.
SCULPTURES:
Stories in stone
The sculptures found in various stupas narrate several stories of that period.
Art historians who have carefully studied the sculpture at Sanchi identify it as
a scene from the Vessantara Jataka. This is a story about a generous prince
who gave away everything to a Brahmana, and went to live in the forest with
his wife and children.
Notes
Symbols of worship
Art historians had to acquire familiarity with hagiographies of the Buddha in

order to understand Buddhist sculpture. According to hagiographies, the
Buddha attained enlightenment while meditating under a tree. Many early
sculptors did not show the Buddha in human form – instead, they showed his
presence through symbols.
The empty seat was meant to indicate the Enlightenment of the Buddha and
the stupa was meant to represent the mahaparinibbana. Another frequently
used symbol was the wheel. This stood for the first sermon of the Buddha,
delivered at Sarnath.
Notes
As is obvious, such sculptures cannot be understood literally – for instance, the

tree does not stand simply for a tree, but symbolises an event in the life of the
Buddha. In order to understand such symbols, historians have to familiarise
themselves with the traditions of those who produced these works of art.
Popular traditions
Other sculptures at Sanchi were perhaps not directly inspired by Buddhist

ideas. These include beautiful women swinging from the edge of the gateway,
holding onto a tree.
Initially, scholars were a bit intrigued about this image, which seemed to have
little to do with renunciation. However, after examining other literary
traditions, they realised that it could be a representation of what is described
in Sanskrit as a shalabhanjika. According to popular belief, this was a woman Notes

whose touch caused trees to flower and bear fruit. It is likely that this was
regarded as an auspicious symbol and integrated into the decoration of the
stupa.
The shalabhanjika motif suggests that many people who turned to Buddhism
enriched it with their own pre-Buddhist and even non-Buddhist beliefs,
practices and ideas. Some of the recurrent motifs in the sculpture at Sanchi
were evidently derived from these traditions.
• In Buddhist art, it means an image of a woman or yakshi next to, often

holding, a tree, or a reference to Maya near the sala tree giving birth to
Siddhartha (Buddha).
• In Buddhist literature, salabhanjika also refers to an ancient Indian

festival, one celebrated when sala tree blossoms in the context of
Buddha's life.
• In Buddhist sites, reliefs on stupas displayed a stylized female by a tree,

typically grasping or breaking a branch as Buddha's mother Maya did.
In these contexts, salabhanjika may be related to ancient tree deities in
Indian popular religion, related to fertility.
There are other images as well. For instance, some of the finest depictions of Notes
animals are found there. These animals include elephants, horses,
monkeys and cattle. While the Jatakas contain several animal stories that are
depicted at Sanchi, it is likely that many of these animals were carved to create
lively scenes to draw viewers.
Also, animals were often used as symbols of human attributes. Elephants, for
example, were depicted to signify strength and wisdom.
Another motif is that of a woman surrounded by lotuses and elephants which

seem to be sprinkling water on her as if performing an abhisheka or
consecration. While some historians identify the figure as Maya, the mother of
the Buddha, others identify her with a popular goddess, Gajalakshmi – literally,
the goddess of good fortune – who is associated with elephants.
Notes
NEW RELIGIOUS TRADITIONS
The development of Mahayana Buddhism
By the first century CE, there is evidence of changes in Buddhist ideas and
practices. Early Buddhist teachings had given great importance to self-effort in
achieving nibbana. Besides, the Buddha was regarded as a human being who
attained enlightenment and nibbana through his own efforts.
However, gradually the idea of a saviour emerged. It was believed that he was
the one who could ensure salvation. Simultaneously, the concept of the
Bodhisatta also developed. Bodhisattas were perceived as deeply
compassionate beings who accumulated merit through their efforts but used
this not to attain nibbana and thereby abandon the world, but to help others.
The worship of images of the Buddha and Bodhisattas became an important
part of this tradition. Notes
This new way of thinking was called Mahayana– literally, the “great vehicle”.
Those who adopted these beliefs described the older tradition as Hinayana or
the “lesser vehicle”.
Theravada (Doctrine of the elders)
It is the most ancient branch of Buddhism. It remains closest to the original

teachings of the Buddha. Theravada Buddhism developed in Sri Lanka and
subsequently spread to the rest of Southeast Asia. It is the dominant form of
religion in Cambodia, Laos, Myanmar, Sri Lanka, and Thailand.
It refers to the school of elder monks, which has as its doctrinal foundation of
Buddha's teachings preserved in the Pali language. Theravada is considered to
be one of the sub-sects of Hinayana Buddhism.
In contrast to Mahayana, Theravada is more conservative in terms of doctrine

and monastic discipline.
Do you know: Theras in Theravada stands for old, respected teachers.
Theravada Buddhism emphasises attaining self-liberation through one's own

efforts. Meditation and concentration are vital elements of the way to
enlightenment. The ideal road is to dedicate oneself to full-time monastic life.
• The follower is expected to "abstain from all kinds of evil, to accumulate Notes
all that is good and to purify their mind".
• Meditation is one of the main tools by which a Theravada Buddhist
transforms themselves, and so a monk spends a great deal of time in
meditation.
• When a person achieves liberation, they are called a 'worthy person' -
an Arhat or Arahat.
• Despite the monastic emphasis, Theravada Buddhism has a substantial
role and place for lay followers.
The growth of Puranic Hinduism
The notion of a saviour was not unique to Buddhism. We find similar ideas
being developed in different ways within traditions that we now consider part
of Hinduism. These included Vaishnavism (a form of Hinduism within which
Vishnu was worshipped as the principal deity) and Shaivism (a tradition within
which Shiva was regarded as the chief god), in which there was growing Notes
emphasis on the worship of a chosen deity.
In such worship the bond between the devotee and the god was visualised as
one of love and devotion, or bhakti. In the case of Vaishnavism, cults developed
around the various avatars or incarnations of the deity. Ten avatars were
recognised within the tradition.
These were forms that the deity was believed to have assumed in order to save
the world whenever it was threatened by disorder and destruction because of
the dominance of evil forces. It is likely that different avatars were popular in
different parts of the country.
Recognising each of these local deities as a form of Vishnu was one way of
creating a more unified religious tradition. Some of these forms were
represented in sculptures, as were other deities. Shiva, for instance, was
symbolised by the linga, although he was occasionally represented in human
form too.
All such representations depicted a complex set of ideas about the deities and
their attributes through symbols such as headdresses, ornaments and
ayudhas– weapons or auspicious objects the deities hold in their hands –how
they are seated, etc.
To understand the meanings of these sculptures’ historians, have to be familiar

with the stories behind them –many of which are contained in the Puranas,
compiled by Brahmanas (by about the middle of the first millennium CE). They
contained much that had been composed and been in circulation for centuries,
including stories about gods and goddesses.
Generally, they were written in simple Sanskrit verse, and were meant to be
read aloud to everybody, including women and Shudras, who did not have
access to Vedic learning.
Much of what is contained in the Puranas evolved through interaction amongst

people – priests, merchants, and ordinary men and women who travelled from
place-to-place sharing ideas and beliefs. We know for instance that Vasudeva-
Krishna was an important deity in the Mathura region. Over centuries, his
worship spread to other parts of the country as well.
Building Temples
Around the time that the stupas at sites such as Sanchi were acquiring their
present form, the first temples to house images of gods and goddesses were
also being built. The early temple was a small square room, called the
garbhagriha, with a single doorway for the worshipper to enter and offer Notes
worship to the image. Gradually, a tall structure, known as the shikhara, was
built over the central shrine. Temple walls were often decorated with
sculpture. Later temples became far more elaborate – with assembly halls,
huge walls and gateways, and arrangements for supplying water.
One of the unique features of early temples was that some of these were
hollowed out of huge rocks, as artificial caves. The tradition of building artificial
caves was an old one.
Some of the earliest of these were constructed in the third century BCE on the
orders of Asoka for renouncers who belonged to the Ajivika sect.
This tradition evolved through various stages and culminated much later – in
the eighth century – in the carving out of an entire temple, that of Kailashnatha
(a name of Shiva) at Ellora from a single block of excavated stone. Most of the
excavation of the temple is generally attributed to the eighth century
Rashtrakuta king Krishna I.
Note-The Ajivikas' central belief was that absolutely everything is

predetermined by fate or niyati, and hence human action has no consequence
one way or the other. Ajiviks wore no clothes and lived as ascetic monks in
organised groups.
Note-Barabar Caves were constructed by emperor Ashoka for the use of Ajivika
ascetics. Barabar hill caves are the oldest surviving rock-cut caves in India.
Barabar caves comprise the Lomas Rishi Cave, Sudama Cave, Vishwakarma
Cave and Karan Chaupar Cave.
Do you know: Barabar Caves are situated in the hilly area near Makhdumpur,
25 km south of Jehanabad district, Bihar.
Notes
Previous Years Questions:
Q1. With reference to the history of ancient India, which of the following
was/were common to both Buddhism and Jainism?(2012)
1. Avoidance of extremities of penance and enjoyment
2. Indifference to the authority of the Vedas
3. Denial of efficacy of rituals
Select the correct answer using the codes given below:
a) 1 only
b) 2 and 3 only
c) 1 and 3 only
d) 1, 2 and 3 Notes
Q2. Which of the following statements is/are applicable to Jain doctrine?

(2013)
1. The surest way of annihilating Karma is to practice penance.
2. Every object, even the smallest particle has a soul.
3. Karma is the bane of the soul and must be ended.
Select the correct answer using the codes given below.
a) 1 only
b) 2 and 3 only
c) 1 and 3 only
d) 1, 2 and 3
Q3. Some Buddhist rock-cut caves are called Chaityas, while the others are
called Viharas. What is the difference between the two? (2013)
a) Vihara is a place of worship, while Chaitya is the dwelling place of the
monks
b) (b)Chaitya is a place of worship, while Vihara is the dwelling place of the
monks
c) Chaitya is the stupa at the far end of the cave, while Vihara is the hall
axial to it
d) There is no material difference between the two.
Following are your source: Notes
THEMES IN INDIAN HISTORY-PART II

• Sources-12th NCERT
Note:
THROUGH THE EYES OF TRAVELLERS
Women and men have travelled in search of work, to escape from natural
disasters, as traders, merchants, soldiers, priests, pilgrims, or driven by a sense
of adventure.
Those who visit or come to stay in a new land invariably encounter a world that
is different: in terms of the landscape or physical environment as well as
customs, languages, beliefs and practices of people. Many of them try to adapt
to these differences; others, note them carefully in accounts, generally
recording what they find unusual or remarkable.
Unfortunately, we have practically no accounts of travel left by women, though

we know that they travelled.
The accounts that survive are often varied in terms of their subject matter.
Some deal with affairs of the court, while others are mainly focused on religious
issues, or architectural features and monuments. For example, one of the most
important descriptions of the city of Vijayanagara in the fifteenth century
comes from Abdur Razzaq Samarqandi, a diplomat who came visiting from
Herat (Afghanistan).
Note-Abdur Razzaq was a scholar and chronicler who visited the Vijayanagara
Kingdom during Dev Raya II's reign. In 1442, he arrived at the court of King
Zamorin of Calicut as an emissary of Shahrukh (Persian ruler of the Timurid
Dynasty) and then travelled to Vijayanagara Kingdom.
Notes
In a few cases, travellers did not go to distant lands. For example, in the Mughal
Empire travellers sometimes travelled within the empire and recorded their
observations. Some of them were interested in looking at popular customs and
the folklore and traditions of their own land.
As these foreign travellers came from vastly different social and cultural
environments, they were often more attentive to everyday activities and
practices which were taken for granted by indigenous writers, for whom these
were routine matters, not worthy of being recorded. It is this difference in
perspective that makes the accounts of travellers interesting.
AL-BIRUNI AND THE KITAB-UL-HIND
From Khwarizm to the Punjab
Al-Biruni was born in 973 CE, in Khwarizm in present day Uzbekistan.

Khwarizm was an important centre of learning, and Al-Biruni received the best
education available at the time. He was well versed in several languages: Syriac,
Arabic, Persian, Hebrew and Sanskrit. Although he did not know Greek, he was
familiar with the works of Plato and other Greek philosophers, having read
them in Arabic translations.
In 1017 CE, when Sultan Mahmud invaded Khwarizm, he took several scholars
and poets back to his capital, Ghazni; Al-Biruni was one of them. He arrived in
Ghazni as a hostage, but gradually developed a liking for the city, where he
spent the rest of his life until his death at the age of 70.
Note-Mahmud of Ghazni (October 2, 971 – April 30, 1030 C.E.), also known as Notes
Yamin ad-Dawlah Mahmud, was the ruler of the Ghaznavid Empire from 997
C.E. until his death. Mahmud turned the former provincial city of Ghazni into
the wealthy capital of an extensive empire which included modern-day
Afghanistan, Pakistan, most of Iran and parts of northwest India.
Do you Know: Mahmud of Ghazni undertook seventeen raids into India during
the period between 1000 and 1027 CE.
THINK: Ghaznavid Empire.
It was in Ghazni that Al-Biruni developed an interest in India. This was not
unusual. Sanskrit works on astronomy, mathematics and medicine had been
translated into Arabic from the eighth century onwards.
When the Punjab became a part of the Ghaznavid empire, contacts with the
local population helped create an environment of mutual trust and
understanding. Al-Biruni spent years in the company of Brahmana priests and
scholars, learning Sanskrit, and studying religious and philosophical texts.
While his itinerary is not clear, it is likely that he travelled widely in the Punjab
and parts of northern India.
Note- Al-Biruni travelled to the Indian subcontinent in 1017 CE.
The Kitab-ul-Hind
Al-Biruni’s Kitab-ul-Hind, written in Arabic, is simple and lucid. It is a
voluminous text, divided into 80 chapters on subjects such as religion and
philosophy, festivals, astronomy, alchemy, manners and customs, social life,
weights and measures, iconography, laws and metrology.
Note-Metrology is the science of measurement.
Generally, Al-Biruni adopted a distinctive structure in each chapter, beginning
with a question, following this up with a description based on Sanskritic Notes

traditions, and concluding with a comparison with other cultures.
Overcoming barriers to understanding
Al-Biruni, was aware of the problems inherent in the task he had set himself.
He discussed several “barriers” that he felt obstructed understanding.
The first amongst these was language. According to him, Sanskrit was so
different from Arabic and Persian that ideas and concepts could not be easily
translated from one language into another.
The second barrier he identified was the difference in religious beliefs and Notes
practices. The self-absorption and consequent insularity of the local
population, according to him, constituted the third barrier.
Note-Insularity is the quality of only being interested in your own country or

group and not being willing to accept different or foreign ideas.
What is interesting is that even though he was aware of these problems, Al-
Biruni depended almost exclusively on the works of Brahmanas, often citing
passages from the Vedas, the Puranas, the Bhagavad Gita, the works of
Patanjali, the Manusmriti, etc., to provide an understanding of Indian society.
Al-Biruni’s description of the caste system
Al-Biruni tried to explain the caste system by looking for parallels in other
societies. He noted that in ancient Persia, four social categories were
recognised:
i. those of knights and princes;
ii. monks, fire-priests and lawyers;
iii. physicians, astronomers and other scientists; and finally,
iv. peasants and artisans.
In other words, he attempted to suggest that social divisions were not unique
to India. At the same time, he pointed out that within Islam, all men were
considered equal, differing only in their observance of piety.
In spite of his acceptance of the Brahmanical description of the caste system,

Al-Biruni disapproved of the notion of pollution (i.e lower caste people being
impure). He remarked that everything which falls into a state of impurity strives
and succeeds in regaining its original condition of purity. The sun cleanses the
air, and the salt in the sea prevents the water from becoming polluted. If it
were not so, insisted Al-Biruni, life on earth would have been impossible. The
conception of social pollution, intrinsic to the caste system, was according to
him, contrary to the laws of nature.
Notes
Al-Biruni’s description of the caste system was deeply influenced by his study
of Sanskrit texts which laid down the rules governing the system from the point
of view of the Brahmanas. However, in real life the system was not quite as
rigid. For instance, the categories defined as antyaja were often expected to
provide inexpensive labour to both peasants and zamindars.
In other words, while they were often subjected to social oppression, they were
included within economic networks.
Note-Antyaja literally means 'the last-born'. Antyaja is a person of one of seven

inferior tribes . They are out of the four-fold caste system.
IBN BATTUTA'S RIHLA
An early globe-trotter
Ibn Battuta was born in 1304 CE in Tangiers, Morocco. He was born into one
of the most respectable and educated families known for their expertise in
Islamic religious law or sharia. True to the tradition of his family, Ibn Battuta
received literary and scholastic education when he was quite young.
Ibn Battuta considered experience gained through travels to be a more

important source of knowledge than books. He just loved travelling, and went
to far-off places, exploring new worlds and people. Before he set off for India
in 1332-33, he had made pilgrimage trips to Mecca, and had already travelled
extensively in Syria, Iraq, Persia, Yemen, Oman and a few trading ports on the Notes
coast of East Africa.
He arrived in India in the years 1332–33 CE, under the reign of Muhammad
Bin Tughlaq, who designated him as the "qazi," or judge of Delhi. He remained
in that position for several years, until he fell out of favour and was thrown into
prison. Once the misunderstanding between him and the Sultan was cleared,
he was restored to imperial service, and was ordered in 1342 to proceed to
China as the Sultan’s envoy to the Mongol ruler.
With the new assignment, Ibn Battuta proceeded to the Malabar coast through
central India. From Malabar he went to the Maldives, where he stayed for
eighteen months as the qazi, but eventually decided to proceed to Sri Lanka.
He then went back once more to the Malabar coast and the Maldives, and
before resuming his mission to China, visited Bengal and Assam as well. He took
a ship to Sumatra, and from there another ship for the Chinese port town of
Zaytun (now known as Quanzhou). He travelled extensively in China, going as
far as Beijing, but did not stay for long, deciding to return home.
Ibn Battuta’s book of travels, called Rihla, written in Arabic, provides

extremely rich and interesting details about the social and cultural life in the
subcontinent in the fourteenth century.
Ibn Battuta meticulously recorded his observations about new cultures,

peoples, beliefs, values, etc. We need to bear in mind that this globe-trotter
was travelling in the fourteenth century, when it was much more arduous and
hazardous to travel than it is today. According to Ibn Battuta, it took forty days
to travel from Multan to Delhi and about fifty days from Sind to Delhi. The
distance from Daulatabad to Delhi was covered in forty days, while that from
Gwalior to Delhi took ten days.
Travelling was also more insecure: Ibn Battuta was attacked by bands of
robbers several times. In fact, he preferred travelling in a caravan along with
companions, but this did not deter highway robbers. While travelling from
Multan to Delhi, for instance, his caravan was attacked and many of his fellow
travellers lost their lives; those travellers who survived, including Ibn Battuta,
were severely wounded.
Do you Know: Ibn Battuta was 22 years old when he decided to travel on a
pilgrimage to Mecca in 1325.He travelled through many of the known Islamic
and non-Muslim territories during the following 30 years before returning home
in 1354 CE.When he returned, the local ruler issued instructions that his stories
be recorded.
Notes
IBN BATTUTA AND THE EXCITEMENT OF THE UNFAMILIAR
By the time Ibn Battuta arrived in Delhi in the fourteenth century, the
subcontinent was part of a global network of communication that stretched
from China in the east to north-west Africa and Europe in the west.
Ibn Battuta and Indian cities
Ibn Battuta found cities in the subcontinent full of exciting opportunities for
those who had the necessary drive, resources and skills. They were densely
populated and prosperous, except for the occasional disruptions caused by
wars and invasions.
It appears from Ibn Battuta’s account that most cities had crowded streets and Notes
bright and colourful markets that were stacked with a wide variety of goods.
Ibn Battuta described Delhi as a vast city, with a great population, the largest
in India. Daulatabad (in Maharashtra) was no less, and easily rivalled Delhi in
size.
Do you Know: Muhammad bin Tughluq in 1327 decided to move his capital
from Delhi to Daulatabad.
The bazaars were not only places of economic transactions, but also the hub of
social and cultural activities. Most bazaars had a mosque and a temple, and in
some of them at least, spaces were marked for public performances by
dancers, musicians and singers.
Ibn Battuta found Indian agriculture very productive because of the fertility
of the soil, which allowed farmers to cultivate two crops a year.
He also noted that the subcontinent was well integrated with inter-Asian
networks of trade and commerce, with Indian manufactures being in great
demand in both West Asia and Southeast Asia, fetching huge profits for artisans
and merchants. Indian textiles, particularly cotton cloth, fine muslins, silks,
brocade and satin, were in great demand. Ibn Battuta informs us that certain
varieties of fine muslin were so expensive that they could be worn only by the
nobles and the very rich.
A unique system of communication
The state evidently took special measures to encourage merchants. Almost all
trade routes were well supplied with inns and guest houses.
Ibn Battuta was also amazed by the efficiency of the postal system which
allowed merchants to not only send information and remit credit across long
distances, but also to dispatch goods required at short notice.
The postal system was so efficient that while it took fifty days to reach Delhi
from Sind, the news reports of spies would reach the Sultan through the postal
system in just five days.
Notes
FRANCOIS BERNIER-A DOCTOR WITH A DIFFERENCE
Once the Portuguese arrived in India in about 1500, a number of them wrote
detailed accounts regarding Indian social customs and religious practices.
Among the best known of the Portuguese writers is Duarte Barbosa, who wrote
a detailed account of trade and society in south India.
Note-Vasco da Gama arrived near Calicut on 20 May 1498.
Note-Duarte Barbosa was a Portuguese writer and officer from Portuguese

India. Barbosa wrote the Book of Duarte Barbosa c. 1516, making it one of the
earliest examples of Portuguese travel literature.
Did you Know: The Portuguese travellers, Duarte Barbosa and Dominigo Paes,
visited Vijayanagar during the reign of Krishna Dev Raya and recorded the
detailed historic descriptions of Vijaynagar empire. According to them,
Vijayanagar was very prosperous with abundance of foodstuffs, vegetables,
fruits and animals being sold in profusion in the markets of the city at cheap
rates.
Later, after 1600, we find growing numbers of Dutch, English and French
travellers coming to India. One of the most famous was the French jeweller
Jean-Baptiste Tavernier, who travelled to India at least six times. He was
particularly fascinated with the trading conditions in India, and compared India Notes
to Iran and the Ottoman empire. Some of these travellers, like the Italian
doctor Manucci, never returned to Europe, and settled down in India. A few of
them, such as the Jesuit Roberto Nobili, even translated Indian texts into
European languages.
Note-Jean-Baptiste Tavernier was a 17th-century French gem/diamond

merchant and traveller. Tavernier, a private individual and merchant travelling
at his own expense, undertook six voyages to Persia and India between the
years 1630 and 1668. He was the first European to describe the diamond mines
in India. Being a diamond merchant, he was particularly interested in diamonds
and visited various diamond mines in India, especially those of the Deccan.
Note-Niccolao Manucci was a Venetian writer, a self-taught physician, and

traveller.Manucci is remembered internationally by those interested in Mughal
history. His book Historia do Mogor is considered a classic for Moghul studies
as it was a first-hand account of life in Aurangzeb’s court.
Do you Know: Manucci arrived in Surat as a 17-year-old in 1656 and, making

his way to Delhi, became an artilleryman in the Moghul army.
Note-Roberto de Nobili was an Italian. He preached Christianity in the

southern part of the Indian subcontinent. After his arrival to Goa on 20 May
1605, he assimilated the Indian culture. He learnt Sanskrit and Tamil.
Do you know: Nobili used to dress like a sanyasi and was sometimes called
'Italian Brahmin'.
François Bernier, a Frenchman, was a doctor, political philosopher and

historian. Like many others, he came to the Mughal Empire in search of
opportunities.
He was in India for twelve years, from 1656 to 1668, and was closely associated
with the Mughal court, as a physician to Prince Dara Shikoh, the eldest son of
Emperor Shah Jahan, and later as an intellectual and scientist, with
Danishmand Khan, an Armenian noble at the Mughal court.
Comparing “East” and “West”
Bernier travelled to several parts of the country, and wrote accounts of what
he saw, frequently comparing India with the situation in Europe. He dedicated
his major writing to Louis XIV, the king of France, and many of his other works
were written in the form of letters to influential officials and ministers.
In virtually every instance Bernier described what he saw in India as a bleak

situation in comparison to developments in Europe. This assessment was not
always accurate. However, when his works were published, Bernier’s writings Notes
became extremely popular.
Bernier’s works were published in France in 1670-71 and translated into

English, Dutch, German and Italian within the next five years. Between 1670
and 1725 his account was reprinted eight times in French, and by 1684 it had
been reprinted three times in English. This was in marked contrast to the
accounts in Arabic and Persian, which were not published before 1800.
Bernier and the 'Degenerate' East
If Ibn Battuta chose to describe everything that impressed and excited him
because of its novelty, François Bernier belonged to a different intellectual
tradition.
He was far more preoccupied with comparing and contrasting what he saw in
India with the situation in Europe in general and France in particular, focusing
on situations which he considered depressing. His idea seems to have been to
influence policy-makers and the intelligentsia to ensure that they made what
he considered to be the “right” decisions.
Bernier’s Travels in the Mughal Empire is marked by detailed observations,

critical insights and reflection. His account contains discussions trying to place
the history of the Mughals within some sort of a universal framework. He
constantly compared Mughal India with contemporary Europe, generally
emphasising the superiority of the latter.
His representation of India works on the model of binary opposition, where

India is presented as the inverse of Europe. He also ordered the perceived
differences hierarchically, so that India appeared to be inferior to the Western
world.
The question of land ownership
According to Bernier, one of the fundamental differences between Mughal

India and Europe was the lack of private property in land in the former. He was
a firm believer in the virtues of private property, and saw crown ownership of
land as being harmful for both the state and its people.
He thought that in the Mughal Empire the emperor owned all the land and
distributed it among his nobles, and that this had disastrous consequences for
the economy and society.
This perception was not unique to Bernier, but is found in most travellers’
accounts of the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries.
Notes
Owing to crown ownership of land, argued Bernier, landholders could not pass
on their land to their children. So, they were averse to any long-term
investment in the sustenance and expansion of production. The absence of
private property in land had, therefore, prevented the emergence of the class
of “improving” landlords (as in Western Europe) with a concern to maintain or
improve the land. It had led to the uniform ruination of agriculture, excessive
oppression of the peasantry and a continuous decline in the living standards of
all sections of society, except the ruling aristocracy.
As an extension of this, Bernier described Indian society as consisting of

undifferentiated masses of impoverished people, subjugated by a small
minority of a very rich and powerful ruling class. Between the poorest of the
poor and the richest of the rich, there was no social group or class worth the
name. Bernier confidently asserted: “There is no middle state in India.”
This is how Bernier saw the Mughal Empire– its king was the king of “beggars
and barbarians”; its cities and towns were ruined and contaminated with “ill
air”; and its fields, “overspread with bushes”. And, all this was because of one
reason: crown ownership of land.
Bernier’s descriptions influenced Western theorists from the eighteenth

century onwards. The French philosopher Montesquieu, for instance, used this
account to develop the idea of oriental despotism, according to which rulers
in Asia (the Orient or the East) enjoyed absolute authority over their subjects,
who were kept in conditions of subjugation and poverty, arguing that all land
belonged to the king and that private property was non-existent. According to
this view, everybody, except the emperor and his nobles, barely managed to
survive. Notes
Curiously, none of the Mughal official documents suggest that the state was
the sole owner of land. For instance, Abu’l Fazl, the sixteenth-century official
chronicler of Akbar’s reign, describes the land revenue as “remunerations of
sovereignty”, a claim made by the ruler on his subjects for the protection he
provided rather than as rent on land that he owned.
It is possible that European travellers regarded such claims as rent because

land revenue demands were often very high. However, this was actually not a
rent or even a land tax, but a tax on the crop.
However, this picture of rural society was far from true. In fact, during the
sixteenth and seventeenth centuries, rural society was characterised by
considerable social and economic differentiation. At one end of the spectrum
were the big zamindars, who enjoyed superior rights in land and, at the other,
the “untouchable” landless labourers. In between was the big peasant, who
used hired labour and engaged in commodity production, and the smaller
peasant who could barely produce for his subsistence.
A more complex social reality
While Bernier’s preoccupation with projecting the Mughal state as tyrannical is

obvious, his descriptions occasionally hint at a more complex social reality. For
instance, he felt that artisans had no incentive to improve the quality of their
manufactures, since profits were appropriated by the state. Manufactures
were, consequently, everywhere in decline.
At the same time, he conceded that vast quantities of the world’s precious
metals flowed into India, as manufactures were exported in exchange for gold
and silver. He also noticed the existence of a prosperous merchant community,
engaged in long-distance exchange.
In fact, during the seventeenth century about 15 percent of the population

lived in towns. This was, on average, higher than the proportion of urban
population in Western Europe in the same period.
In spite of this Bernier described Mughal cities as “camp towns”, by which he

meant towns that owed their existence, and depended for their survival, on the
imperial camp. He believed that these came into existence when the imperial
court moved in and rapidly declined when it moved out. He suggested that they
did not have viable social and economic foundations but were dependent on
imperial patronage.
As in the case of the question of land ownership, Bernier was drawing an Notes
oversimplified picture. There were all kinds of towns: manufacturing towns,
trading towns, port-towns, sacred centres, pilgrimage towns, etc. Their
existence is an index of the prosperity of merchant communities and
professional classes.
Other urban groups included professional classes such as physicians (hakim or

vaid), teachers (pundit or mulla), lawyers (wakil), painters, architects,
musicians, calligraphers, etc. While some depended on imperial patronage,
many made their living by serving other patrons, while still others served
ordinary people in markets or bazaars.
Note-In 1765 Mirza Sheikh I'tesamuddin, a Bengali munshi (secretary)

travelled on a mission to Britain by sea. He was the first Indian traveller to the
West who wrote about his experiences, in a Persian manuscript titled
shegurfnama-i-vilayet that has been preserved in the British Library in London
and the Khuda Bakhsh Library in Bankipur, Bihar.
Note-Mirza Abu Taleb Khan was an Indian tax-collector and administrator,

notable for a memoir of his travels in Britain, Europe and Asia Minor called
Masir-e-Talebi written between circa 1799 and 1805 in Persian. He was one of
the earliest Indians to visit Europe and leave a travelogue.
WOMEN, SLAVES, SATI AND LABOURERS Notes
Travellers who left written accounts were generally men who were interested
in and sometimes intrigued by the condition of women in the subcontinent.
Sometimes they took social inequities for granted as a “natural” state of affairs.
For instance, slaves were openly sold in markets, like any other commodity,
and were regularly exchanged as gifts.
When Ibn Battuta reached Sind he purchased “horses, camels and slaves” as
gifts for Sultan Muhammad bin Tughlaq. When he reached Multan, he
presented the governor with, “a slave and horse together with raisins and
almonds”.
Ibn Battuta, was so happy with the sermon of a preacher named Nasiruddin
that he gave him “a hundred thousand tankas (coins) and two hundred slaves”.
It appears from Ibn Battuta’s account that there was considerable

differentiation among slaves. Some female slaves in the service of the Sultan
were experts in music and dance, and Ibn Battuta enjoyed their performance
at the wedding of the Sultan’s sister. Female slaves were also employed by the
Sultan to keep a watch on his nobles.
Slaves were generally used for domestic labour, and Ibn Battuta found their
services particularly indispensable for carrying women and men on palanquins
or dola. The price of slaves, particularly female slaves required for domestic
labour, was very low, and most families who could afford to do so kept at least
one or two of them.
Contemporary European travellers and writers often highlighted the treatment

of women as a crucial marker of difference between Western and Eastern
societies. Not surprisingly, Bernier chose the practice of sati for detailed
description. He noted that while some women seemed to embrace death
cheerfully, others were forced to die.
However, women’s lives revolved around much else besides the practice of
sati. Their labour was crucial in both agricultural and non-agricultural
production. Women from merchant families participated in commercial
activities, sometimes even taking mercantile disputes to the court of law. It
therefore seems unlikely that women were confined to the private spaces of
their homes.
BHAKTI-SUFI
Notes
TRADITIONS
By the mid-first millennium CE the landscape of the subcontinent was dotted
with a variety of religious structures –stupas, monasteries, temples. If these
typified certain religious beliefs and practices, others have been reconstructed
from textual traditions, including the Puranas, many of which received their
present shape around the same time, and yet others remain only faintly visible
in textual and visual records.
New textual sources available from this period include compositions attributed
to poet-saints, most of whom expressed themselves orally in regional
languages used by ordinary people. These compositions, were often set to
music. These traditions were fluid – generations of devotees tended to
elaborate on the original message, and occasionally modified or even
abandoned some of the ideas that appeared problematic or irrelevant in
different political, social or cultural contexts.
Historians also draw on hagiographies or biographies of saints written by their

followers. These may not be literally accurate, but allow a glimpse into the ways
in which devotees perceive the lives of these path breaking women and men.
A MOSAIC OF RELIGIOUS BELIEFS AND PRACTICES
The most striking feature of this phase is the increasing visibility of a wide range
of gods and goddesses in sculpture as well as in texts. This indicates the
continued and even extended worship of the major deities – Vishnu, Shiva and
the goddess – each of whom was visualised in a variety of forms.
The integration of cults
Historians who have tried to understand these developments suggest that

there were at least two processes at work. One was a process of disseminating
Brahmanical ideas. This is exemplified by the composition, compilation and
preservation of Puranic texts in simple Sanskrit verse, especially for women and
Shudras, who were earlier excluded from Vedic learning.
At the same time, there was a second process at work – that of the Brahmanas
accepting and reworking the beliefs and practices of other social categories.
In fact, many new beliefs and practices were shaped through a continuous
dialogue between “great” Sanskritic Puranic traditions and “little” traditions
throughout the land.
Notes
One of the most striking examples of this process is evident at Puri, Orissa,
where the principal deity was identified, by the twelfth century, as Jagannatha,
a form of Vishnu.
In this instance, a local deity, whose image was and continues to be made of
wood by local tribal specialists, was recognised as a form of Vishnu. At the same
time, Vishnu was visualised in a way that was very different from that in other
parts of the country.
Notes
Such instances of integration are evident amongst goddess cults as well.

Worship of the goddess, often simply in the form of a stone smeared with
ochre, was evidently widespread. These local deities were often incorporated
within the Puranic framework by providing them with an identity as a wife of
the principal male deities – sometimes they were equated with Lakshmi, the
wife of Vishnu, in other instances, with Parvati, the wife of Shiva.
Difference and conflicts
In mediaeval India, Tantrism was a common element of all the major religions.
Tantrism focuses upon ritual aspects that involve the use of the physical
objects in sacred and worshipful settings to access the supernatural.
Tantric practices were widespread in several parts of the subcontinent – they

were open to women and men, and practitioners often ignored differences of
caste and class within the ritual context. Many of these ideas influenced
Shaivism as well as Buddhism, especially in the eastern, northern and southern
parts of the subcontinent.
All of these somewhat divergent beliefs and practices came to be classified as

Hindu over the course of time. The principal deities of the Vedic period such as
Agni, Indra and Soma, became marginal figures, rarely visible in textual or visual
representations. However, the Vedas continued to be revered as authoritative.
There were sometimes conflicts as well – those who valued the Vedic tradition
often condemned practices that went beyond vedic traditions. On the other
hand, those engaged in Tantric practices frequently ignored the authority of
the Vedas.
Also, devotees often tended to project their chosen deity, either Vishnu or
Shiva, as supreme. Relations with other traditions, such as Buddhism or
Jainism, were also often fraught with tension if not open conflict.
The traditions of devotion or bhakti need to be located within this context.

During this time, expressions of devotion ranged from the routine worship of
deities within temples to ecstatic adoration where devotees attained a trance-
like state. The singing and chanting of devotional compositions were often a
part of such modes of worship. This was particularly true of the Vaishnava and
Shaiva sects.
POEMS OF PRAYER: EARLY TRADITIONS OF BHAKTI Notes
In the course of the evolution of these forms of worship, poet-saints emerged

as leaders around whom there developed a community of devotees. These
traditions accommodated and acknowledged women and the “lower castes”;
categories considered ineligible for liberation within the orthodox Brahmanical
framework. What also characterized traditions of bhakti was a remarkable
diversity.
Historians of religion classify bhakti traditions into two broad categories:

saguna (with attributes) and nirguna (without attributes).
Saguna bhakti included traditions that focused on the worship of specific

deities such as Shiva, Vishnu and their avatars (incarnations) and forms of the
goddess or Devi.
Nirguna bhakti on the other hand was worship of an abstract (formless)god.
The Alvars and Nayanars of Tamil Nadu
Some of the earliest bhakti movements (c. sixth century) were led by the Alvars
(literally, those who are “immersed” in devotion to Vishnu) and Nayanars
(literally, leaders who were devotees of Shiva). They travelled from place-to-
place singing hymns in Tamil in praise of their gods.
During their travels the Alvars and Nayanars identified certain shrines as
abodes of their chosen deities. Very often large temples were later built at
these sacred places. These developed as centres of pilgrimage. Singing
compositions of these poet-saints became part of temple rituals in these
shrines, as did worship of the saints’ images.
Attitudes towards caste
Some historians suggest that the Alvars and Nayanars initiated a movement of
protest against the caste system and the dominance of Brahmanas or at least
attempted to reform the system. To some extent this is corroborated by the
fact that bhaktas hailed from diverse social backgrounds ranging from
Brahmanas to artisans and cultivators and even from castes considered
“untouchable”.
The importance of the traditions of the Alvars and Nayanars was sometimes
indicated by the claim that their compositions were as important as the Vedas.
For instance, one of the major compositions by the Alvars, the Nalayira
Divyaprabandham, was frequently described as the Tamil Veda, thus claiming
that the text was as significant as the four Vedas in Sanskrit that were cherished
by the Brahmanas.
Women devotees Notes
One of the most striking features of these traditions was the presence of
women. For instance, the compositions of Andal, a woman Alvar, were widely
sung (and continue to be sung to date). Andal saw herself as the beloved of
Vishnu; her verses express her love for the deity.
Note-Andal was a 10th century Tamil poet who is revered as a saint in the
southern parts of India. She is considered as one of the twelve Alvars (saints)
and the only woman Alvar (saint) of Vaishnavism. She is also believed to be an
incarnation of Sri Bhumi Devi, the Divine Consort of Sriman Narayana (a
manifestation of Lord Vishnu). Andal Thiruppavai, the compilation of
devotional poems sung by her, is still recited by devotees during the month of
Margazhi.
Another woman, Karaikkal Ammaiyar, a devotee of Shiva, adopted the path

of extreme asceticism in order to attain her goal. Her compositions were
preserved within the Nayanar tradition. These women renounced their social
obligations, but did not join an alternative order or become nuns. Their very
existence and their compositions posed a challenge to patriarchal norms.
Note-Karaikal Ammaiyar, meaning "The Revered Mother of Karaikal", is one

of the three women amongst the 63 Nayannars and one of the greatest figures
of early Tamil literature. She was born in Karaikal, South India. She was a
devotee of Shiva.
Relations with the state Notes
One of the major themes in Tamil bhakti hymns is the poets’ opposition to
Buddhism and Jainism. This is particularly marked in the compositions of the
Nayanars.
Historians have attempted to explain this hostility by suggesting that it was due
to competition between members of other religious traditions for royal
patronage.
The powerful Chola rulers (ninth to thirteenth century) supported Brahmanical

and bhakti traditions, making land grants and constructing temples for Shiva.
Some of the most magnificent Shiva temples, including those at

Chidambaram, Thanjavur and Gangaikondacholapuram, were constructed
under the patronage of Chola rulers. This was also the period when some of
the most spectacular representations of Shiva in bronze sculpture were
produced. Clearly, the visions of the Nayanars inspired artists.
Both Nayanars and Alvars were revered by the Vellala peasants. Not
surprisingly, rulers tried to win their support as well. The Chola kings, for
instance, often attempted to claim divine support and proclaim their own
power and status by building splendid temples that were adorned with stone
and metal sculpture to recreate the visions of these popular saints who sang in
the language of the people.
Note-Vellala is a generic Tamil term used primarily to refer to various castes

who traditionally pursued agriculture as a profession in the Indian states of
Tamil Nadu, Kerala and northeastern parts of Sri Lanka.
These kings also introduced the singing of Tamil Shaiva hymns in the temples
under royal patronage, taking the initiative to collect and organise them into a
text (Tevaram).
Notes
THE VIRASHAIVA TRADITION OF KARNATAKA
The twelfth century witnessed the emergence of a new movement in

Karnataka, led by a Brahmana named Basavanna who was a minister in the
court of a Kalachuri ruler. His followers were known as Virashaivas (heroes of
Shiva) or Lingayats (wearers of the linga).
Note-Basavanna was a 12th-century philosopher, statesman, Kannada poet

and a social reformer during the reign of the Kalachuri dynasty king Bijjala I in
Karnataka, India. Basavanna spread social awareness through his poetry,
popularly known as Vachanaas. Basavanna rejected gender or social
discrimination, superstitions and rituals.
Do you Know: Basavanna is the first Kannadiga in whose honour a

commemorative coin has been minted in recognition of his social reforms.
THINK: Kalachuri Dynasty
Lingayats continue to be an important community in the region to date. They

worship Shiva in his manifestation as a linga, and men usually wear a small linga
in a silver case on a loop strung over the left shoulder. Those who are revered
include the jangama or wandering monks. Lingayats believe that on death the
devotee will be united with Shiva and will not return to this world. Therefore, Notes
they do not practise funerary rites such as cremation, prescribed in the
Dharmashastras. Instead, they ceremonially bury their dead.
The Lingayats challenged the idea of caste and the “pollution” attributed to
certain groups by Brahmanas. They also questioned the theory of rebirth.
These won them followers amongst those who were marginalised within the
Brahmanical social order. The Lingayats also encouraged certain practices
disapproved in the Dharmashastras, such as the remarriage of widows. Our
understanding of the Virashaiva tradition is derived from vachanas composed
in Kannada by women and men who joined the movement.
RELIGIOUS FERMENT IN NORTH INDIA
During the same period, in north India deities such as Vishnu and Shiva were
worshipped in temples, often built with the support of rulers. However,
historians have not found evidence of anything resembling the compositions of
the Alvars and Nayanars till the fourteenth century. How do we account for this
difference?
Some historians point out that in north India this was the period when several
Rajput states emerged. In most of these states Brahmanas occupied positions
of importance, performing a range of secular and ritual functions. There seems
to have been little or no attempt to challenge their position directly.
At the same time other religious leaders, who did not function within the
orthodox Brahmanical framework, were gaining ground. These included the
Naths, Jogis and Siddhas.
Many of them came from artisanal groups, including weavers, who were
becoming increasingly important with the development of organised craft Notes

production. Demand for such production grew with the emergence of new
urban centres, and long-distance trade with Central Asia and West Asia. Many
of these new religious leaders questioned the authority of the Vedas, and
expressed themselves in languages spoken by ordinary people.
However, in spite of their popularity these religious leaders were not in a

position to win the support of the ruling elites. A new element in this situation
was the coming of the Turks which culminated in the establishment of the Delhi
Sultanate (thirteenth century). This undermined the power of many of the
Rajput states and the Brahmanas who were associated with these kingdoms.
This was accompanied by marked changes in the realm of culture and religion.
The coming of the sufis was a significant part of these developments.
Note-Delhi Sultanate was started with Qutb-ud-din Aibak, of Mamluk dynasty

(Slave Dynasty) coming to power in 1206 CE.
NEW STRANDS IN THE FABRIC:ISLAMIC TRADITIONS
Just as the regions within the subcontinent were not isolated from one another,
so too, contact with lands beyond the seas and mountains had existed for
millennia. Arab merchants, for instance, frequented ports along the western
coast in the first millennium CE, while Central Asian people settled in the north-
western parts of the subcontinent during the same period.
Faiths of rulers and subjects
In 711 an Arab general named Muhammad Qasim conquered Sind, which

became part of the Caliphate. Later (c. thirteenth century) the Turks and
Afghans established the Delhi Sultanate. This was followed by the formation of
Sultanates in the Deccan and other parts of the subcontinent; Islam was an
acknowledged religion of rulers in several areas. This continued with the
establishment of the Mughal Empire in the sixteenth century as well as in many
of the regional states that emerged in the eighteenth century.
Note-The definition of caliphate is “government under a caliph.” A caliph is a

spiritual and political leader of Islam who claims succession from Prophet
Muhammad. The word stems from the Arabic khalifa meaning “successor.”
Note-Babur was the founder of the Mughal empire which was established in
1526 after Babur defeated Ibrahim Lodi in the first battle of Panipat.
Note-The Deccan sultanates were five medieval Indian kingdoms—on the Notes
Deccan Plateau between the Krishna River and the Vindhya Range—that were
ruled by Muslim dynasties: namely Ahmadnagar, Berar, Bidar, Bijapur, and
Golconda.
Theoretically, Muslim rulers were to be guided by the ulama, who were

expected to ensure that they ruled according to the sharia. Clearly, the
situation was complicated in the subcontinent, where there were populations
that did not subscribe to Islam.
It is in this context that the category of the zimmi, meaning protected (derived
from the Arabic word zimma, protection) developed for people who followed
revealed scriptures, such as the Jews and Christians, and lived under Muslim
rulership.
They paid a tax called jizya and gained the right to be protected by Muslims. In
India this status was extended to Hindus as well. Rulers such as the Mughals
came to regard themselves as emperors of not just Muslims but of all peoples.
In effect, rulers often adopted a fairly flexible policy towards their subjects. For
instance, several rulers gave land endowments and granted tax exemptions to
Hindu, Jaina, Zoroastrian, Christian and Jewish religious institutions and also
expressed respect and devotion towards non-Muslim religious leaders. These Notes
grants were made by several Mughal rulers, including Akbar and Aurangzeb.
The popular practice of Islam
The developments that followed the coming of Islam were not confined to
ruling elites; in fact, they permeated far and wide, through the subcontinent,
amongst different social strata – peasants, artisans, warriors, merchants, to
name a few.
All those who adopted Islam accepted, in principle, the five “pillars” of the faith:
i. That there is one God, Allah, and Prophet Muhammad is his messenger
(shahada);
ii. Offering prayers five times a day (namaz/salat);
iii. Giving alms (zakat);
iv. Fasting during the month of Ramzan (sawm);
v. Performing the pilgrimage to Mecca (hajj).
However, these universal features were often overlaid with diversities in

practice derived from sectarian affiliations (Sunni, Shi'a), and the influence of
local customary practices of converts from different social milieus.
For example, the Khojahs, a branch of the Ismailis (a Shi‘a sect), developed
new modes of communication, disseminating ideas derived from the Qur’an
through indigenous literary genres. These included the ginan, devotional
poems in Punjabi, Multani, Sindhi, Kachchi, Hindi and Gujarati, sung in special
ragas during daily prayer meetings. Notes
Elsewhere, Arab Muslim traders who settled along the Malabar coast (Kerala)
adopted the local language, Malayalam. They also adopted local customs such
as matriliny and matrilocal residence.
THINK: Difference between Shia and Sunni Sects.
The complex blend of a universal faith with local traditions is perhaps best
exemplified in the architecture of mosques. Some architectural features of
mosques are universal – such as their orientation towards Mecca, evident in
the placement of the mihrab (prayer niche) and the minbar (pulpit). However,
there are several features that show variations – such as roofs and building
materials.
Note-Mihrab is a niche or chamber in the wall of a mosque that indicates the

qibla, the direction of the Kaaba in Mecca towards which Muslims should face
when praying.
Note-Minbar is a raised platform in the front area of a mosque, from which

sermons or speeches are given.
Notes
Names for communities
We often take the terms Hindu and Muslim for granted, as labels for religious
communities. Yet, these terms did not gain currency for a very long time.
Historians who have studied Sanskrit texts and inscriptions dating between the
eighth and fourteenth centuries point out that the term musalman or Muslim
was virtually never used.
Instead, people were identified in terms of the region from which they came.
So, the Turkish rulers were designated as Turushka, Tajika were people from
Tajikistan and Parashika were people from Persia
A more general term for these migrant communities was mlechchha, indicating
that they did not observe the norms of caste society and spoke languages that
were not derived from Sanskrit. Such terms sometimes had a derogatory
connotation, but they rarely denoted a distinct religious community of Muslims
in opposition to Hindus.
THE GROWTH OF SUFISM Notes
In the early centuries of Islam a group of religious minded people called sufis
turned to asceticism and mysticism in protest against the growing
materialism of the Caliphate as a religious and political institution.
They were critical of the dogmatic definitions and methods of interpreting the
Qur’an and sunna (traditions of the Prophet) adopted by theologians.
Instead, they laid emphasis on seeking salvation through intense devotion and
love for God by following his commands, and by following the example of the
Prophet Muhammad whom they regarded as a perfect human being. The sufis
thus sought an interpretation of the Qur’an on the basis of their personal
experience.
Khanqahs and Silsilas

By the eleventh century Sufism evolved into a well-developed movement with
a body of literature on Quranic studies and sufi practices.
The sufis began to organise communities around the khanqah, which was
controlled by a teaching master known as shaikh or pir or murshid. He enrolled
disciples (murids) and appointed a successor. He established rules for spiritual
conduct and interaction between inmates as well as between laypersons and
the master
Note-A khanqah or khangah, also known as a ribat is a building designed Notes

specifically for gatherings of a Sufi brotherhood and is a place for spiritual
retreat and character reformation.
Sufi silsilas began to crystallise in different parts of the Islamic world around
the twelfth century. The word silsila literally means a chain, signifying a
continuous link between master and disciple.
A Silsila was generally led by a prominent master who lived in a Khanqah along
with his disciples. The link between the teacher or pir or murshid and his
disciples or murids was a vital part of the Sufi system. Every pir nominated a
successor to carry on his work.
When the shaikh died, his tomb-shrine (dargah, a Persian term) became the
centre of devotion for his followers. This encouraged the practice of pilgrimage
or ziyarat to his grave, particularly on his death anniversary or urs (signifying
the union of his soul with God). This was because people believed that in death
saints were united with God, and were thus closer to Him than when living.
People sought their blessings to attain material and spiritual benefits.
Outside the khanqah
Some mystics-initiated movements based on a radical interpretation of sufi

ideals. Many opposed the khanqah and took to mendicancy and observed
celibacy.
They ignored rituals and observed extreme forms of asceticism. They were
known by different names – Qalandars, Madaris, Malangs, Haidaris, etc.
Because of their deliberate defiance of the shari‘a they were often referred to
as be-shari‘a, in contrast to the ba-shari‘a sufis who complied with it.
Thus, the Sufi orders are broadly divided into two: Ba-shara – Those who
followed the Islamic Law and Be-shara – Those who were not bound by the Notes
Islamic Law.
THE CHISHTIS IN THE SUBCONTINENT
Of the groups of sufis who migrated to India in the late twelfth century, the
Chishtis were the most influential. This was because they adapted successfully
to the local environment and adopted several features of Indian devotional
traditions.
Life in the Chishti khanqah
The khanqah was the centre of social life. We know about Shaikh Nizamuddin’s
khanqah (c. fourteenth century) on the banks of the river Yamuna in Ghiyaspur,
Delhi. It comprised several small rooms and a big hall ( jama’at khana) where
the inmates and visitors lived and prayed. The inmates included family
members of the Shaikh, his attendants and disciples.
The Shaikh lived in a small room on the roof of the hall where he met visitors
in the morning and evening. A veranda surrounded the courtyard, and a
boundary wall ran around the complex. On one occasion, fearing a Mongol
invasion, people from the neighbouring areas flocked into the khanqah to seek
refuge.
Note-Muhammad Nizamuddin Auliya (1238 - 1325 CE), also known as Hazrat

Nizamuddin, and Mahbub-e-Ilahi was an Indian Sunni Muslim scholar Sufi saint
of the Chishti Order, and is one of the most famous Sufis from the Indian
Subcontinent.
There was an open kitchen (langar), run on futuh (unasked-for charity). From
morning till late night people from all walks of life – soldiers, slaves, singers,
merchants, poets, travellers, rich and poor, Hindu jogis (yogi) and qalandars –
came seeking discipleship, amulets for healing, and the intercession of the
Shaikh in various matters. Other visitors included poets such as Amir Hasan
Sijzi and Amir Khusrau and the court historian Ziyauddin Barani, all of whom
wrote about the Shaikh.
Practices that were adopted, including bowing before the Shaikh, offering
water to visitors, shaving the heads of initiates, and yogic exercises,
represented attempts to assimilate local traditions.
Note-Amir Hasan al-Sijzi was born in Badaun in 1254. He was an important

poet of the age, whose work attracted attention of literary figures and poets
even outside India. He popularised the Indo-Persian ghazal in India. He was a
poet in the court of Delhi Sultans.
Note-Amīr Khusrau, born in 1253 at Patyali,UP, was an Indo-Persian Sufi singer, Notes
musician, poet and scholar who lived under the Delhi Sultanate.
Do you Know: In 1321 Khusrau began to write a historic masnavi named

Tughlaq Nama (Book of the Tughlaqs) about the reign of Ghiyath al-Din
Tughlaq and that of other Tughlaq rulers. Khusrau died in October 1325, six
months after the death of Nizamuddin Auliya.
Chishti Devotionalism: Ziyarat and Qawwali
Pilgrimage, called ziyarat, to tombs of sufi saints is prevalent all over the
Muslim world. This practice is an occasion for seeking the sufi’s spiritual grace
(barakat).
For more than seven centuries people of various creeds, classes and social
backgrounds have expressed their devotion at the dargahs of the five great
Chishti saints. Amongst these, the most revered shrine is that of Khwaja
Muinuddin, popularly known as “Gharib Nawaz” (comforter of the poor) at
Ajmer, Rajasthan.
By the sixteenth century the shrine had become very popular; in fact, it was the
spirited singing of pilgrims bound for Ajmer that inspired Akbar to visit the
tomb. He went there fourteen times, sometimes two or three times a year, to
seek blessings for new conquests, fulfilment of vows, and the birth of sons. He
maintained this tradition until 1580. Each of these visits was celebrated by
generous gifts, which were recorded in imperial documents. For example, in
1568 he offered a huge cauldron (degh) to facilitate cooking for pilgrims. He
also had a mosque constructed within the compound of the dargah.
Also, part of ziyarat is the use of music and dance including mystical chants
performed by specially trained musicians or qawwals to evoke divine ecstasy.
The sufis remember God either by reciting the zikr (the Divine Names) or
evoking His Presence through sama‘ (literally, “audition”) or performance of
mystical music. Sama‘ was integral to the Chishtis, and exemplified interaction
with indigenous devotional traditions.
Notes
Languages and Communication
It was not just in sama‘ that the Chishtis adopted local languages. In Delhi, those
associated with the Chishti silsila conversed in Hindavi, the language of the
people. Other sufis such as Baba Farid composed verses in the local language,
which were incorporated in the Guru Granth Sahib. Yet others composed long
poems or masnavis to express ideas of divine love using human love as an
allegory. For example, Padmavat composed by Malik Muhammad Jayasi
revolved around the romance of Padmini and Ratansen, the king of Chittor.
A different genre of sufi poetry was composed in and around the town of
Bijapur, Karnataka. These were short poems in Dakhani (a variant of Urdu)
attributed to Chishti sufis who lived in this region during the seventeenth and
eighteenth centuries.
These poems were probably sung by women while performing household

chores like grinding grain and spinning. Other compositions were in the form
of lurinama or lullabies and shadinama or wedding songs. It is likely that the
sufis of this region were inspired by the pre-existing bhakti tradition of the
Kannada vachanas of the Lingayats and the Marathi abhangs of the sants of
Pandharpur. It is through this medium that Islam gradually gained a place in the
villages of the Deccan.
Sufis and the State Notes
A major feature of the Chishti tradition was austerity, including maintaining a

distance from worldly power. However, this was by no means a situation of
absolute isolation from political power. The sufis accepted unsolicited grants
and donations from the political elites.
The Sultans in turn set up charitable trusts (auqaf) as endowments for hospices
and granted tax-free land (inam).The Chishtis accepted donations in cash and
kind. Rather than accumulate donations, they preferred to use these fully on
immediate requirements such as food, clothes, living quarters and ritual
necessities (such as sama‘).
However, there were instances of conflict between the Sultans and the sufis.
To assert their authority, both expected that certain rituals be performed such
as prostration and kissing of the feet. Occasionally the sufi shaikh was
addressed with high-sounding titles. For example, the disciples of Nizamuddin
Auliya addressed him as sultan-ul-mashaikh (literally,Sultan amongst
shaikhs).
NEW DEVOTIONAL PATHS: DIALOGUE AND DISSENT IN NORTHERN INDIA
Many poet-saints engaged in explicit and implicit dialogue with new social
situations, ideas and institutions. Let us now see how this dialogue found
expression. We focus here on three of the most influential figures of the time.
Weaving a divine fabric: Kabir
Kabir is perhaps one of the most outstanding examples of a poet-saint who

emerged within this context.
Note-Sant Kabir Das was born in the city of Varanasi, Uttar Pradesh. He was a
15th century mystic poet, saint and social reformer and a proponent of the
Bhakti Movement. Kabir's legacy is still going on through a sect known as Panth
of Kabir, a religious community that considers him as the founder. He was best
known for his two-line couplets, known as 'Kabir Ke Dohe'.Kabir's works were
written in the Hindi language which was easy to comprehend.
Kabir's writings had a great influence on the Bhakti movement and includes
three distinct traditions known as Kabir Granthawali, Anurag Sagar Bijak, and
Sakhi Granth. His verses are found in Sikhism's scripture Guru Granth Sahib.
He did not believe in any religious discrimination and readily accepted all the
religions. Also striking is the range of traditions Kabir drew on to describe the
Ultimate Reality. These include Islam: he described the Ultimate Reality as
Allah, Khuda, Hazrat and Pir. He also used terms drawn from Vedantic
traditions, alakh (the unseen), nirakar (formless), Brahman, Atman, etc. Other Notes
terms with mystical connotations such as shabda (sound) or shunya
(emptiness) were drawn from yogic traditions.
Hagiographies within the Vaishnava tradition suggest that he was born a Hindu,
Kabirdas (Kabir itself is an Arabic word meaning “great”), but was raised by a
poor Muslim family belonging to the community of weavers or julahas, who
were relatively recent converts to Islam. They also suggested that he was
initiated into bhakti by a guru, Ramananda.
THINK: Ramananda
However, the verses attributed to Kabir use the words guru and satguru, but
do not mention the name of any specific preceptor. Historians have pointed
out that it is very difficult to establish that Ramananda and Kabir were
contemporaries, without assigning improbably long lives to either or both.
So, while traditions linking the two cannot be accepted at face value, they show
how important the legacy of Kabir was for later generations.
Do you Know: Sant Kabir Das Jayanti is observed on 24th June to mark the birth
anniversary of Sant Kabirdas.
Baba Guru Nanak and the Sacred Word
Baba Guru Nanak (1469-1539) was born in a Hindu merchant family in a village
called Talwandi Rai Bhoe (It was renamed as Nankana Sahib) near Lahore in
Punjab. He trained to be an accountant and studied Persian. He was married at
a young age but he spent most of his time among sufis and bhaktas. He also
travelled widely.
The message of Baba Guru Nanak is spelt out in his hymns and teachings. These
suggest that he advocated a form of nirguna bhakti. He firmly repudiated the
external practices of the religions he saw around him. He rejected sacrifices,
ritual baths, image worship, austerities and the scriptures of both Hindus and
Muslims.
For Baba Guru Nanak, the Absolute or “rab” had no gender or form. He
proposed a simple way to connect to the Divine by remembering and repeating
the Divine Name, expressing his ideas through hymns called “shabad” in
Punjabi, the language of the region.
Baba Guru Nanak organised his followers into a community. He set up rules for
congregational worship (sangat) involving collective recitation. He appointed
one of his disciples, Angad, to succeed him as the preceptor (guru), and this
practice was followed for nearly 200 years.
It appears that Baba Guru Nanak did not wish to establish a new religion, but Notes
after his death his followers consolidated their own practices and distinguished
themselves from both Hindus and Muslims.
The fifth preceptor, Guru Arjan, compiled Baba Guru Nanak’s hymns along
with those of his four successors and other religious poets like Baba Farid,
Ravidas (also known as Raidas) and Kabir in the Adi Granth Sahib. These
hymns, called “gurbani”, are composed in various languages. In the late
seventeenth century, the tenth preceptor, Guru Gobind Singh, included the
compositions of the ninth guru, Guru Tegh Bahadur, and this scripture was
called the Guru Granth Sahib.
Guru Gobind Singh also laid the foundation of the Khalsa Panth (army of the
pure) and defined its five symbols:
i. uncut hair,
ii. a dagger,
iii. a pair of shorts,
iv. a comb and
v. a steel bangle.
Under him the community got consolidated as a socio-religious and military

force.
Do you Know: Guru Nanak Jayanti is celebrated on the full moon day of Kartik
month, also known as Kartik Poornima.
Mirabai, the devotee princess
Mirabai (c. fifteenth-sixteenth centuries) is perhaps the best-known woman

poet within the bhakti tradition. Biographies have been reconstructed primarily
from the bhajans attributed to her, which were transmitted orally for
centuries.
According to these, she was a Rajput princess from Merta in Marwar,

Rajasthan who was married against her wishes to a prince of the Sisodia clan
of Mewar, Rajasthan. She defied her husband and did not submit to the
traditional role of wife and mother, instead recognising Krishna, the avatar of
Vishnu, as her lover. Her in-laws tried to poison her, but she escaped from the
palace to live as a wandering saint composing songs that are characterised by
intense expressions of emotion.
She was the first to introduce Giridhara Gopala cult of Brindavan and also the
first to introduce Bhajan in Bhakti movement.Her bhajans were composed in Notes

the language of Vraj Bhasha.
According to some traditions, her Guru was Raidas, a leather worker. This
would indicate her defiance of the norms of caste society. After rejecting the
comforts of her husband’s palace, she is supposed to have donned the white
robes of a widow or the saffron robe of the renouncer.
Although Mirabai did not attract a sect or group of followers, she has been
recognised as a source of inspiration for centuries. Her songs continue to be
sung by women and men, especially those who are poor and considered “low
caste” in Gujarat and Rajasthan.
Previous Years Questions:
Q1. With reference to the religious history of mediaeval India, the Sufi mystics
were known to pursue which of the following practices? (2012)
1. Meditation and control of breath
2. Severe ascetic exercises in a lonely place
3. Recitation of holy songs to arouse a state of ecstasy in their audience
Select the correct answer using the codes given below:
a) 1 and 2 only
b) 2 and 3 only
c) 3 only
d) 1, 2 and 3
VIJAYANAGARA Notes
Vijayanagara or “city of victory” was the name of both a city and an empire.
The empire was founded in the fourteenth century. In its heyday it stretched
from the river Krishna in the north to the extreme south of the peninsula. In
1565 the city was sacked and subsequently deserted. Although it fell into ruin
in the seventeenth-eighteenth centuries, it lives on in the memories of people
living in the Krishna-Tungabhadra doab. Vijayanagara was also called as
Hampi, a name derived from that of the local mother goddess, Pampadevi.
These oral traditions combined with archaeological finds, monuments and
inscriptions and other records helped scholars to rediscover the Vijayanagara
Empire.
Do you Know: Hampi has been added to the list of UNESCO World Heritage
Sites.
THE DISCOVERY OF HAMPI
The ruins at Hampi were brought to light in 1800 by an engineer and

antiquarian named Colonel Colin Mackenzie. An employee of the English East
India Company, he prepared the first survey map of the site.
Much of the initial information he received was based on the memories of

priests of the Virupaksha temple and the shrine of Pampadevi. Subsequently,
from 1856, photographers began to record the monuments which enabled
scholars to study them.
As early as 1836 epigraphists began collecting several dozen inscriptions found

at this and other temples at Hampi. In an effort to reconstruct the history of
the city and the empire, historians collated information from these sources
with accounts of foreign travellers and other literature written in Telugu,
Kannada, Tamil and Sanskrit.
Note-Epigraphy is the study of inscriptions.
Notes
THE RAYAS, NAYAKAS AND SULTANS:
When the armies of the Delhi Sultanate destroyed the four great Kingdoms of
the South viz., the Sevunas of Devagiri, Kakatiyas of Warangal, Hoysalas of
Dwarasamudra and the Pandyas of Madurai, it looked as if the political
landscape of the South was going to be dominated by the Delhi Sultanate.
However, this led to the rise of one of the greatest empires of India viz, the
Vijayanagara Empire.
In 1336 A.D, brothers Harihara (Hakka) and Bukka of Sangama dynasty with
the help of their guru sage Vidyaranya established the Viajayanagar Empire.
Note-Harihara (1336-1356 A.D) became the first king of the Vijayanagara

Empire.Bukka succeeded his brother in 1356 A.D
Do you Know: The royal emblem of Vijayanagara empire was Sun,Moon,dagger

and boar.
On their northern frontier, the Vijayanagara kings competed with

contemporary rulers – including the Sultans of the Deccan and the Gajapati
rulers of Orissa – for control of the fertile river valleys and the resources
generated by lucrative overseas trade.
Note-Kapilendra Deva was the founder of the Gajapati dynasty who ruled from
1435 to 1466 AD. It was also known as Suryavamsa dynasty which ruled over
the region known as Trikalinga (most of modern-day Odisha and Northern
coastal Andhra). Notes
At the same time, interaction between these states led to sharing of ideas,
especially in the field of architecture. The rulers of Vijayanagara borrowed
concepts and building techniques which they then developed further.
The rulers of Vijayanagara, called themselves rayas.
Kings and Traders
As warfare during these times depended upon effective cavalry, the import of
horses from Arabia and Central Asia was very important for rival kingdoms.
This trade was initially controlled by Arab traders. Local communities of
merchants known as kudirai chettis or horse merchants also participated in
these exchanges.
From 1498 other actors appeared on the scene. These were the Portuguese,
who arrived on the west coast of the subcontinent and attempted to establish
trading and military stations. Their superior military technology, especially the
use of muskets, enabled them to become important players in the tangled
politics of the period.
Vijayanagara was also noted for its markets dealing in spices, textiles and
precious stones. Trade was often regarded as a status symbol for such cities,
which boasted of a wealthy population that demanded high-value exotic goods,
especially precious stones and jewellery. The revenue derived from trade in
turn contributed significantly to the prosperity of the state.
The apogee and decline of the empire
The first dynasty, known as the Sangama dynasty, exercised control till 1485.
After the Sangama dynasty, Saluva dynasty ruled Vijayanagara for a short
period from 1485 A.D to 1505 A.D. After Saluva dynasty, Tuluva dynasty ruled
Vijayanagara Empire from 1505 A.D to 1570 A.D.
Tuluva Krishnadevaraya (1509 A.D -1529 A.D) was the greatest of all
Vijayanagara rulers. He was a great warrior, scholar and administrator.
He consolidated and expanded the empire through smart use of his massive
military and successfully campaigned against the kingdoms to his north. Notes
Krishnadevaraya secured Raichur doab in 1512, and later marched into the
capitals of his enemies like Bidar (1512) and Cuttack (1518) which was the
capital of the Gajapatis.
In 1523, Krishnadevaraya attacked Bijapur and released Sultan Mahmud from

captivity and made him de-facto ruler. This earned Krishnadevaraya the title of
“Yavana rajya prathistapana acharya” (establisher of the Yavana kingdom).
Note-Yavana is a Sanskrit word used for people who entered the subcontinent
from the north west.
Krishnadevaraya was a great patron of literature and himself was a great

scholar. He wrote Amuktamalyada in Telugu. He had eight great poets, called
ashtadiggajas in his court.
Do you Know: Foreign travellers like Barbossa and Paes visited the
Vijayanagara Empire during the rule of Krishnadevaraya.
Although the kingdom remained in a constant state of military preparedness,

it flourished under conditions of unparalleled peace and prosperity.
Krishnadeva Raya is credited with building some fine temples and adding
impressive gopurams to many important south Indian temples. He also
founded a suburban township near Vijayanagara called Nagalapuram after his
mother. Some of the most detailed descriptions of Vijayanagara come from his
time or just after.
Strain began to show within the imperial structure following Krishnadeva

Raya’s death in 1529. His successors were troubled by rebellious nayakas or
military chiefs. The Tuluva dynasty was overthrown by the Aravidu dynasty
which ruled from 1570 A.D till 1646 A.D.
During this period, as indeed earlier, the military ambitions of the rulers of
Vijayanagara as well as those of the Deccan Sultanates resulted in shifting
alignments. Eventually this led to an alliance of the Sultanates against
Vijayanagara.
At the battle of Rakkasa Tangadi in 1565 (Talikota), the combined armies of

Bijapur, Ahmadnagar and Golconda killed Aravidu Ramaraya who was the
Vijayanagar Chief minister and Krishnadevaraya’s son-in-law and destroyed
the capital city.
After the defeat, Ramaraya`s brothers Thirumalaraya and Venkataparaya

shifted the capital first to Penugonda, and later to Chandragiri.
Note-In 1565, Sadasiva Raya was the king of the Vijayanagara Empire. Notes
Although the armies of the Sultans were responsible for the destruction of the
city of Vijayanagara, relations between the Sultans and the rayas were not
always or inevitably hostile, in spite of religious differences.
Krishnadeva Raya, for example, supported some claimants to power in the

Sultanates and took pride in the title “establisher of the Yavana kingdom”.
Similarly, the Sultan of Bijapur intervened to resolve succession disputes in

Vijayanagara following the death of Krishnadeva Raya. In fact, the Vijayanagara
kings were keen to ensure the stability of the Sultanates and vice versa. It was
the adventurous policy of Rama Raya who tried to play off one Sultan against
another that led the Sultans to combine together and decisively defeat him.
The Rayas and the Nayakas
Among those who exercised power in the empire were military chiefs who
usually controlled forts and had armed supporters. These chiefs were known
as nayakas and they usually spoke Telugu or Kannada. Many nayakas
submitted to the authority of the kings of Vijayanagara but they often rebelled
and had to be subdued by military action.
The amara-nayaka system was a major political innovation of the Vijayanagara

Empire. It is likely that many features of this system were derived from the iqta
system of the Delhi Sultanate.
The amara-nayakas were military commanders who were given territories to

govern by the raya. They collected taxes and other dues from peasants, crafts
persons and traders in the area. They retained part of the revenue for personal
use and for maintaining a stipulated contingent of horses and elephants. These
contingents provided the Vijayanagara kings with an effective fighting force
with which they brought the entire southern peninsula under their control.
Some of the revenue was also used for the maintenance of temples and
irrigation works.
The amara-nayakas sent tribute to the king annually and personally appeared
in the royal court with gifts to express their loyalty. Kings occasionally asserted
their control over them by transferring them from one place to another.
However, during the course of the seventeenth century, many of these nayakas
established independent kingdoms. This hastened the collapse of the central
imperial structure.
Note-The Iqta system was a unique type of land distribution and administrative Notes
system introduced during the reign of Iltutmish. Under this system, the
commanders and nobles were given territories to administer and collect the
revenue.The territories thus assigned were called iqta and their holders as
iqtadar or muqti.
VIJAYANAGARA: THE CAPITAL AND ITS ENVIRONS
Like most capitals, Vijayanagara was characterised by a distinctive physical

layout and building style.
Water Resources
The most striking feature about the location of Vijayanagara is the natural basin
formed by the river Tungabhadra which flows in a north-easterly direction. The
surrounding landscape is characterised by stunning granite hills that seem to
form a girdle around the city. A number of streams flow down to the river from
these rocky outcrops.
In almost all cases embankments were built along these streams to create
reservoirs of varying sizes.As this is one of the most arid zones of the peninsula,
elaborate arrangements had to be made to store rainwater and conduct it to
the city. The most important such tank was built in the early years of the
fifteenth century and is now called Kamalapuram tank. Water from this tank
not only irrigated fields nearby but was also conducted through a channel to
the “royal centre”.
One of the most prominent waterworks to be seen among the ruins is the
Hiriya canal. This canal drew water from a dam across the Tungabhadra and
irrigated the cultivated valley that separated the “sacred centre” from the
“urban core”. This was apparently built by kings of the Sangama dynasty.
Fortifications and Roads Notes
Abdur Razzaq, an ambassador sent by the ruler of Persia to Calicut (present-

day Kozhikode) in the fifteenth century, was greatly impressed by the
fortifications, and mentioned seven lines of forts. These encircled not only the
city but also its agricultural hinterland and forests. The outermost wall linked
the hills surrounding the city. The massive masonry construction was slightly
tapered. No mortar or cementing agent was employed anywhere in the
construction. The stone blocks were wedge shaped, which held them in place,
and the inner portion of the walls was of earth packed with rubble. Square or
rectangular bastions are projected outwards.
What was most significant about this fortification is that it enclosed agricultural
tracts. Abdur Razzaq noted that “between the first, second and the third walls
there are cultivated fields, gardens and houses”. And Paes observed: “From this
first circuit until you enter the city there is a great distance, in which are fields
in which they sow rice and have many gardens and much water, in which water
comes from two lakes.”
These statements have been corroborated by present-day archaeologists, who

have also found evidence of an agricultural tract between the sacred centre
and the urban core. This tract was serviced by an elaborate canal system
drawing water from the Tungabhadra.
Note-Abdur Razzaq was a scholar and chronicler who visited the Vijayanagara
Kingdom during Dev Raya II's reign. In 1442, he arrived at the court of King
Zamorin of Calicut as an emissary of Shahrukh (Persian ruler of the Timurid
Dynasty) and then travelled to the Vijayanagara Kingdom.
Note-Devaraya II was the greatest ruler of the Sangama dynasty.
Note-Domingo Paes was a Portuguese trader, writer, and explorer who visited
India between 1520 and 1522 AD and provided the most complete account of
the ancient city of Hampi under the reign of King Krishnadeva Raya of the
Tuluva Dynasty. In his book "Chronica dos reis de Bisnaga" he chronicled his
voyage and gave in-depth information on the Vijayanagara Empire.
The fort was entered through well-guarded gates, which linked the city to the
major roads. Gateways were distinctive architectural features that often
defined the structures to which they regulated access. The arch on the gateway
leading into the fortified settlement as well as the dome over the gate are
regarded as typical features of the architecture introduced by the Turkish
Sultans. Art historians refer to this style as Indo-Islamic, as it grew continually
through interaction with local building practices in different regions.
Archaeologists have studied roads within the city and those leading out from Notes
it. These have been identified by tracing paths through gateways, as well as by
finds of pavements. Roads generally wound around through the valleys,
avoiding rocky terrain. Some of the most important roads extended from
temple gateways, and were lined by bazaars.
The Urban Core
Moving along the roads leading into the urban core, there is relatively little
archaeological evidence of the houses of ordinary people. Archaeologists have
found fine Chinese porcelain in some areas, including in the north-eastern
corner of the urban core and suggest that these areas may have been occupied
by rich traders. This was also the Muslim residential quarter.
Tombs and mosques located here have distinctive functions, yet their
architecture resembles that of the mandapas found in the temples of Hampi.
This is how the sixteenth-century Portuguese traveller Barbosa described the

houses of ordinary people, which have not survived: “The other houses of the
people are thatched, but nonetheless well-built and arranged according to
occupations, in long streets with many open places.”
Note-Duarte Barbosa was a Portuguese writer and officer from Portuguese

India. Barbosa wrote the Book of Duarte Barbosa c. 1516, making it one of the
earliest examples of Portuguese travel literature.
Field surveys indicate that the entire area was dotted with numerous shrines
and small temples, pointing to the prevalence of a variety of cults, perhaps
supported by different communities. The surveys also indicate that wells,
rainwater tanks as well as temple tanks may have served as sources of water
to the ordinary town dwellers. Notes
The Royal Centre
The royal centre was located in the south-western part of the settlement.
Although designated as a royal centre, it included over 60 temples. Clearly, the
patronage of temples and cults was important for rulers who were trying to
establish and legitimise their authority through association with the divinities
housed in the shrines.
About thirty building complexes have been identified as palaces. These are
relatively large structures that do not seem to have been associated with ritual
functions. One difference between these structures and temples is that the
latter were constructed entirely of masonry, while the superstructure of the
secular buildings was made of perishable materials.
The Mahanavami Dibba
Some of the more distinctive structures in the area have been assigned names
based on the form of the buildings as well as their functions. The “king’s palace”
is the largest of the enclosures but has not yielded definitive evidence of being
a royal residence.
It has two of the most impressive platforms, usually called the “audience hall”
and the “mahanavami dibba”. The entire complex is surrounded by high
double walls with a street running between them.
The audience hall is a high platform with slots for wooden pillars at close and
regular intervals. It had a staircase going up to the second floor, which rested
on these pillars. The pillars being closely spaced, would have left little free
space and thus it is not clear what the hall was used for.
Located on one of the highest points in the city, the “mahanavami dibba” is a
massive platform rising from a base of about 11,000 sq. ft to a height of 40 ft.
There is evidence that it supported a wooden structure. The base of the
platform is covered with relief carvings.
Rituals associated with the structure probably coincided with Mahanavami

(literally, the great ninth day) of the ten-day Hindu festival during the autumn
months of September and October, known variously as Dusehra (northern
India), Durga Puja (in Bengal), and Navaratri or Mahanavami (in peninsular
India). The Vijayanagara kings displayed their prestige, power and suzerainty
on this occasion.
Notes
The ceremonies performed on the occasion included worship of the image,

worship of the state horse, and the sacrifice of buffaloes and other animals.
Dances, wrestling matches, and processions of caparisoned horses, elephants
and chariots and soldiers, as well as ritual presentations before the king and his
guests by the chief nayakas and subordinate kings marked the occasion. These
ceremonies were imbued with deep symbolic meanings. On the last day of the
festival the king inspected his army and the armies of the nayakas in a grand
ceremony in an open field. On this occasion the nayakas brought rich gifts for
the king as well as the stipulated tribute.
Other Buildings in the Royal Centre
One of the most beautiful buildings in the royal centre is the Lotus Mahal, so
named by British travellers in the nineteenth century. While the name is
certainly romantic, historians are not quite sure what the building was used for.
One suggestion, found in a map drawn by Mackenzie, is that it may have been
a council chamber, a place where the king met his advisers.
While most temples were located in the sacred centre, there were several in Notes
the royal centre as well. One of the most spectacular of these is one known as
the Hazara Rama temple. The images in the central shrine are missing;
however, sculpted panels on the walls survive. These include scenes from the
Ramayana sculpted on the inner walls of the shrine.
Note-The Hazara Rama Temple at Hampi is built by Devaraya II.
THE SACRED CENTRE
Choosing a Capital
We now move to the rocky northern end of the city on the banks of the
Tungabhadra. According to local tradition, these hills sheltered the monkey
kingdom of Vali and Sugriva mentioned in the Ramayana
Other traditions suggest that Pampadevi, the local mother goddess, did
penance in these hills in order to marry Virupaksha, the guardian deity of the
kingdom, also recognised as a form of Shiva. To this day this marriage is
celebrated annually in the Virupaksha Temple.
Among these hills are found Jaina temples of the pre-Vijayanagara period as
well. In other words, this area was associated with several sacred traditions.
Temple building in the region had a long history, going back to dynasties such
as the Pallavas, Chalukyas, Hoysalas and Cholas.
It is likely that the very choice of the site of Vijayanagara was inspired by the
existence of the shrines of Virupaksha and Pampadevi. In fact, the Vijayanagara
kings claimed to rule on behalf of the god Virupaksha. All royal orders were
signed “Shri Virupaksha”, usually in the Kannada script.
Rulers also indicated their close links with the gods by using the title “Hindu
Suratrana”. This was a Sanskritisation of the Arabic term Sultan, meaning king,
so it literally meant Hindu Sultan. Royal portrait sculpture was now displayed
in temples, and the king’s visits to temples were treated as important state Notes
occasions on which he was accompanied by the important nayakas of the
empire.
Gopurams and Mandapas
Vijayanagara architecture is a vibrant combination of the Chalukya, Hoysala,

Pandya and Chola styles.
Temples of Vijayanagara were built with a strong enclosure, a lofty tower at

the entrance called raya gopurams and big mandapas. Vijayanagara temples
had impressive Kalyana Mandapams and Sabha Mandapas, which were open
pillared pavilions. Each mantapa had many tall monolithic pillars, which were
solid pieces of art.
Notes
The Prasanna Virupaksha temple (underground temple), the Hazare Rama

temple, Stone chariot of Vitthala temple, the Hazara Ramaswamy temple, large
monoliths such as the Sasivekalu Ganesha, Kadalekalu Ganesha and Ugra
Narasimha at Hampi and Nandi bull in Lepakshi are some of the best examples
of Vijayanagara architecture.
The presence of many secular structures bearing Islamic features displays an

aspect of Vijayanagara architecture that shows the cosmopolitanism of the
great city.
Notes
Notes
PEASANTS, ZAMINDARS AND THE STATE
During the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries about 85 percent of the

population of India lived in its villages. Both peasants and landed elites were
involved in agricultural production and claimed rights to a share of the produce.
This created relationships of cooperation, competition and conflict among
them. The sum of these agrarian relationships made up rural society.
At the same time agencies from outside also entered into the rural world. Most
important among these was the Mughal state, which derived the bulk of its
income from agricultural production.
Agents of the state – revenue assessors, collectors, record keepers – sought to

control rural society so as to ensure that cultivation took place and the state
got its regular share of taxes from the produce. Since many crops were grown
for sale, trade, money and markets entered the villages and linked the
agricultural areas with the towns.
PEASANTS AND AGRICULTURAL PRODUCTION
Looking for sources
Our understanding of the workings of rural society does not come from those
who worked the land, as peasants did not write about themselves. Our major
source for the agrarian history of the sixteenth and early seventeenth centuries
are chronicles and documents from the Mughal court.
One of the most important chronicles was the Ain-i Akbari authored by Akbar’s
court historian Abu’l Fazl. This text meticulously recorded the arrangements
made by the state to ensure cultivation, to enable the collection of revenue by
the agencies of the state and to regulate the relationship between the state
and rural magnates, the zamindars.
The central purpose of the Ain was to present a vision of Akbar’s empire where
social harmony was provided by a strong ruling class. Any revolt or assertion of
autonomous power against the Mughal state was, in the eyes of the author of
the Ain, predestined to fail. In other words, whatever we learn from the Ain
about peasants remains a view from the top.
Note-The Ain-i-Akbari is a book written in Persian language. Persian was the

language of administration during the Mughal era. It was translated into
English by Henry Beveridge.
Fortunately, however, the account of the Ain can be supplemented by
descriptions contained in sources emanating from regions away from the Notes
Mughal capital. These include detailed revenue records from Gujarat,
Maharashtra and Rajasthan dating from the seventeenth and eighteenth
centuries. Further, the extensive records of the East India Company, provide us
with useful descriptions of agrarian relations in eastern India. All these sources
record instances of conflicts between peasants, zamindars and the state. In the
process they give us an insight into peasants’ perception of and their
expectations of fairness from the state.
Peasants and Their Lands
The term which Indo-Persian sources of the Mughal period most frequently
used to denote a peasant was raiyat or muzarian. In addition, we also
encounter the terms kisan or asami.
Sources of the seventeenth century refer to two kinds of peasants –
i. khud-kashta: were residents of the village in which they held their

lands.
ii. pahi-kashta: were non-resident cultivators who belonged to some

other village, but cultivated lands elsewhere on a contractual basis.
Irrigation and Technology
The abundance of land, available labour and the mobility of peasants were
three factors that accounted for the constant expansion of agriculture.
Since the primary purpose of agriculture is to feed people, basic staples such
as rice, wheat or millets were the most frequently cultivated crops.
Monsoons remained the backbone of Indian agriculture, as they are even

today. But there were crops which required additional water. Artificial systems
of irrigation had to be devised for this. Irrigation projects received state
support as well. For example, in northern India the state undertook digging of
new canals (nahr, nala) and also repaired old ones like the shahnahr in the
Punjab during Shah Jahan’s reign.
An abundance of crops
Agriculture was organised around two major seasonal cycles, the kharif
(autumn) and the rabi (spring). This would mean that most regions produced a
minimum of two crops a year (do-fasla), whereas some, where rainfall or
irrigation assured a continuous supply of water, even gave three crops.
This ensured an enormous variety of produce. For instance, we are told in the
Ain that the Mughal provinces of Agra produced 39 varieties of crops and Delhi Notes
produced 43 over the two seasons. Bengal produced 50 varieties of rice alone.
However, the focus on the cultivation of basic staples did not mean that
agriculture in medieval India was only for subsistence. We often come across
the term jins-i kamil (commercial crops). The Mughal state encouraged
peasants to cultivate such crops as they brought in more revenue. Crops such
as cotton and sugarcane were jins-i kamil par excellence. Cotton was grown
over a great swathe of territory spread over central India and the Deccan
plateau, whereas Bengal was famous for its sugar.
Such cash crops would also include various sorts of oilseeds (for example,
mustard) and lentils. This shows how subsistence and commercial production
were closely intertwined in an average peasant’s holding.
During the seventeenth century several new crops from different parts of the
world reached the Indian subcontinent. Maize (makka), for example, was
introduced into India. Vegetables like tomatoes, potatoes and chillies were
introduced from the New World at this time, as were fruits like the pineapple
and the papaya.
Note-Pineapple, maize, tomatoes, potato, chilies and papaya were introduced

into India in the 16th century by the Portuguese.
Do you know: India is the world's largest producer of papaya.
Note-Tobacco cultivation in India was introduced by the Portuguese in 1600s. Notes

Initially tobacco was grown in Kaira and Mehsana districts of Gujarat and later
spread to other areas of the country.
THE VILLAGE COMMUNITY

Peasants held their lands in individual ownership. At the same time, they
belonged to a collective village community as far as many aspects of their social
existence were concerned.
There were three constituents of this community –the cultivators, the

panchayat, and the village headman (muqaddam or mandal).
Caste and the rural milieu
Deep inequalities on the basis of caste and other caste like distinctions meant
that the cultivators were a highly heterogeneous group.
Among those who tilled the land, there was a sizable number who worked as
menials or agricultural labourers (majur).
Despite the abundance of cultivable land, certain caste groups were assigned
menial tasks and thus relegated to poverty. Though there was no census at that
time, the little data that we have suggest that such groups comprised a large
section of the village population, had the least resources and were constrained
by their position in the caste hierarchy. Such distinctions had begun permeating
into other communities too. In Muslim communities’ menials like the
halalkhoran (scavengers) were housed outside the boundaries of the village;
similarly, the mallahzadas in Bihar were comparable to slaves.
There was a direct correlation between caste, poverty and social status at the Notes
lower strata of society. Such correlations were not so marked at intermediate
levels. In a manual from the seventeenth century Marwar, Rajputs are
mentioned as peasants, sharing the same space with Jats, who were accorded
a lower status in the caste hierarchy. The Gauravas, who cultivated land around
Vrindavan (Uttar Pradesh), sought Rajput status in the seventeenth century.
Castes such as the Ahirs, Gujars and Malis rose in the hierarchy because of the
profitability of cattle rearing and horticulture. In the eastern regions,
intermediate pastoral and fishing castes like the Sadgops and Kaivartas
acquired the status of peasants.
Panchayats and Headmen
The village panchayat was an assembly of elders, usually important people of

the village with hereditary rights over their property. The panchayat was
headed by a headman known as muqaddam or mandal. Some sources suggest
that the headman was chosen through the consensus of the village elders.
Headmen held office as long as they enjoyed the confidence of the village
elders, failing which they could be dismissed by them. The chief function of the
headman was to supervise the preparation of village accounts, assisted by the
accountant or patwari of the panchayat. The decisions made by these
panchayats were binding on the members.
One important function of the panchayat was to ensure that caste boundaries
among the various communities inhabiting the village were upheld. In eastern
India all marriages were held in the presence of the mandal. In other words,
one of the duties of the village headman was to oversee the conduct of the
members of the village community “chiefly to prevent any offence against their
caste”.
Panchayats also had the authority to levy fines and inflict more serious forms
of punishment like expulsion from the community. The latter was a drastic
step and was in most cases meted out for a limited period. It meant that a
person forced to leave the village became an outcast and lost his right to
practise his profession. Such a measure was intended as a deterrent to violation
of caste norms.
In addition to the village panchayat each caste or jati in the village had its own
jati panchayat. These panchayats wielded considerable power in rural society.
They mediated in contested claims on land, decided whether marriages were
performed according to the norms laid down by a particular caste group,
determined who had ritual precedence in village functions, and so on. In most
cases, except in matters of criminal justice, the state respected the decisions of
jati panchayats. Notes
Village Artisans
Village artisans – potters, blacksmiths, carpenters, barbers, even goldsmiths –
provided specialised services in return for which they were compensated by
villagers by a variety of means. The most common way of doing so was by giving
them a share of the harvest, or an allotment of land. In Maharashtra such lands
became the artisans’ miras or watan – their hereditary holding.
Another variant of this was a system where artisans and individual peasant
households entered into a mutually negotiated system of remuneration, most
of the time goods for services. For example, eighteenth-century records tell us
of zamindars in Bengal who remunerated blacksmiths, carpenters, even
goldsmiths for their work by paying them “a small daily allowance and diet
money”. This later came to be described as the jajmani system.
WOMEN IN AGRARIAN SOCIETY

Artisanal tasks such as spinning yarn, sifting and kneading clay for pottery, and
embroidery were among the many aspects of production dependent on female
labour. The more commercialised the product, the greater the demand on
women’s labour to produce it.
In fact, peasant and artisan women worked not only in the fields, but even went
to the houses of their employers or to the markets if necessary. Menstruating
women were not allowed to touch the plough or the potter’s wheel.
Women were considered an important resource in agrarian society also

because they were child bearers in a society dependent on labour. At the same
time, high mortality rates among women – owing to malnutrition, frequent
pregnancies, death during childbirth – often meant a shortage of wives. This
led to the emergence of social customs in peasant and artisan communities
that were distinct from those prevalent among elite groups. Marriages in many
rural communities required the payment of bride-price rather than dowry to
the bride’s family. Remarriage was considered legitimate both among divorced
and widowed women.
Documents from Western India – Rajasthan, Gujarat and Maharashtra – record

petitions sent by women to the village panchayat, seeking redress and justice.
Wives protested against the infidelity of their husbands or the neglect of the
wife and children by the male head of the household, the grihasthi. While male
infidelity was not always punished, the state and “superior” caste groups did
intervene when it came to ensuring that the family was adequately provided
for. In most cases when women petitioned to the panchayat, their names were
excluded from the record: the petitioner was referred to as the mother, sister
or wife of the male head of the household. Notes
Amongst the landed gentry, women had the right to inherit property. Instances
from the Punjab show that women, including widows, actively participated in
the rural land market as sellers of property inherited by them. Hindu and
Muslim women inherited zamindaris which they were free to sell or mortgage.
Women zamindars were known in eighteenth-century Bengal. In fact, one of
the biggest and most famous of the eighteenth-century zamindaris, that of
Rajshahi, had a woman at the helm.
Notes
FORESTS AND TRIBES
Beyond settled villages
Forest dwellers were termed jangli in contemporary texts. Being jangli,

however, did not mean an absence of “civilisation”. Rather, the term described
those whose livelihood came from the gathering of forest produce, hunting and
shifting agriculture. These activities were largely season specific. Among the
Bhils, for example, spring was reserved for collecting forest produce, summer
for fishing, the monsoon months for cultivation, and autumn and winter for
hunting. Such a sequence presumed and perpetuated mobility, which was a
distinctive feature of tribes inhabiting these forests.
For the state, the forest was a subversive place – a place of refuge (mawas) for
troublemakers.
Note-Bhils or Bheels are an Adivasi ethnic group in West India. Bhils are listed
as tribal people of the states of Gujarat, Madhya Pradesh, Chhattisgarh,
Maharashtra and Rajasthan. Bhils are one of the largest tribal groups in India.
Inroads into Forests Notes
External forces entered the forest in different ways. For instance, the state
required elephants for the army. So, the peshkash levied from forest people
often included a supply of elephants.
Regular hunting expeditions enabled the emperor to travel across the

extensive territories of his empire and personally attend to the grievances of
its inhabitants. The hunt was a subject frequently painted by court artists. The
painter resorted to the device of inserting a small scene somewhere in the
picture that functioned as a symbol of a harmonious reign.
Note- Padshahnama or Badshah Nama is a genre of Persian works written as

the official history of the Mughal Emperor, Shah Jahan’s reign by Abdul Hamid
Lahori.
The spread of commercial agriculture was an important external factor that

impinged on the lives of those who lived in the forests. Forest products – like
honey, beeswax and gum lac – were in great demand. Some, such as gum lac,
became major items of overseas export from India in the seventeenth century.
Elephants were also captured and sold. Notes
Trade involved an exchange of commodities through barter as well. Some

tribes, like the Lohanis in the Punjab, were engaged in overland trade, between
India and Afghanistan, and in the town-country trade in the Punjab itself.
Though the transition from a tribal to a monarchical system had started much
earlier, the process seems to have become fully developed only by the
sixteenth century. This can be seen from the Ain’s observations on the
existence of tribal kingdoms in the north-east. War was a common occurrence.
For instance, the Koch kings fought and subjugated a number of neighbouring
tribes in a long sequence of wars through the sixteenth and seventeenth
centuries.
Many tribal chiefs had become zamindars, some even became kings. For this
they required to build up an army. They recruited people from their lineage
groups or demanded that their fraternity provide military service. Tribes in the
Sind region had army comprising 6,000 cavalry and 7,000 infantries. In Assam,
the Ahom kings had their paiks, people who were obliged to render military
service in exchange for land.
Note-The Koch dynasty ruled parts of eastern Indian subcontinent in present-

day Assam and Bengal.
Note -The Ahom Kingdom was a late medieval kingdom established in 1228 in
the Brahmaputra Valley in Assam. It is famous for its multi-ethnic makeup and
for retaining its sovereignty for 600 years, at one point fighting the Mughal
Empire to successfully preserve its independence.
THE ZAMINDARS
Our story of agrarian relations in Mughal India will not be complete without
referring to a class of people in the countryside that lived off agriculture but
did not participate directly in the processes of agricultural production. These
were the zamindars who were landed proprietors who also enjoyed certain
social and economic privileges by virtue of their superior status in rural society.
Caste was one factor that accounted for the elevated status of zamindars;
another factor was that they performed certain services (khidmat) for the
state.
The zamindars held extensive personal lands termed milkiyat, meaning

property. Milkiyat lands were cultivated for the private use of zamindars,often
with the help of hired or servile labour. The zamindars could sell, bequeath or
mortgage these lands at will.
Zamindars also derived their power from the fact that they could often collect
revenue on behalf of the state, a service for which they were compensated Notes
financially. Control over military resources was another source of power. Most
zamindars had fortresses (qilachas) as well as an armed contingent comprising
units of cavalry, artillery and infantry.
The dispossession of weaker people by a powerful military chieftain was quite

often a way of expanding a zamindari. It is, however, unlikely that the state
would have allowed such a show of aggression by a zamindar unless he had
been confirmed by an imperial order (sanad).
LAND REVENUE SYSTEM

Revenue from the land was the economic mainstay of the Mughal Empire. It
was therefore vital for the state to create an administrative apparatus to
ensure control over agricultural production, and to fix and collect revenue from
across the length and breadth of the rapidly expanding empire.
This apparatus included the office (daftar) of the diwan who was responsible
for supervising the fiscal system of the empire.
The Mughal state tried to first acquire specific information about the extent of
the agricultural lands in the empire and what these lands produced before
fixing the burden of taxes on people.
The land revenue arrangements consisted of two stages – first, assessment and
then actual collection.
The jama was the amount assessed, and hasil, was the amount collected. In
his list of duties of the amil-guzar or revenue collector, Akbar decreed that
while he should strive to make cultivators pay in cash, the option of payment
in kind was also to be kept open. While fixing revenue, the attempt of the state
was to maximise its claims. The scope of actually realising these claims was,
however, sometimes thwarted by local conditions.
Both cultivated and cultivable lands were measured in each province. Efforts
to measure lands continued under subsequent emperors. For instance, in 1665,
Aurangzeb expressly instructed his revenue officials to prepare annual records
of the number of cultivators in each village. Yet not all areas were measured
successfully. As we have seen, forests covered huge areas of the subcontinent Notes
and thus remained unmeasured.
Polaj
• This land was cultivated for each crop and was never left to lie fallow.
Parati or Parauti
• This was the land kept out of cultivation temporarily in order to recover
its lost fertility.
Chachar
• Chachar was a kind of land allowed to lie fallow for three or four years
and then resumed under cultivation.
Banjar
• Banjar was the worst kind of land that was left out of cultivation for five
years or upwards.
Dahsala is an Indian system of land taxation which was introduced in A.D. 1580
under the reign of Akbar. This system was introduced by the finance minister
of Akbar, Raja Todar Mal.
THE AIN-I-AKBARI OF ABU'L FAZL Notes
The Ain-i Akbari was the culmination of a large historical, administrative project
of classification undertaken by Abu’l Fazl at the order of Emperor Akbar. It was
completed in 1598, the forty-second regnal year of the emperor, after having
gone through five revisions.
The Ain was part of a larger project of history writing commissioned by Akbar.
This history, known as the Akbar Nama, comprised three books. The first two
provided a historical narrative. The Ain-i Akbari, the third book, was organised
as a compendium of imperial regulations and a gazetteer of the empire.
The Ain gives detailed accounts of the organisation of the court, administration
and army, the sources of revenue and the physical layout of the provinces of
Akbar’s empire and the literary, cultural and religious traditions of the people.
Along with a description of the various departments of Akbar’s government
and elaborate descriptions of the various provinces (subas) of the empire, the
Ain gives us intricate quantitative information of those provinces.
The Ain is made up of five books (daftars), of which the first three books
describe the administration. The first book, called manzil-abadi, concerns the
imperial household and its maintenance. The second book, sipah-abadi, covers
the military and civil administration and the establishment of servants. This
book includes notices and short biographical sketches of imperial officials
(mansabdars), learned men, poets and artists.
The third book, mulk-abadi, is the one which deals with the fiscal side of the
empire and provides rich quantitative information on revenue rates, followed
by the “Account of the Twelve Provinces”. This section has detailed statistical
information, which includes the geographic, topographic and economic profile
of all subas and their administrative and fiscal divisions (sarkars, parganas and
mahals), total measured area, and assessed revenue (jama).
After setting out details at the suba level, the Ain goes on to give a detailed
picture of the sarkars below the suba.
The fourth and fifth books (daftars) deal with the religious, literary and cultural
traditions of the people of India and also contain a collection of Akbar’s
“auspicious sayings”.
KINGS AND CHRONICLES Notes
The rulers of the Mughal Empire saw themselves as appointed by Divine Will to
rule over a large and heterogeneous populace. Although this grand vision was
often circumscribed by actual political circumstances, it remained important.
One way of transmitting this vision was through the writing of dynastic
histories. The Mughal kings commissioned court historians to write accounts.
These accounts recorded the events of the emperor’s time. In addition, their
writers collected vast amounts of information from the regions of the
subcontinent to help the rulers govern their domain.
Chronicles are an indispensable source for any scholar wishing to write a

history of the Mughals. At one level they were a repository of factual
information about the institutions of the Mughal state, painstakingly collected
and classified by individuals closely connected with the court. At the same time
these texts were intended as conveyors of meanings that the Mughal rulers
sought to impose on their domain. They therefore give us a glimpse into how
imperial ideologies were created and disseminated. This chapter will look at
the workings of this rich and fascinating dimension of the Mughal Empire.
THE MUGHALS AND THEIR EMPIRE
The name Mughal derives from Mongol. Though today the term evokes the
grandeur of an empire, it was not the name the rulers of the dynasty chose for
themselves. They referred to themselves as Timurids, as descendants of the
Turkish ruler Timur on the paternal side. Babur, the first Mughal ruler, was
related to Ghenghiz Khan from his mother’s side. He spoke Turkish and
referred derisively to the Mongols as barbaric hordes.
Note-Timur (1336-1405 A.D.) was a great military commander and conqueror

of Central Asia. who founded the Timurid Empire in and around modern-day
Afghanistan, Iran and Central Asia, becoming the first ruler of the Timurid
dynasty. An undefeated commander, he is widely regarded as one of the
greatest military leaders and tacticians in history. Samarkand (uzbekistan) was
the capital of Timur's kingdom.
Do you know: In 1398, Timur invaded northern India, attacking the Delhi
Sultanate ruled by Sultan Nasir-ud-Din Mahmud Shah Tughluq of the Tughlaq
dynasty.
Note-Genghis Khan (1162-1227 AD) was the founder and first Great Khan of
the Mongol Empire, which became the largest contiguous empire in history
after his death. He came to power by uniting many of the nomadic tribes of the
Mongol steppe and being proclaimed the universal ruler of the Mongols.
During the sixteenth century, Europeans used the term Mughal to describe the Notes
Indian rulers of this branch of the family. Over the past centuries the word has
been frequently used.
The founder of the empire, Zahiruddin Babur, was driven from his Central
Asian homeland, Farghana, by the warring Uzbeks. He first established himself
at Kabul and then in 1526 pushed further into the Indian subcontinent in search
of territories and resources to satisfy the needs of the members of his clan.
Note-Babur ascended the throne at Farghana (Uzbekistan), in 1494 at the age

of twelve after the death of his father. But he lost Uzbek chief Shaibani Khan.
Note-The first Battle of Panipat, on 21 April 1526, was fought between the
invading forces of Babur and the Lodi dynasty. It took place in North India and
marked the beginning of the Mughal Empire and the end of the Delhi Sultanate.
His successor, Nasiruddin Humayun expanded the frontiers of the empire, but
lost it to the Afghan leader Sher Shah Sur, who drove him into exile. Humayun
took refuge in the court of the Safavid ruler of Iran. In 1555 Humayun defeated
the Surs, but died a year later.
Note-Sher Shah Sur (1486 – 22 May 1545), born Farīd Khān, was the founder
of the Sur Empire in India, with its capital in Sasaram in modern-day Bihar.
Sher Shah of Sur took control of the Mughal Empire in 1540.
Did you know: Sher Shah Sur introduced the currency called rupiah.
Note-On 26 June 1539, Sher Khan faced Humayun in the Battle of Chausa and
defeated him. Assuming the title Farīd al-Dīn Shēr Shah, he defeated Humayun
once again at Kannauj in May 1540 and forced him out of India.
Note- Humauyun died in 1556 due to his fall from the staircase of his library.
Many consider Jalaluddin Akbar (1556-1605) the greatest of all the Mughal
emperors, for he not only expanded but also consolidated his empire, making
it the largest, strongest and richest kingdom of his time. Akbar succeeded in
extending the frontiers of the empire to the Hindukush mountains, and
checked the expansionist designs of the Uzbeks of Turan (Central Asia) and the
Safavids of Iran.
Akbar had three fairly able successors in Jahangir (1605-27), Shah Jahan (1628-
58) and Aurangzeb (1658-1707).
During the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries the institutions of an imperial

structure were created.
These included effective methods of administration and taxation. The visible Notes
centre of Mughal power was the court. Here political alliances and
relationships were forged, status and hierarchies defined. The political system
devised by the Mughals was based on a combination of military power and
conscious policy to accommodate the different traditions they encountered in
the subcontinent.
After 1707, following the death of Aurangzeb, the power of the dynasty
diminished. In place of the vast apparatus of empire controlled from Delhi, Agra
or Lahore – the different capital cities – regional powers acquired greater
autonomy. Yet symbolically the prestige of the Mughal ruler did not lose its
aura. In 1857 the last scion of this dynasty, Bahadur Shah Zafar II, was
overthrown by the British.
Note- Bahadur Shah Zafar II was the last Mughal Emperor. He was deposed by
the British and exiled to Burma following the Indian Rebellion of 1857.
THE PRODUCTION OF CHRONICLES
Chronicles commissioned by the Mughal emperors are an important source for

studying the empire and its court. They were written in order to project a vision
of an enlightened kingdom to all those who came under its umbrella. At the
same time, they were meant to convey to those who resisted the rule of the
Mughals that all resistance was destined to fail.
Also, the rulers wanted to ensure that there was an account of their rule for
posterity. The authors of Mughal chronicles were invariably courtiers. The
histories they wrote focused on events centred on the ruler, his family, the
court and nobles, wars and administrative arrangements. Their titles, such as
the Akbar Nama, Shahjahan Nama, Alamgir Nama, that is, the story of Akbar,
Shah Jahan and Alamgir (a title of the Mughal ruler Aurangzeb), suggest that in
the eyes of their authors the history of the empire and the court was
synonymous with that of the emperor.
From Turkish to Persian
Mughal court chronicles were written in Persian. Under the Sultans of Delhi, it
flourished as a language of the court and of literary writings, alongside north
Indian languages, especially Hindavi and its regional variants.
As the Mughals were Chaghtai Turks by origin, Turkish was their mother
tongue. Their first ruler Babur wrote poetry and his memoirs in this language.
Note-Chaghtai Turks traced descent from the eldest son of Ghengiz Khan.
Note-The Baburnama also known as Tuzk-e Babri was the memoirs written by
Babur himself in Turkish language. Notes
It was Akbar who consciously set out to make Persian the leading language of
the Mughal court. Cultural and intellectual contacts with Iran, as well as a
regular stream of Iranian and Central Asian migrants seeking positions at the
Mughal court, might have motivated the emperor to adopt the language.
Persian was elevated to a language of empire, conferring power and prestige
on those who had a command of it. It was spoken by the king, the royal
household and the elite at court. Further, it became the language of
administration at all levels so that accountants, clerks and other functionaries
also learnt it.
Persian too became Indianised by absorbing local idioms. A new language,

Urdu, sprang from the interaction of Persian with Hindavi.
Mughal chronicles such as the Akbar Nama were written in Persian, others, like
Babur’s memoirs, were translated from Turkish into the Persian Babur Nama.
Translations of Sanskrit texts such as the Mahabharata and the Ramayana into
Persian were commissioned by the Mughal emperors. The Mahabharata was
translated as the Razmnama (Book of Wars).
Note-Abdul Qadir Badauni translated Ramayana and Mahabharata into

Persian in 1574 as per the wishes of Akbar.
The Making of Manuscripts
All books in Mughal India were manuscripts, that is, they were handwritten.
The centre of manuscript production was the imperial kitabkhana. Although
kitabkhana can be translated as a library, it was a scriptorium, that is, a place
where the emperor’s collection of manuscripts was kept and new manuscripts
were produced.
People involved in the actual production of the manuscript also got recognition
in the form of titles and awards. Of these, calligraphers and painters held a high
social standing. Calligraphy, the art of handwriting, was considered a skill of
great importance. It was practiced using different styles.
Akbar’s favourite was the nastaliq, a fluid style with long horizontal strokes.
Notes
THE PAINTED IMAGE
As we read in the previous section, painters too were involved in the

production of Mughal manuscripts. Chronicles narrating the events of a Mughal
emperor’s reign contained, alongside the written text, images that described
an event in visual form. When scenes or themes in a book were to be given
visual expression, the scribe left blank spaces on nearby pages; paintings,
executed separately by artists, were inserted to accompany what was
described in words.
These paintings were miniatures, and could therefore be passed around for
viewing and mounting on the pages of manuscripts.
Paintings served not only to enhance the beauty of a book, but were believed
to possess special powers of communicating ideas about the kingdom and the
power of kings in ways that the written medium could not. The historian Abu’l
Fazl described painting as a “magical art”, in his view it had the power to make Notes
inanimate objects look as if they possessed life.
The production of paintings portraying the emperor, his court and the people
who were part of it, was a source of constant tension between rulers and
representatives of the Muslim orthodoxy, the ulama. The latter did not fail to
invoke the Islamic prohibition of the portrayal of human beings enshrined in
the Qur’an as well as the hadis, which described an incident from the life of the
Prophet Muhammad. Here the Prophet is cited as having forbidden the
depiction of living beings in a naturalistic manner as it would suggest that the
artist was seeking to appropriate the power of creation. This was a function
that was believed to belong exclusively to God.
Artists from Iran also made their way to Mughal India. Some were brought to
the Mughal court, as in the case of Mir Sayyid Ali and Abdus Samad, who were
made to accompany Emperor Humayun to Delhi. Others migrated in search of
opportunities to win patronage and prestige. A conflict between the emperor
and the spokesmen of orthodox Muslim opinion on the question of visual
representations of living beings was a source of tension at the Mughal court.
Akbar’s court historian Abu’l Fazl cites the emperor as saying: “There are many
that hate painting, but such men I dislike. It appears to me that an artist has a
unique way of recognising God when he must come to feel that he cannot
bestow life on his work ...”
THE AKBAR NAMA AND BADSHAH NAMA
Among the important illustrated Mughal chronicles, the Akbar Nama and
Badshah Nama are the most well-known. Each manuscript contained an
average of 150 full- or double-page paintings of battles, sieges, hunts, building
construction, court scenes, etc.
The author of the Akbar Nama, Abu’l Fazl grew up in the Mughal capital of
Agra. He was widely read in Arabic, Persian, Greek philosophy and Sufism.
Moreover, he was a forceful debater and independent thinker who consistently

opposed the views of the conservative ulama. These qualities impressed Akbar,
who found Abu’l Fazl ideally suited as an adviser and a spokesperson for his
policies. In his role as court historian, Abu’l Fazl both shaped and articulated
the ideas associated with the reign of Akbar.
Beginning in 1589, Abu’l Fazl worked on the Akbar Nama for thirteen years,
repeatedly revising the draft. The chronicle is based on a range of sources,
including actual records of events (waqai), official documents and oral
testimonies of knowledgeable persons.
The Akbar Nama is divided into three books of which the first two are Notes
chronicles. The third book is the Ain-i Akbari. In 1602, Abu’l Fazl fell victim to
a conspiracy hatched by Prince Salim, and was murdered by his accomplice, Bir
Singh Bundela.
Abu’l Fazl wrote in a language that was ornate and which attached importance
to diction and rhythm, as texts were often read aloud. This Indo-Persian style
was patronised at court, and there were a large number of writers who wanted
to write like Abu’l Fazl.
A pupil of Abu’l Fazl, Abdul Hamid Lahori is known as the author of the Badshah
Nama. Emperor Shah Jahan, hearing of his talents, commissioned him to write
a history of his reign modelled on the Akbar Nama. The Badshah Nama is this
official history in three volumes (daftars) of ten lunar years each. Lahori wrote
the first and second daftars comprising the first two decades of the emperor’s
rule (1627-47); these volumes were later revised by Sadullah Khan, Shah
Jahan’s wazir.
Edited versions of the Akbar Nama and Badshah Nama were first published by
the Asiatic Society in the nineteenth century. In the early twentieth century the
Akbar Nama was translated into English by Henry Beveridge after years of hard
labour. Only parts of the Badshah Nama have been translated into English to
date; the text in its entirety still awaits translation.
THE IDEAL KINGDOM
A divine light
Court chroniclers drew upon many sources to show that the power of the
Mughal kings came directly from God. One of the legends they narrated was
that of the Mongol queen Alanqua, who was impregnated by a ray of sunshine
while resting in her tent. The offspring she bore carried this Divine Light and
passed it on from generation to generation.
Abu’l Fazl placed Mughal kingship as the highest station in the hierarchy of
objects receiving light emanating from God (farr-i Izadi). Here he was inspired
by a famous Iranian sufi, Shihabuddin Suhrawardi who first developed this
idea.
According to this idea, there was a hierarchy in which the Divine Light was
transmitted to the king who then became the source of spiritual guidance for
his subjects.
Notes
Mughal artists, from the seventeenth century onwards, began to portray

emperors wearing the halo, which they saw on European paintings of Christ
and the Virgin Mary to symbolise the light of God.
A Unifying Force
Mughal chronicles present the empire as comprising many different ethnic and
religious communities – Hindus, Jainas, Zoroastrians and Muslims. As the
source of all peace and stability the emperor stood above all religious and
ethnic groups, mediated among them, and ensured that justice and peace
prevailed.
Abu’l Fazl describes the ideal of sulh-i kul (absolute peace) as the cornerstone
of enlightened rule. In sulh-i kul all religions and schools of thought had
freedom of expression but on condition that they did not undermine the
authority of the state or fight among themselves.
The ideal of sulh-i kul was implemented through state policies. Akbar abolished
the tax on
pilgrimage in 1563 and jizya in 1564 as the two were based on religious
discrimination. Instructions were sent to officers of the empire to follow the
precept of sulh-i kul in administration.
All Mughal emperors gave grants to support the building and maintenance of
places of worship. Even when temples were destroyed during war, grants were
later issued for their repair – as we know from the reigns of Shah Jahan and
Aurangzeb.
However, during the reign of Aurangzeb, the jizya was re-imposed on non-
Muslim subjects.
Just Sovereignty as Social Contract Notes
Abu’l Fazl defined sovereignty as a social contract: the emperor protects the
four essences of his subjects, namely, life (jan), property (mal), honour (namus)
and faith (din), and in return demands obedience and a share of resources.
Only just sovereigns were thought to be able to honour the contract with
power and Divine guidance. A number of symbols were created for visual
representation of the idea of justice which came to stand for the highest virtue
of Mughal monarchy.
One of the favourite symbols used by artists was the motif of the lion and the
lamb (or goat) peacefully nestling next to each other. This was meant to signify
a realm where both the strong and the weak could exist in harmony.
Notes
CAPITALS AND COURTS
Capital Cities
The heart of the Mughal Empire was its capital city, where the court assembled.
The capital cities of the Mughals frequently shifted during the sixteenth and
seventeenth centuries. Babur took over the Lodi capital of Agra. During 1565
Akbar had the fort of Agra constructed with red sandstone.
In the 1570s he decided to build a new capital, Fatehpur Sikri. One of the
reasons prompting this may have been that Sikri was located on the direct road
to Ajmer, where the dargah of Shaikh Muinuddin Chishti had become an
important pilgrimage centre.
The Mughal emperors entered into a close relationship with sufis of the Chishti
silsila. Akbar commissioned the construction of a white marble tomb for
Shaikh Salim Chishti next to the majestic Friday Mosque at Sikri.
The enormous arched gateway (Buland Darwaza) was meant to remind visitors
of the Mughal victory in Gujarat.
Note-Buland Darwaza, or the "Door of victory", was built in 1575 A.D. by

Mughal emperor Akbar to commemorate his victory over Gujarat. It is the main
entrance to the Jama Masjid at Fatehpur Sikri, which is 43 km from Agra, India.
Buland Darwaza is the highest gateway in the world and is an example of
Mughal architecture.
Notes
In 1585 the capital was transferred to Lahore to bring the north-west under
greater control and Akbar closely watched the frontier for thirteen years.
Shah Jahan pursued sound fiscal policies and accumulated enough money to
indulge his passion for building.
In 1648 the court, army and household moved from Agra to the newly
completed imperial capital, Shahjahanabad (Old Delhi). It was a new addition
to the old residential city of Delhi, with the Red Fort, the Jama Masjid, a tree-
lined esplanade with bazaars (Chandni Chowk) and spacious homes for the
nobility.
The Mughal Courts
Chronicles lay down with great precision the rules defining status amongst the
Mughal elites. In court, status was determined by spatial proximity to the king.
The place accorded to a courtier by the ruler was a sign of his importance in
the eyes of the emperor. Once the emperor sat on the throne, no one was
permitted to move from his position or to leave without permission. Social
control in court society was exercised through carefully defining in full detail
the forms of address, courtesies and speech which were acceptable in court.
The slightest infringement of etiquette was noticed and punished on the spot.
The forms of salutation to the ruler indicated the person’s status in the
hierarchy: deeper prostration represented higher status. The highest form of
submission was sijda or complete prostration.
Under Shah Jahan these rituals were replaced with chahar taslim and
zaminbos (kissing the ground).
Notes
The protocols governing diplomatic envoys at the Mughal court were equally
explicit. An ambassador presented to the Mughal emperor was expected to
offer an acceptable form of greeting – either by bowing deeply or kissing the
ground, or else to follow the Persian custom of clasping one’s hands in front of
the chest.
The emperor began his day at sunrise with personal religious devotions or
prayers, and then appeared on a small balcony, the jharoka, facing the east.
Below people waited for a view, darshan, of the emperor. Jharoka darshan was
introduced by Akbar with the objective of broadening the acceptance of the
imperial authority as part of popular faith.
After spending an hour at the jharoka, the emperor walked to the public hall
of audience (diwan-i am) to conduct the primary business of his government.
State officials presented reports and made requests.
Later, the emperor would go to the diwan-i khas to hold private audiences and
discuss confidential matters.
Titles and Gifts
Grand titles were adopted by the Mughal emperors at the time of coronation
or after a victory over an enemy. High-sounding and rhythmic, they created an
atmosphere of awe in the audience when announced by ushers (naqib).
Mughal coins carried the full title of the reigning emperor with regal protocol.
The granting of titles to men of merit was an important aspect of Mughal polity.
A man’s ascent in the court hierarchy could be traced through the titles he held.
The title Asaf Khan for one of the highest ministers originated with Asaf, the
legendary minister of the prophet king Sulaiman (Solomon). The title Mirza Raja
was accorded by Aurangzeb to his two highest-ranking nobles, Jai Singh and
Jaswant Singh.
Other awards included the robe of honour (khilat), a garment once worn by
the emperor and imbued with his benediction. One gift, the sarapa, consisted
of a tunic, a turban and a sash (patka). Jewelled ornaments were often given as
gifts by the emperor. The lotus blossom set with jewels (padma murassa) was Notes
given only in exceptional circumstances.
A courtier never approached the emperor empty handed: he offered either a

small sum of money (nazr ) or a large amount (peshkash).
THE IMPERIAL HOUSEHOLD
The term “harem” is frequently used to refer to the domestic world of the
Mughals. It originates in the Persian word haram, meaning a sacred place. The
Mughal household consisted of the emperor’s wives and concubines, his near
and distant relatives (mother, step- and foster-mothers, sisters, daughters,
daughters-in-law, aunts, children, etc.), and female servants and slaves.
Polygamy was practised widely in the Indian subcontinent, especially among
the ruling groups.
Both for the Rajput clans as well as the Mughals marriage, was a way of
cementing political relationships and forging alliances.
In the Mughal household a distinction was maintained between wives who

came from royal families (begams), and other wives (aghas) who were not of
noble birth. The begams, married after receiving huge amounts of cash and
valuables as dowry (mahr), naturally received a higher status and greater
attention from their husbands than did aghas. The concubines (aghacha or the
lesser agha) occupied the lowest position in the hierarchy of females intimately
related to royalty. They all received monthly allowances in cash, supplemented
with gifts according to their status.
The lineage-based family structure was not entirely static. The agha and the
aghacha could rise to the position of a begam depending on the husband’s will.
Slave eunuchs (khwajasara) moved between the external and internal life of
the household as guards, servants, and also as agents for women dabbling in
commerce.
After Nur Jahan, Mughal queens and princesses began to control significant
financial resources. Shah Jahan’s daughters Jahanara and Roshanara enjoyed
an annual income often equal to that of high imperial mansabdars. Jahanara,
in addition, received revenues from the port city of Surat, which was a lucrative
centre of overseas trade.
Note-Nur Jahan, born Mehr-un-Nissa was the chief wife and empress consort
of the Mughal emperor Jahangir. She was the twentieth and last wife of
Jahangir.
Jahanara participated in many architectural projects of Shah Jahan’s new
capital, Shahjahanabad (Delhi). Among these was an imposing double-storeyed Notes

caravanserai with a courtyard and garden. The bazaar of Chandni Chowk, the
throbbing centre of Shahjahanabad, was designed by Jahanara.
An interesting book giving us a glimpse into the domestic world of the Mughals
is the Humayun Nama written by Gulbadan Begum. Gulbadan was the
daughter of Babur, Humayun’s sister and Akbar’s aunt. Gulbadan could write
fluently in Turkish and Persian.
What Gulbadan wrote was no eulogy of the Mughal emperors. Rather she
described in great detail the conflicts and tensions among the princes and kings
and the important mediating role elderly women of the family played in
resolving some of these conflicts.
THE IMPERIAL OFFICIALS
Recruitment and rank
Mughal chronicles, especially the Akbar Nama, have bequeathed a vision of

empire in which agency rests almost solely with the emperor, while the rest of
the kingdom has been portrayed as following his orders. Yet if we look more
closely at the rich information these histories provide about the apparatus of
the Mughal state, we may be able to understand the ways in which the imperial
organisation was dependent on several different institutions to be able to
function effectively. One important pillar of the Mughal state was its corps of
officers, also referred to by historians collectively as the nobility.
In Akbar’s imperial service, Turani and Iranian nobles were present from the
earliest phase of carving out a political dominion. Many had accompanied
Humayun; others migrated later to the Mughal court. Two ruling groups of
Indian origin entered the imperial service from 1560 onwards: the Rajputs and
the Indian Muslims (Shaikhzadas). The first to join was a Rajput chief, Raja
Bharmal Kachhwaha of Amber, to whose daughter Akbar got married.
Members of Hindu castes inclined towards education and accountancy were

also promoted, a famous example being Akbar’s finance minister, Raja Todar
Mal, who belonged to the Khatri caste.
Iranians gained high offices under Jahangir, whose politically influential queen,
Nur Jahan, was an Iranian. Aurangzeb appointed Rajputs to high positions, and
under him the Marathas accounted for a sizable number within the body of
officers.
Mansabdari System: Notes
The Mansabdari system was a grading system used by the Mughal rulers to fix
the rank and salary of a Mansabdar. They were nobles who occupied various
positions in the administration of the Mughal Empire. They were appointed and
dismissed by the Mughal Emperor.
• Akbar introduced the Mansabdari system in his administration
• Under this system, every officer was assigned a rank (Mansab)
• Lowest rank was 10 and the highest was 5000 for the nobles. (which
increased later on).
• Princes of royal blood received even higher ranks.
• The ranks were divided into two – Zat and Sawar.
• Zat means personal and it fixed the personal status of a person.
• Sawar rank indicated the number of cavalrymen of a person who was

required to maintain.
• Every sawar had to maintain at least two horses.
Note-The word ‘Mansab’ originates from the Arabic Language. It means

position or rank. The hierarchy of the Mansabdars is mentioned below.
i. Amir of Amirs – These Mansabdars were given the title of Amir-al-

Umara, translated as Amir of Amirs. They were Mansabdaris whose
rank was above 5000.
ii. Amir-al-Kabir (Great Amir) – These were Mansabdars whose ranks were
above 1000.
iii. Amir – These were administrative officials whose rank was 1000 or
below.
For members of the nobility, imperial service was a way of acquiring power,
wealth and the highest possible reputation. A person wishing to join the service
petitioned through a noble, who presented a tajwiz to the emperor. If the
applicant was found suitable a mansab was granted to him. The mir bakhshi
(paymaster general) stood in open court on the right of the emperor and
presented all candidates for appointment or promotion, while his office
prepared orders bearing his seal and signature as well as those of the emperor.
Notes
There were two other important ministers at the centre: the diwan-i ala
(finance minister) and sadr-us sudur (minister of grants) and madad-i maash
(in charge of appointing local judges or qazis). The three ministers occasionally
came together as an advisory body, but were independent of each other.
Nobles stationed at the court (tainat-i rakab) were a reserve force to be

deputed to a province or military campaign. They were duty-bound to appear
twice daily, morning and evening, to express submission to the emperor in the
public audience hall. They shared the responsibility for guarding the emperor
and his household round the clock.
Information and the empire
The keeping of exact and detailed records was a major concern of the Mughal
administration. The mir bakhshi supervised the corps of court writers (waqia
nawis) who recorded all applications and documents presented to the court,
and all imperial orders (farman). In addition, agents (wakil) of nobles and
regional rulers recorded the entire proceedings of the court under the heading
“News from the Exalted Court” (Akhbarat-i Darbar-i Mualla) with the date and
time of the court session (pahar). The akhbarat contained all kinds of
information such as attendance at the court, grant of offices and titles,
diplomatic missions, presents received, or the enquiries made by the emperor
about the health of an officer. This information is valuable for writing the
history of the public and private lives of kings and nobles.
Round-the-clock relays of foot-runners (qasid or pathmar) carried papers rolled

up in bamboo containers. The emperor received reports from even distant
provincial capitals within a few days.
Beyond the Centre: Provincial Administration
The division of functions established at the centre was replicated in the

provinces (subas) where the ministers had their corresponding subordinates
(diwan, bakhshi and sadr). The head of the provincial administration was the
governor (subadar) who reported directly to the emperor.
The sarkars, into which each suba was divided, often overlapped with the
jurisdiction of faujdars(commandants) who were deployed with contingents of
heavy cavalry and musketeers in districts. The local administration was looked
after at the level of the pargana (sub-district) by three semi-hereditary officers, Notes
the qanungo (keeper of revenue records), the chaudhuri (in charge of revenue
collection) and the qazi.
BEYOND THE FRONTIERS
Writers of chronicles list many high-sounding titles assumed by the Mughal

emperors. These included general titles such as Shahenshah (King of Kings) or
specific titles assumed by individual kings upon ascending the throne, such as
Jahangir (World-Seizer), or Shah Jahan (King of the World).
The chroniclers often drew on these titles and their meanings to reiterate the
claims of the Mughal emperors to uncontested territorial and political control.
Yet the same contemporary histories provide accounts of diplomatic
relationships and conflicts with neighbouring political powers. These reflect
some tension and political rivalry arising from competing regional interests.
The Safavids and Qandahar
The political and diplomatic relations between the Mughal kings and the
neighbouring countries of Iran and Turan hinged on the control of the frontier
defined by the Hindukush mountains that separated Afghanistan from the
regions of Iran and Central Asia.
All conquerors who sought to make their way into the Indian subcontinent had
to cross the Hindukush to have access to north India. A constant aim of Mughal
policy was to ward off this potential danger by controlling strategic outposts –
notably Kabul and Qandahar.
Qandahar was a bone of contention between the Safavids and the Mughals.
The fortress-town had initially been in the possession of Humayun,
reconquered in 1595 by Akbar. While the Safavid court retained diplomatic
relations with the Mughals, it continued to stake claims to Qandahar. In 1613
Jahangir sent a diplomatic envoy to the court of Shah Abbas to plead the
Mughal case for retaining Qandahar, but the mission failed. In the winter of
1622, a Persian army besieged Qandahar. The ill-prepared Mughal garrison was
defeated and had to surrender the fortress and the city to the Safavids.
Note-The Safavid dynasty was one of Iran's most significant ruling dynasties
reigning from 1501 to 1736. Their rule is often considered the beginning of
modern Iranian history, as well as one of the gunpowder empires.
Jesuits at the Mughal Court Notes
Europe received knowledge of India through the accounts of Jesuit

missionaries, travellers, merchants and diplomats. The Jesuit accounts are the
earliest impressions of the Mughal court ever recorded by European writers.
Akbar was curious about Christianity and dispatched an embassy to Goa to

invite Jesuit priests. The first Jesuit mission reached the Mughal court at
Fatehpur Sikri in 1580 and stayed for about two years. The Jesuits spoke to
Akbar about Christianity and debated its virtues with the ulama. Two more
missions were sent to the Mughal court at Lahore, in 1591 and 1595.
The Jesuit accounts are based on personal observation and shed light on the
character and mind of the emperor. At public assemblies the Jesuits were
assigned places in close proximity to Akbar’s throne. They accompanied him on
his campaigns, tutored his children, and were often companions of his leisure
hours. The Jesuit accounts corroborate the information given in Persian
chronicles about state officials and the general conditions of life in Mughal
times.
QUESTIONING FORMAL RELIGION
Akbar’s quest for religious knowledge led to interfaith debates in the ibadat
khana at Fatehpur Sikri between learned Muslims, Hindus, Jainas, Parsis and
Christians.
Akbar’s religious views matured as he queried scholars of different religions

and sects and gathered knowledge about their doctrines.
Increasingly, he moved away from the orthodox Islamic ways of understanding

religions towards a self-conceived eclectic form of divine worship focused on
light and the sun.
Previous Years Questions: Notes
Q1. Ibadat Khana at Fatehpur Sikri was (2014)
a) the mosque for the use of Royal Family

b) Akbar’s private chamber prayer
c) the hall in which Akbar held discussions with scholars of various
religions.
d) the room in which the nobles belonging to different religions gathered
to discuss religious affairs
Q2. Who among the following Mughal Emperors shifted emphasis from
illustrated manuscripts to the album and individual portrait? (2019)
a) Humayun
b) Akbar
c) Jahangir
d) Shah Jahan
Q3. With reference to Mughal India, what is/are the difference/differences

between Jagirdar and Zamindar? (2019)
1. Jagirdars were holders of land assignments in lieu of judicial and police

duties, whereas Zamindars were holders of revenue rights without
obligation to perform any duty other than revenue collection.
2. Land assignments to Jagirdars were hereditary and revenue rights of

Zamindars were not hereditary.
Select the correct answer using the code given below.
a) 1 only
b) 2 only
c) Both 1 and 2
d) Neither 1 nor 2
Following are your source: Notes
THEMES IN INDIAN HISTORY-PART III

• Source-12th NCERT
Note:
COLONIALISM AND THE COUNTRYSIDE
The colonial rule was first established in Bengal. It is here that the earliest
attempts were made to reorder rural society and establish a new regime of
land rights and new a revenue system.
Note-The East India Company took control of the Bengal region from the late
18th century. The company consolidated its hold on the region following the
Battle of Plassey in 1757 and Battle of Buxar in 1764 and by 1793 took
complete control of the region.
The Permanent Settlement of 1793
Prior to the arrival of the British in Bengal, there was a class of Zamindars in
Bengal, Bihar, and Odisha who collected land revenue on behalf of the Mughal
Emperor or his representative, the Diwan.
The East India Company was granted the Diwani of Bengal following the Battle
of Buxar in 1764. However, the Company soon discovered that it was unable to
collect revenue from the vast majority of farmers in rural areas. They also
lacked an understanding of local laws and customs.
Warren Hastings attempted to enact some reforms. The revenue collection

was awarded through an auction to the person (Zamindar) who promised the
most revenue. But, in this system, there was an uncertainty in the amount
received by the E.I.C in the form of land revenue and the zamindar did not take
any measures to increase agricultural productivity because he was just a
intermediary or middleman who collected land revenue.
1n 1793, Lord Cornwallis started the Permanent Settlement of Land Revenue.

The Permanent Settlement was called by different names such as Istamrari,
Jagirdari, Malguzari, Bishvedari and Zamindari. This system was most
prevalent in Bengal, Bihar, and Orissa. 19% of British India was under
Permanent Settlement. Notes
Features of the Permanent Settlement
• Landlords or Zamindars were recognized as the owners of the land.

They were given hereditary rights of succession of the lands under
them.
• The Zamindars could sell or transfer the land as they wished.
• The Zamindars’ proprietorship would stay as long as they paid the fixed
revenue at the said date to the government. If they failed to pay, their
rights would cease to exist and the land would be auctioned off.
• The amount to be paid by the landlords was fixed. It was agreed that
this would not increase in the future (permanent).
• The fixed amount was 10/11th portion of the revenue for the
government and 1/10th was for the Zamindar. This tax rate was way
higher than the prevailing rates in England.
• Zamindars had several, sometimes even 400 villages under them
• Zamindars collected rent from the different villages, paid the revenue
to the company and retained the difference as his income.
• The Zamindar also had to give the tenant a patta which described the
area of the land given to him and the rent he had to pay the landlord.
Issues with the Permanent Settlement:
For the Cultivators: In villages, the cultivators found the system oppressive and
exploitative as the rent they paid to the zamindar was very high while his right
on the land was quite insecure. The cultivators often had to take loan to pay
the rents, on failing to pay the rent, they were evicted from the land.
For the Zamindars: The revenue had been fixed so high that the zamindars
found it difficult to pay, and those who failed to pay the revenue lost their
zamindari. The zamindars were not so keen about improving the land. As long
as they could give out the land and get rent, they preferred it.
Reasons for the Non-payment by Zamindars:
• A number of reasons were responsible for non-repayment of revenue

by zamindars which include that revenue demands were kept very high.
It was imposed at a time when prices of agricultural produce were very
low, so peasants found it difficult to pay.
• Zamindars were also treated by strict laws i.e. the Sunset Law’, which Notes
was completely regardless of the harvest. According to this law,
zamindars had to pay revenue by sunset of the specified date,
otherwise zamindari was liable to be auctioned.
• Besides these, permanent settlement and company reduced the power

of Zamindars.
• Sometimes ryots and village headman-jotedars deliberately delayed the

payments.
For the Company: By the first decade of the 19th century, the cultivation slowly
expanded and prices rose in the market. Although this meant an increase in the
income of Zamindars, it was no gain for the company since it could not increase
a revenue demand that had been settled permanently.
Note-Warren Hastings (1732 – 1818) became the first Governor of the

Presidency of Bengal in 1772 and the first Governor-General of Bengal in 1774
till he resigned in 1785. He started his career as a writer (clerk) in the East India
Company at Calcutta in 1750.
Note-Charles Cornwallis (31 December 1738 – 5 October 1805) was a British

Army general and official. Lord Cornwallis acted as Governor-General of Bengal
between 1786 and 1793.
Notes
Limitations Imposed on Zamindars by the Company
• Zamindars were important for the company but it also wanted to

control and regulate them, subdue their authority and restrict their
autonomy.
• Thus, the zamindars’ troops were disbanded, customs duties abolished

and their ‘cutcherries’ (courts) brought under the supervision of a
collector appointed by the company.
• Zamindars lost their power to organise local justice and local police.
• Over time zamindars were severely restricted and their powers were
seized
The Rise of Jotedars
Many zamindars were facing a crisis at the end of the eighteenth century, as
they failed to pay the revenue demand and the unpaid dues accumulated. At
the same time, a group of rich peasants were consolidating their position in
the villages. In Francis Buchanan’s survey of the Dinajpur district in North
Bengal we have a vivid description of this class of rich peasants known as
jotedars.
Notes
The jotedars owned huge tracts of land in rural areas. They also controlled the
local markets, money lending activities, exercised control over the poor
cultivators. In villages these jotedars exercised more control than the
Zamindars, who often lived in urban areas.
The large agricultural areas under the jotedars were cultivated through
sharecroppers (also known as bhagadars), who handed over half of the crop
after the harvest to the jotedars.
The jotedars were mainly concentrated in North Bengal, whereas in other parts
of Bengal they are known as haoladars, gantidars, or mandals. The Jotedars
belonged to the upper castes.
The Jotedars forcefully resisted efforts by zamindars to increase the Jama of

the village, prevented zamindars from executing their duties, mobilised
ryots(peasants), who were dependent on them, and deliberately delayed
payments of revenue to zamindar.
When the estates of the zamindars were auctioned for failure to make revenue
payment, Jotedars were often the purchasers.
The Resistance of the Zamindars: Notes
To prevent the weakening of their authority, zamindars took series of steps-

like fictitious sale or transferring of property to female- member of family or
other Benamis, manipulated the auctions, with-holding revenue deliberately,
threatening or intimidating the people outside their zamindari, if they try to
buy an estate, lathyals of former zamindars attacked the new buyers etc.
THE HOE AND THE PLOUGH Notes
With gradual passage of time settled cultivation expanded and reached the
area where shifting cultivation was practiced and diminished the pasture and
forest. Shifting cultivation was done with the help of hoe while settled
cultivation was done through plough.
Note-Shifting cultivation, also known as slash-and-burn agriculture, is when

farmers clear land by slashing vegetation and burning forests and woodlands
to create clear land for agricultural purposes. This provides very easy and very
fast method of the preparation of the land for the agriculture. In shifting
cultivation, an agricultural plot is cultivated temporarily and is abandoned to
allow vegetation to grow freely while the cultivator moves to another plot.
In the Hills of Rajmahal
Buchanan travelled through the Rajmahal hills in the early 19th century. From
his description, the hills signified danger where few travellers ventured. People
who lived in hills were hostile and apprehensive of officials.
Note-The Rajmahal Hills are located in Jharkhand, India.
People who lived in the Rajmahal hills were known as Paharias. They depended
on forest produce and practised shifting cultivation. They grew pulses and
millets for consumption. They collected mahua flowers for food, silk cocoons
and resins for sale and wool for charcoal production. They considered entire
hill region as theirs and resisted intrusion of outsiders. Their chiefs maintained
unity of the group and settled disputes.
Paharias regularly raided the Plains for their survival at the time of scarcity
asserting their power over settled agriculturists. These raids were also
necessary for negotiating political relation with outsiders. Zamindars of the
plains gave regular tribute to hill chiefs. Traders also paid a small amount to
the paharia chief as road tax and for protection from plundering.
By the end of the eighteenth century, the British encouraged aggressive

expansion of settled agriculture in eastern India. The zamindars and jotedars
cleared forest areas and turned them into agricultural lands.
This was done to enlarge the sources of land revenue, produce crops for export,
establish the basis of a settled, ordered and civilised society and to make forest
people civilised by making them give up hunting and take to plough agriculture
or settled agriculture.
This led to shrinking of forests and pasture land contracted, which increased
the conflict between Hill folks and Settled cultivators. The hill folks Increased
plundering of food grains and cattles from the settled cultivators. Notes
In the 1770s, the British embarked on a brutal policy of extermination of

Paharias. They were hunted down and killed. By 1780s, Augustus Cleveland,
the collector of Bhagalpur, proposed a policy of pacification. Accordingly,
annual allowance was given to Paharias chief by company for maintaining order
and discipline in their community. Many paharias chiefs refused the
allowances, those who accepted most often lost authority within community
and perceived as subordinate employees or Stipendiary chiefs. The Paharias
withdrew deep into the forest, continuing their fight with the outsiders.
By this time, Santhalas started pouring into the area, clearing forest, cutting
down timbers, ploughing land and growing rice and cotton, they took over the
lower hills. The paharias receded deeper into the Rajmahal hills. If Paharias’ life
was symbolised by the hoe, the santhals represent the power of the plough.
Note-Santhalas, until the 19th century, lived their lives in harmony with nature
and practised shifting agriculture and hunting. They lived in the hilly regions of
Birbhum, Barabhum, Manbhum, Palamau and Chhotanagpur. The British
turned to them for the expansion of the revenue through agriculture. Santhals
agreed to clear forests to practise settled agriculture.
The Santhals Became Settlers
At the end of 1810, Buchanan arrived in Ganjaria Pahar (part of the Rajmahal
range) He wrote, “Ganjuria is just significantly cultivated". Buchanan saw finer
tobacco and mustard grown by Santhals.
Santhals came into the Rajmahal range around 1780.They cleared land and
ploughed land. Zamindars and Britishers after having failed to subdue the
paharias and transform them into a settled cultivator turned to Santhals.
Santhals appeared to be ideal settlers, cleared the forest and ploughed land.
The Santhals were given land and persuaded to settle in the foothills of
Rajmahal. By 1832, a large area of land was demarcated as ‘Damin -i- koh’
declared to be the land of the santhals.
As cultivation expanded, the land revenue flow also increased. When the
Santhals were settling, the Paharias resisted but were ultimately forced to
withdraw deeper into the hills.
The Santhals now lived a settled life. Cultivated a range of commercial crops
for market and dealt with traders and moneylenders. But the state was taxing
heavily, moneylenders (Dikus) were charging a high interest rate and taking
over their land when debts remain unpaid. Notes
Zamindars were asserting control over their land later due to these problems,
Santhal revolted in 1855 -1856.To pacify them, Britishers carved out new areas
for the santhals (Bhagalpur and Birbhum) and implemented some special laws
within those regions.
The Rebellion
The Santhal revolt (also known as the Hul revolt) started on 30th June 1855,
with the help of prominent leaders like Sidhu and Kanhu.
The depressed and anguished Santhals engaged in guerrilla warfare against the
Britishers and formed their own troops which included the farmers, villagers,
and the women.
They were able to capture large parts of land including Rajmahal Hills,
Bhagalpur district, and Birbhum. They militarised over 10000 Santhal people.
The villagers put fire to the storehouses and the warehouses and all forms of
communication lines were disrupted.
The government applied all possible means to suppress the movement. In

order to curb the rebellion, Britishers used heavy loaded weapons against bows
and arrows used by the Santhals.
The landlords were in the support of the government whereas the local people
supported the Santhals.
Unfortunately, the brothers Sidhu and Kanhu were arrested and the revolt had
a brutal end. The Santhals were repressed and the movement came to an end
in 1856.
Notes
A REVOLT IN THE COUNTRYSIDE: THE BOMBAY DECCAN
In 1875, peasants in the Bombay Presidency rose in rebellion against the

agrarian crisis that faced them. The uprising began at Supa village in the district
of Poona.
The farmers attacked the market place where many moneylenders lived. They
burnt account books and looted grain shops. They also torched the houses of
sahukars (people who were both traders and moneylenders). The farmers were
led by the village headmen.
The farmers’ main motive was to destroy the account books of the
moneylenders and they resorted to violence only when these books were not
handed over to them. They also socially boycotted the moneylenders. The
movement continued for 2 months and spread to over 30 villages.
The movement also got support from the Poona Sarvajanik Sabha co-founded
by M G Ranade. It took several months for the police to restore order in the
countryside.
Reasons for Deccan Riots
In the Bombay Deccan region, the British had introduced the Ryotwari
settlement as the system of land revenue. Under this system, the revenue of
land was fixed on a yearly basis.
In the Ryotwari system, the agreement was between the government and the
ryot (cultivator) directly. Notes
The revenue was fixed according to the soil-type and the paying capacity of the
farmer. However, the revenues were so high that farmers found it extremely
difficult to pay their dues. Any failure in the rains would deteriorate the
situation.
Note-A system that came to be known as the Ryotwari System, was devised
by Captain Alexander Read and Sir Thomas Munro at the end of the 18th
century and introduced by the latter when he was governor. Under the Ryotwari
system, the land revenue was paid by the farmers directly to the state.
Before the 1860s, the United States supplied 3/4 of Britain’s raw cotton
imports. Manchester Cotton Company was founded in 1859 by British cotton
manufacturers to promote cotton exports. When the American Civil War
started in 1861, imports from the United States plummeted. To keep cotton
exports going, British merchants began purchasing and securing cotton from
India. As a result, they began making advances to Indian moneylenders, who
transformed the advances into ryot debts. In the demand boom, ryots took a
lot of credit and were often forced to take credit and sign bonds and deeds. In
this economic situation, moneylenders utilised deception and fraud to gain as
much benefit as possible. Cotton demand plummeted dramatically after the
end of the Civil War, and moneylenders began to recoup their losses.
Most of the time, the ryots were unable to repay their debts, and their estates
were sold. This enraged the ryots, who began a violent protest against crafty
and deceptive moneylenders. They took their grievances to the authorities for
remedy. The Limitation Law in 1859 limited the validity of bonds to three
years. This could reduce the amount of money given to moneylenders by
peasants. Moneylenders, on the other hand, began signing fresh bonds for
three years and then signing new bonds when the old ones expired. As a result,
it fueled riots and insurrection.
The Deccan Riots Commission
The Bombay government initially dismissed the uprising as trivial. However, the
Government of India pressurised Bombay to inquire into the matter.
Accordingly, the Deccan Riots Commission was set up which presented a
report to the British Parliament in 1878.
In 1879, the Agriculturists Relief Act was passed which ensured that the
farmers could not be arrested and imprisoned if they were unable to pay their
debts.
Notes
Previous Years Questions

Q1. Which amongst the following provided a common factor for tribal
insurrection in India in the 19th century?(2011)
a) Introduction of a new system of land revenue and taxation- of tribal
products
b) Influence of foreign religious missionaries in tribal areas
c) Rise of a large number of money lenders, traders and revenue farmers
as middlemen in tribal areas
d) The complete disruption of the old agrarian order of the tribal
communities
Q2. The tendency for increased litigation was visible after the introduction of
the land settlement system of Lord Cornwallis in 1793. The reason for this is
normally traced to which of the following provisions? (2011)
a) Making Zamindar’s position stronger vis-a-vis the ryot
b) Making East India Company an overlord of Zamindars
c) Making judicial system more efficient
d) None of the above
THE REVOLT OF
1857
Late in the afternoon of 10 May 1857, the sepoys in the cantonment of Meerut
broke out in mutiny. It began in the lines of the native infantry, spread very
swiftly to the cavalry and then to the city.
The ordinary people of the town and surrounding villages joined the sepoys.
The sepoys captured the bell of arms where the arms and ammunition were Notes
kept and proceeded to attack white people, and to ransack and burn their
bungalows and property. Government buildings – the record office, jail, court,
post office, treasury, etc. – were destroyed and plundered. The telegraph line
to Delhi was cut. As darkness descended, a group of sepoys rode off towards
Delhi.
The sepoys arrived at the gates of the Red Fort early in the morning on 11 May.
It was the month of Ramzan. The Mughal emperor was Bahadur Shah Zafar II.
He heard the commotion at the gates. The sepoys who had gathered under his
window told him: “We have come from Meerut after killing all the Englishmen
there, because they asked us to bite bullets that were coated with the fat of
cows and pigs with our teeth. This has corrupted the faith of Hindus and
Muslims alike.’’
Another group of sepoys also entered Delhi, and the ordinary people of the city
joined them. Europeans were killed in large numbers; the rich of Delhi were
attacked and looted. It was clear that Delhi had gone out of British control.
Surrounded by the sepoys, Bahadur Shah had no other option but to comply.
The revolt thus acquired a kind of legitimacy because it could now be carried
on in the name of the Mughal emperor.
Through 12 and 13 May, North India remained quiet. Once word spread that
Delhi had fallen to the rebels and Bahadur Shah had blessed the rebellion,
events moved swiftly. Cantonment after cantonment in the Gangetic valley
and some to the west of Delhi rose in mutiny.
It was the first expression of organised resistance against the British East India
Company. It began as a revolt of the sepoys of the British East India Company’s
army but eventually secured the participation of the masses.
The revolt is known by several names: the Sepoy Mutiny (by the British
Historians), the Indian Mutiny, the Great Rebellion (by the Indian Historians),
the Revolt of 1857, the Indian Insurrection, and the First War of
Independence (by Vinayak Damodar Savarkar).
Causes
Political Causes – In the late 1840s, Lord Dalhousie imposed the Doctrine of
Lapse. Under this, no ruler was allowed to adopt any child & only the natural
heir has the right to rule. The political cause was the extension of British policies
like the Doctrine of Lapse. The state would be annexed if the ruler dies without
any male heir and was under the East India Company.
Note-The Doctrine of Lapse was an annexation policy followed widely by Lord Notes
Dalhousie when he was India’s Governor-General from 1848 to 1856.
Economic Causes – The peasants & farmers were affected by the various British
reforms and were forced to pay heavy taxes. So, the ones that were unable to
pay the taxes or loans had to surrender their lands to the Britishers. Constantly
Indians have to compete with the British manufactured goods with Indian
handicraft goods.
Military causes – The Indian sepoys were paid less than European sepoys.
Indians were considered menial & European sepoys were given much
importance in terms of salary, pension & promotion.
Social Causes – East India company abolished Sati pratha, child marriage &
encouraged widow remarriage, at that time it was considered as a threat to
Indian traditions. Britishers wanted Hindus & the Muslim religion to be
converted into Christianity.
Immediate Cause -With all the causes the immediate cause that infuriated
soldiers was when the ‘Enfield’ rifle was introduced. Before this, soldier had to
carry gun powder & bullets along with their rifles. The process of using a gun
was time-consuming, Britishers introduced the Enfield rifle gun and cartridge.
The cartridge was in a cylindrical shape with a knot on top & filled with the
perfect amount of gunpowder and bullet in the end. Soldiers just had to tear
the cartridge; this saved a lot of time. There was a rumour that the cartridge
was greased with pig and cow fat. Indian soldiers refused to use the cartridge
and such soldiers were punished.
Note-On 29 March 1857, Mangal Pandey, a sepoy of the 34th Bengal Native
Infantry (BNI) at Barrackpore, mutinied against his commanding officers of the
East India Company. He was hanged on 8th April,1857. This event and Pandey’s
subsequent punishment led to more resentment among the sepoys of the
Bengal Army ultimately aiding in the Revolt of 1857.
Centres of The Revolt Notes
The revolt spread over the entire area from the neighbourhood of Patna to the
borders of Rajasthan. The main centres of revolt in these regions namely
Kanpur, Lucknow, Bareilly, Jhansi, Gwalior and Arrah in Bihar.
Lucknow: it was the capital of Awadh. Begum Hazrat Mahal, one of the begums
of the ex-king of Awadh, took up the leadership of the revolt.
Kanpur: the revolt was led by Nana Saheb, the adopted son of Peshwa Baji Rao
II. He joined the revolt primarily because he was deprived of his pension by the
British. The victory was short- lived. Kanpur was recaptured by the British after
fresh reinforcements arrived. Nana Saheb escaped but his brilliant commander
Tantia Tope continued the struggle. Tantia Tope was finally defeated, arrested
and hanged.
Jhansi: the twenty-two-year-old Rani Lakshmi Bai led the rebels when the
British refused to accept the claim of her adopted son to the throne of Jhansi.
She fought gallantly against the British forces but was ultimately defeated by
the English.
Gwalior: After Rani Lakshmi Bai escaped, she was joined by Tantia Tope and
together they marched to Gwalior and captured it. Fierce fighting followed Notes
where the Rani of Jhansi fought like a tigress but died, fighting to the very end.
Gwalior was recaptured by the British.
Bihar: the revolt was led by Kunwar Singh who was a dispossessed Zamindar of
Jagdispur, Bihar.
AWADH IN REVOLT
“A cherry that will drop into our mouth one day”
In 1851 Governor General Lord Dalhousie described the kingdom of Awadh as

“a cherry that will drop into our mouth one day”. Five years later, in 1856, the
kingdom was formally annexed to the British Empire.
The conquest happened in stages. The Subsidiary Alliance had been imposed
on Awadh in 1801. By the terms of this alliance the Nawab had to disband his
military force, allow the British to position their troops within the kingdom, and
act in accordance with the advice of the British Resident who was now to be
attached to the court. Deprived of his armed forces, the Nawab became
increasingly dependent on the British to maintain law and order within the
kingdom. He could no longer assert control over the rebellious chiefs and
taluqdars.
Notes
In the meantime, the British became increasingly interested in acquiring the

territory of Awadh. They felt that the soil there was good for producing indigo
and cotton, and the region was ideally located to be developed into the
principal market of Upper India.
By the early 1850s, moreover, all the major areas of India had been conquered:
the Maratha lands, the Doab, the Carnatic, the Punjab and Bengal. The
takeover of Awadh in 1856 was expected to complete a process of territorial
annexation that had begun with the conquest of Bengal almost a century
earlier.
“The life was gone out of the body”
Lord Dalhousie’s annexations created disaffection in all the areas and

principalities that were annexed but nowhere more so than in the kingdom of
Awadh in the heart of North India. Here, Nawab Wajid Ali Shah was dethroned
and exiled to Calcutta on the plea that the region was being mis-governed. The
British government also wrongly assumed that Wajid Ali Shah was an
unpopular ruler. On the contrary, he was widely loved, and when he left his
beloved Lucknow, there were many who followed him all the way to Kanpur
singing songs of lament.
The widespread sense of grief and loss at the Nawab’s exile was recorded by
many contemporary observers. One of them wrote: “The life has gone out of Notes
the body, and the body of this town had been left lifeless … there was no street
or market and house which did not wail out the cry of agony in separation of
Jan-i-Alam".
This emotional upheaval was aggravated by immediate material losses. The

removal of the Nawab led to the dissolution of the court and its culture. Thus
a whole range of people – musicians, dancers, poets, artisans, cooks, retainers,
administrative officials and so on – lost their livelihood.
The annexation displaced not just the Nawab. It also dispossessed the
taluqdars of the region. The countryside of Awadh was dotted with the estates
and forts of taluqdars who for many generations had controlled land and power
in the countryside. Before the coming of the British, taluqdars maintained
armed retainers, built forts, and enjoyed a degree of autonomy, as long as they
accepted the suzerainty of the Nawab and paid the revenue of their taluqs.
Some of the bigger taluqdars had as many as 12,000 foot soldiers and even the
smaller ones had about 200.The British were unwilling to tolerate the power of
the taluqdars. Immediately after the annexation, the taluqdars were disarmed
and their forts destroyed.
The dispossession of taluqdars meant the breakdown of an entire social order.

The ties of loyalty and patronage that had bound the peasant to the taluqdar
were disrupted. In pre-British times, the taluqdars were oppressors but many
of them also appeared to be generous father figures: they exacted a variety of
dues from the peasant but were often considerate in times of need. Now,
under the British, the peasant was directly exposed to over assessment of
revenue and inflexible methods of collection. There was no longer any
guarantee that in times of hardship or crop failure the revenue demand of the
state would be reduced or collection postponed; or that in times of festivities
the peasant would get the loan and support that the taluqdar had earlier
provided.
In areas like Awadh where resistance during 1857 was intense and long lasting,
the fighting was carried out by taluqdars and their peasants. Many of these
taluqdars were loyal to the Nawab of Awadh, and they joined Begum Hazrat
Mahal (the wife of the Nawab) in Lucknow to fight the British; some even
remained with her in defeat.
It is also important to remember that close links existed between the sepoys
and the rural world of North India. The large majority of the sepoys of the
Bengal Army were recruited from the villages of Awadh and eastern Uttar
Pradesh. Awadh was, in fact, called the “nursery of the Bengal Army’’. These
sepoys were deeply hurt by what was going on in Awadh.
Against the Symbols of Oppression Notes
The sepoy revolt was accompanied by a civil populace uprising, mainly in the
north-western regions and Awadh. Their long-held complaints were quickly
expressed, and they rose in force to voice their resistance to British authority.
The farmers, craftsmen, shopkeepers, day labourers, zamindars, all

participated in the insurrection, giving it actual power and the appearance of a
popular uprising.
Peasants and petty zamindars vented their frustrations here by assaulting the
moneylenders and zamindars who had evicted them from their land. They took
advantage of the uprising to destroy the accounts and debt records of the
moneylenders.
They also targeted law courts, revenue offices (tehsils), tax records, and police
stations, all of which were founded by the British.
The Vision of Unity
The rebel proclamations in 1857 repeatedly appealed to all sections of the

population, irrespective of their caste and creed. Many of the proclamations
were issued by Muslim princes or in their names but even these took care to
address the sentiments of Hindus. The rebellion was seen as a war in which
both Hindus and Muslims had equally to lose or gain.
The ishtahars harked back to the pre-British Hindu-Muslim past and glorified
the coexistence of different communities under the Mughal Empire. The
proclamation that was issued under the name of Bahadur Shah appealed to the
people to join the fight under the standards of both Muhammad and Mahavir.
It was remarkable that during the uprising religious divisions between Hindus
and Muslim were hardly noticeable despite British attempts to create such
divisions. In Bareilly in western Uttar Pradesh, in December 1857, the British
spent Rs 50,000 to incite the Hindu population against the Muslims. The
attempt failed.
The Search for Alternative Power
Once British rule had collapsed, the rebels in places like Delhi, Lucknow and
Kanpur tried to establish some kind of structure of authority and
administration. This was, of course, short-lived but the attempts show that the
rebel leadership wanted to restore the pre-British world of the eighteenth
century.
Appointments were made to various posts, arrangements made for the

collection of land revenue and the payment of troops, orders issued to stop
loot and plunder. Side by side plans were made to fight battles against the Notes
British. Chains of command were laid down in the army. In all this the rebels
harked back to the eighteenth-century Mughal world – a world that became a
symbol of all that had been lost.
Repression
After a lengthy and bloody battle, the British finally took Delhi on September
20, 1857, and the uprising was eventually put down. The siege's commander,
John Nicholson, was severely wounded and died as a result of his injuries.
Bahadur Shah was imprisoned. He was exiled to Rangoon, where he died in

1862.. As a result, the mighty Mughal dynasty ceased to exist.
The royal princes were killed on the spot by Lieutenant Hudson, who shot them
at point-blank range.
All of the revolt's major leaders fell one by one. The military operations to
retake Kanpur were intertwined with those to reclaim Lucknow.
British control over India was largely restored by the end of 1859.The British
government had to send massive amounts of soldiers, money, and guns into
the nation.
Causes for the short life of Revolt:
Limited uprising: although the revolt was fairly widespread, a large part of the
country remained unaffected by it. The large princely states, Hyderabad,
Mysore, Travancore, and Kashmir, as well as the smaller ones of Rajputana, did
not join the rebellion. The southern provinces did not take part in it.
No effective leadership: the rebels lacked an effective leader. Although Nana

Saheb, Tantia Tope and Rani Lakshmi Bai were brave leaders, they could not
offer effective leadership to the movement as a whole.
Limited resources: the rebels lacked resources in terms of men and money. The
English, on the other hand, received a steady supply of men, money and arms
in India.
No participation of the middle class: The English educated middle class, the
rich merchants, traders and zamindars of Bengal helped the British to suppress
the revolt.
Notes
URBANISATION, PLANNING AND ARCHITECTURE Notes
In this chapter we will discuss the process of urbanisation in colonial India,

explore the distinguishing characteristics of colonial cities and track social
change within them. We will closely look at three cities- Madras, Calcutta and
Bombay.
All three were originally fishing and weaving villages. They became important
centres of trade due to the economic activities of the British East India
Company.
Company agents settled in Madras in 1639 and in Calcutta in 1690. Bombay

was given to the Company in 1661 by the English king who got it as dowry
from the King of Portugal. By the middle of the nineteenth century, these
settlements became big cities.
Note- On 11 May 1661, the marriage treaty of Charles II of England and

Catherine of Braganza, daughter of King John IV of Portugal, placed Bombay in
the possession of the British Empire, as part of Catherine's dowry to Charles.
TOWNS AND CITIES IN PRE-COLONIAL TIMES
Towns represented specific forms of economic activities and cultures. In rural

areas, people lived by cultivating land, foraging in the forest, or rearing animals.
Towns, by contrast, were populated with artisans, traders, administrators, and
rulers.
Towns and cities were often fortified by walls which symbolised their
separation from the countryside. Traders and peddlers took goods from the
towns to sell in the villages.
When towns were attacked, people often sought shelter in the countryside.
There was a reverse flow of humans and goods from towns to villages too.
Traders took goods from towns to sell in the villages, expanding markets and
creating new patterns of consumption.
The towns built by the Mughals were famous for their concentration of
populations, their monumental buildings and their imperial grandeur and Notes
wealth. Agra, Delhi, and Lahore were important centres of imperial
administration and control. Artisans produced exclusive handicrafts for the
households of nobles. Grains from the countryside was brought into the urban
markets for the town-dwellers and the army.
Within these towns were gardens, mosques, temples, tombs, colleges, bazaars
and caravanserais. The focus of the town was oriented towards the palace and
the principal mosque.
In the towns of south India such as Madurai and Kanchipuram, the principal
focus was the temple. These temples were the important commercial centers.
Religious festivals often coincided with fairs, linking pilgrimage with the trade.
The ruler was the highest authority and the principal patron of religious
institutions. The relationship that he had with other groups and classes
determined their place in society and in the town.
Changes in the Eighteenth Century
All the above-mentioned features of Indian towns and cities started changing
in the eighteenth century. The old towns went to decline and new towns
developed in the eighteenth century.
The growth of new regional powers was reflected in the increasing importance
of regional capitals – Lucknow, Hyderabad, Seringapatam, Poona, Nagpur,
Baroda and Tanjore. Traders, administrators, artisans, and others migrated
from the old Mughal centres to these new capitals in search of work and
patronage.
The European commercial companies had set up bases in different places early
during the Mughal era – the Portuguese in Panaji in 1510, the Dutch in
Masulipatam in 1605, the British in Madras in 1639 and the French in
Pondicherry in 1873.
By the end of the eighteenth century, the land-based empire in Asia was
replaced by the powerful sea-based European empires. Madras, Bombay and
Calcutta rapidly emerged as new economic capitals and centres of colonial
administration and political power. New buildings, occupations, institutions
developed.
The old commercial centres such as Surat, Masulipatam, and Dhaka which had
grown in the seventeenth century declined when trade shifted to other places.
Colonial Records and Urban History Notes
Colonial rule was based on the production of enormous amounts of data. The
British kept a detailed record of their trading activities in order to regulate their
commercial affairs. They carried out the regular survey, gathered statistical
data, and published various official reports.
The town map gives information regarding the location of hill, river and
vegetation – all important for planning structure for defence purpose. These
maps also show the location of ghats, density, and quality of house and
alignment of roads, and are used to gauge commercial possibilities and plan
strategies of taxation.
The municipal corporation with some popular representatives was meant to Notes
administer essential services such as water supply, sewerage, road buildings
and public health.
Note-The first such Municipal Corporation was set-up in the former Presidency
Town of Madras in 1688; and was followed by similar corporations in the then
Bombay and Calcutta in 1726.
Do you Know: Lord Ripon (1880-84) the Viceroy of India introduced an element
of elections in the Municipal Corporation and is known as “father of Local Self-
government in India” for his pioneering work in this direction.
The first all-India census was attempted in 1872. From 1881 decennial
(conducted every ten years) censuses became a regular feature.
Note-First non-synchronous Census was conducted in India in 1872 during the

reign of Viceroy Lord Mayo and the first synchronous census was taken under
British rule on February 17, 1881, by W.C. Plowden (Census Commissioner of
India).
Note-A synchronous census is one that is held around the same time in all parts
of the country.
But, people often refused to cooperate or gave evasive answers to the census
officials. The people were suspicious of census operation and believed that
inquiries were being conducted to impose new taxes. Upper caste people were
also unwilling to give any information regarding the women of their household.
Women were supposed to remain secluded within the interior of the
household and not subjected to public gaze or public inquiry.
Census officials also found that the people were claiming identities that they
associated with higher status. The figures of mortality and disease were
difficult to collect for all deaths were not registered and illness was not always
reported, nor treated by licensed doctors. Historians have to use sources like
census with great caution, keeping in mind their possible biases, recalculating
figures and understanding what the figures do not tell.
Notes
Trends of Changes
The smaller towns had little opportunity to grow economically. Calcutta,

Bombay, and Madras, on the other hand, grew rapidly and soon became
sprawling cities.
The introduction of railways in 1853 meant a change in the fortunes of towns.

Economic activities gradually shifted away from traditional towns which were
located along old routes and rivers. Every railway station became a collection
depot for raw materials and distribution point for imported goods. Railway
towns like Jamalpur, Waltair, and Bareilly developed as a trading centres.
Note-The country's first passenger train, which ran between Bombay's Bori
Bunder station and Thane on 16 April 1853, was dedicated by Lord Dalhousie.
Ports, Forts and Centres for Services
Madras, Calcutta, and Bombay had become important ports. The English East
India Company built its factories because of competition among the Europeans
companies, fortified the settlement for protection.
In Madras, Fort St George, in Calcutta Fort William and in Bombay, the fort
marked out the areas of British settlement.
Note-In the year 1639, Francis Day and Andrew Cogan, representatives of the
British East India Company, purchased the strip of land along and inward from
the present Marina Beach from the rulers of the region for the construction of
a new Fort that was dedicated to St. George. The Fort was finally completed
on April 23, 1644.
Note-Fort William was built in the year 1696 by the British East India Company
under the supervision of Sir John Goldsborough which took a decade to
complete. The permission was granted by Mughal Emperor Aurangzeb.
There were separate quarters for Europeans and Indians, which came to be
labelled in as the “White Town” and “Black Town “. The settlement of the local
people was named “Black Town”. A fortification was built around the “White
Town” to separate it from the “Black Town”.
The urban population increased from about 10 per cent to 13 per cent during Notes
the period 1900-1940.The ruling elite built racially exclusive clubs, race courses,
and theatres.
Two Industrial cities also developed – Kanpur specialising in leather, woollen

and cotton textiles and Jamshedpur, specialising in steel.
Madras, Calcutta Bombay grew into a large city but did not signify any dramatic
economic growth. India never became a modern industrialised country as
discriminatory colonial policies limited the levels of Industrial development.
A New Urban Milieu
Colonial cities reflected the mercantile culture of the new rulers. Political
power and patronage shifted from Indian rulers to the merchants of the East
India Company.
Note-Mercantilism is an economic policy that is designed to maximise the

exports and minimise the imports for an economy.
Indians who worked as interpreters, middlemen, traders, and suppliers of

goods also had an important place in these new cities. Economic activities near
the river or the sea led to the development of docks and ghats.
Around the periphery of the fort, Europeans merchants and agents-built

garden houses, racially exclusive clubs, racecourse and theatres for the ruling
elites.
The development of new modes of transportation such as horse-drawn

carriages, trams, buses etc. facilitated people to live at a distant place from the
places of their work. Many Indians adopted European styles of architecture as
symbols of modernity and civilization.
The First Hill Stations Notes
The hill stations were a distinctive feature of colonial urban development. The
hill stations were initially connected with the needs of the British army. Hill
station became strategic places for billeting troops, guarding frontiers and
launching campaigns against enemy rulers.
The temperate and cool climate of the Indian hills was seen as an advantage.
British associated hot weather with epidemics, Cholera and malaria and
attempts were made to protect the army from these diseases. Hill stations
were also developed as sanitariums i.e. places where soldiers could be sent for
rest and recover from illness.
The present-day Shimla was founded during the course of Gurkha war (1814-
16), the Anglo-Maratha war of 1818 led to British interest in Mount Abu and
Darjeeling was wrested from rulers of Sikkim in 1835.In 1864, Viceroy John
Lawrence moved his council to Shimla, starting the practice of shifting capitals
during hot season.
Note-The Anglo-Nepalese War (1814-1816), also known as the Gorkha War,

was fought between the Gorkhali army of the Kingdom of Nepal and the British
forces of the East India Company. Both sides had ambitious expansion plans for
the mountainous north of the Indian subcontinent.
Settlement and Segregation in Madras
In 1639, the British constructed a trading post in Madraspatam and the

settlement known as Chenapattanam. The company had purchased the right
of settlement from the local Telugu lords, the Nayaks of Kalahasti.
Rivalry with French East India Company led the British to fortify Madras.With
the defeat of French in 1761, Madras became more safe and started to grow
into an important commercial hub.
Note-In the third Carnatic War (1756–1763) the British successfully defended
Madras, and Sir Eyre Coote decisively defeated the French, commanded by the
comte de Lally at the Battle of Wandiwash in 1760. After Wandiwash, the
French capital of Pondicherry fell to the British in 1761. The war concluded with
the signing of the Treaty of Paris in 1763, which returned Chandernagore and
Pondichéry to France, and allowed the French to have "factories" (trading posts)
in India but forbade French traders from administering them.
Fort St. George became the nucleus of the White Town where most of the
Europeans lived. Colour and religion determined who was allowed to live
within the fort. The Company did not permit any marriages with Indians. Other
than the English, the Dutch and the Portuguese were allowed to stay because Notes
they were European and Christian. San Thome with its cathedral was the centre
Roman Catholics.
The Black Town developed outside the Fort. It resembled traditional Indian
towns, with living quarters built around temples and bazaars. On the narrow
lanes that criss-crossed the town, there were caste specific neighbourhoods.
Chintadripet area was meant for weavers, the Washermanpet colony for dyers,
Royapuram was a settlement for Christian boatmen.
The dubashes were Indians who could speak two languages the local language
and English. Paraiyars and Vanniyars formed the labouring poor. The Nawab of
Arcot settled in nearby Triplicane which became the nucleus of a substantial
Muslim settlement. Mylapore and Triplicane were earlier Hindu religious
centres that supported a large group of Brahmins.
Town Planning in Calcutta
The vast open space around the Fort (which still exists) became a landmark and
Calcutta’s first significant town planning measure.
In 1798, Lord Wellesley became the Governor General. He built a massive

palace – The Government House.
After Wellesley's departure, the work of town planning was carried on by the Notes
Lottery Committee (1817). It was called the lottery committee because funds
for town improvements were raised through public lotteries.
The existing racial divide of the “White Town” and “Black Town” was reinforced
by the new divide of “healthy” and “unhealthy”.
Architecture in Bombay
Towards the beginning of the twentieth century a new hybrid architectural

style developed which combined the Indian with the European.
This was called Indo-Saracenic. Indo-Saracenic architecture (also known as

Mughal-Gothic, Neo-Mughal) was a revivalist architectural style mostly used by
British architects in India in the late 19th century, especially in public and
government buildings in the British Raj, and the palaces.
Saracenic was a term used by the ancient Romans to refer to a people who
lived in desert areas in and around the Roman province of Arabia, and who
were distinguished from Arab. Some use this term to refer to Indo-Islamic
Architecture. However, it basically refers to the style that diffused from the
1870’s to the early 20th century for colonial buildings in India.
Prominent features of the Indo-Saracenic architecture are: Minarets, Harem

Windows, Open Pavilions, Pierced Open Arcading, Domed Kiosks, Many
Miniature Domes, or Domed Chhatris, Towers impressive Onion (Bulbous)
Domes Overhanging Eaves, Pointed Arches, Cusped Arches, or Scalloped
Arches Vaulted Roofs.
Examples:
• The Gateway of India.

• The Taj Mahal Hotel in Mumbai.
• Chatrapati Shivaji Railway terminus. (It was designed by FW Stevens)
Do you Know: G Wittet designed the Gateway of India in Mumbai, borrowing

several elements of Mughal style.
Another style that was extensively used was the neo-Gothic. Gothic Notes
architecture flourished in Europe during the mediaeval period. Abbot Suger
(about 1081–1151) is often credited with inventing Gothic architecture, who
felt that art was central to religious experience.
The characteristics of Gothic architecture are pointed arch, stone structures,

clustered columns, intricate sculptures, ribbed vaults, and flying buttresses.
Many of the great cathedrals and churches in India have expressed gothic style
architecture powerfully. Neo-gothic buildings are often tall, as if they are
reaching upwards towards the sky
Rajabai Clock Tower, Mumbai
What Buildings and Architectural Styles Tell Us
Architecture reflects the aesthetic ideals prevalent at a time, and variations

within those ideals. These buildings also express the vision of those who build
them. Rulers everywhere seek to express their power through buildings.
Architectural style not only represents and reflects the prevalent taste, they
mould tastes, popularise styles and shape the contours of culture.
MAHATMA GANDHI AND THE NATIONALIST MOVEMENT Notes
In the history of nationalism, a single individual is often identified with the

making of a nation. Thus, for example, we associate Garibaldi with the making
of Italy, George Washington with the American War of Independence, and Ho
Chi Minh with the struggle to free Vietnam from colonial rule. In the same
manner, Mahatma Gandhi has been regarded as the ‘Father’ of the Indian
nation.
Note-Giuseppe Maria Garibaldi (1807-1882) was an Italian general, patriot,

revolutionary and republican. He contributed to Italian unification and the
creation of the Kingdom of Italy.
Note-George Washington was an American military officer, statesman, and

Founding Father who served as the first president of the United States from
1789 to 1797.
Note-Hồ Chí Minh, was a Vietnamese revolutionary and statesman. He served

as Prime Minister of North Vietnam from 1945 to 1955 and as President from
1945 until his death in 1969.
In so far as Gandhiji was the most influential and revered of all the leaders who
participated in the freedom struggle, that characterization is not misplaced.
However, like Washington or Ho Chi-Minh, Mahatma Gandhi’s political career
was shaped and constrained by the society in which he lived. For individuals,
even great ones, are made by history even as they make history.
This chapter analyses Gandhiji’s activities in India during the crucial period
1915-1948. It explores his interactions with different sections of the Indian
society and the popular struggles that he inspired and led. It introduces the
student to the different kinds of sources that historians use in reconstructing
the career of a leader and of the social movements that he was associated with.
Mahatma Gandhi- Arrival

In January 1915, Mohandas Karamchand Gandhi returned to India after
spending two decades abroad. These years had been spent for the most part in
South Africa, where he went as a lawyer, and in time became a leader of the
Indian community in that territory. As the historian Chandran Devanesan has
remarked, South Africa was “the making of the Mahatma”.
It was in South Africa he first focused on the distinctive techniques of

nonviolent protest known as Satyagraha and promoted harmony between
religions. Notes
Note-Pravasi Bharatiya Divas is a celebratory day observed on 9 January by the

Republic of India to mark the contribution of the overseas Indian community
towards the development of India. The day commemorates the return of
Mahatma Gandhi from South Africa on 9 January 1915.
The India that Mahatma Gandhi came back to in 1915 was rather different from
the one that he had left in 1893. Although still a colony of the British, it was far
more active in a political sense. The Indian National Congress now had
branches in most major cities and towns. Through the Swadeshi movement of
1905-07 it had greatly broadened its appeal among the middle classes. That
movement had thrown up some towering leaders – among them Bal
Gangadhar Tilak of Maharashtra, Bipin Chandra Pal of Bengal, and Lala Lajpat
Rai of Punjab. The three were known as “Lal, Bal and Pal”, the alliteration
conveying the all-India character of their struggle.
On Gopal Krishna Gokhale’s advice, Gandhi spent one year travelling around
British India to know the land and its peoples. His first major public appearance
was at the opening of the Banaras Hindu University in February 1916.Here in
his speech, Gandhiji charged the Indian elite with a lack of concern for the poor.
GandhijI’s speech was at the opening of BHU was a statement of intent to make
Indian nationalism more properly representative of the Indian people as a
whole.
Also present were important leaders of the Congress, such as Annie Besant.
Compared to these dignitaries, Gandhiji was relatively unknown. He had been
invited on account of his work in South Africa, rather than his status within
India.
Do you know: Gopal Krishna Gokhale is considered the political guru of

Mahatma Gandhi.
Do you know: Madan Mohan Malaviya founded the Banaras Hindu University
(BHU) in 1916.
NON-COOPERATION MOVEMENT
Mahatma Gandhi spent much of 1917 in Champaran, seeking to obtain for the
peasants’ security of tenure as well as the freedom to cultivate the crops of
their choice.
The following year, 1918, Gandhiji was involved in two campaigns in his home
state of Gujarat. First, he intervened in a labour dispute in Ahmedabad,
demanding better working conditions for the textile mill workers. Then he
joined peasants in Kheda in asking the state for the remission of taxes following
the failure of their harvest. Notes
Note-Champaran Satyagraha was the first civil disobedience movement

which was launched by Mahatma Gandhi in 1917. It was done to protest
against the injustice meted out to tenant farmers in Champaran district of Bihar
Do you Know: The tinkathia system was the system under which the native
farmers of Champaran in Bihar were forced to cultivate Indigo in 3 parts of the
land out of every 20 parts of the land.
Note-Ahmedabad Mill Strike of 1918 is considered the first hunger strike led
by Gandhi. In 1918, Mahatma Gandhi intervened in a dispute between
Ahmedabad workers and millowners. To force a compromise, he embarked on
a death-defying fast.
Note-Kheda Satyagraha of 1918 is known to be the first non-cooperation

movement led by Mahatma Gandhi. This satyagraha was centred on the
peasant-Patidar community of Kheda, who refused to agree to a 23 percent tax
hike imposed on them despite a disastrous crop failure and outbreak of plague
and cholera.
In 1919, Gandhiji called for a countrywide campaign against the “Rowlatt Act".
It was the Rowlatt Satyagraha that made Gandhiji a truly national leader.
In towns across North and West India, life came to a standstill, as shops shut
down and schools closed in response to the bandh call. The protests were
particularly intense in the Punjab, where many men had served on the British
side in the War – expecting to be rewarded for their service. Instead, they were
given the Rowlatt Act. Gandhiji was detained while proceeding to the Punjab,
even as prominent local Congressmen were arrested.
The situation in the province grew progressively more tense, reaching a bloody
climax in Amritsar in April 1919, when a British Brigadier ordered his troops to
open fire on a nationalist gathering. Hundreds of people were killed in what is
known as the Jallianwala Bagh massacre.
Jallianwala Bagh Massacre

• In Punjab, on 9th April 1919, two nationalist leaders, Saifuddin Kitchlew
and Dr. Satyapal, were arrested by the British officials without any
provocation.
• This caused resentment among the Indian protestors who came out in
thousands on 10th April to show their solidarity with their leaders.
• To curb any future protest, the government put martial law in place and
law and order in Punjab was handed over to Brigadier-General Dyer.
• Day of the Incident: On 13th April, Baisakhi day, a large crowd of people
mostly from neighbouring villages, unaware of the prohibitory orders in Notes

Amritsar gathered in the Jallianwala Bagh.
• Brigadier-General Dyer arrived on the scene with his men.
• The troops surrounded the gathering under orders from General Dyer
and blocked the only exit point and opened fire on the unarmed crowd
killing hundreds of unarmed men, women, and children.
In 1920, after the Jallianwala Bagh Massacre he called for a campaign of non-
cooperation with British Rule and joined hands with the Khilafat movement.
Note-In 1919, the British government passed the Anarchical and Revolutionary
Crimes Act of 1919, popularly known as the Rowlatt Act. This act was passed
on the recommendations of the Sedition Committee chaired by Sir Sidney
Rowlatt.
Do you know: The Rowlatt act gave the government enormous powers to
repress political activities and allowed detention of political prisoners without
trial for two years.
Knitting a Popular Movement
Gandhiji was of the opinion that by coupling the non-cooperation with the
Khilafat would result in Hindu-Muslim unity to end the colonial rule.
These movements certainly unleashed a surge of popular action that was Notes
altogether unprecedented in colonial India. Students stopped going to schools
and colleges run by the government. Lawyers refused to attend court. The
working class went on strike in many towns and cities: according to official
figures, there were 396 strikes in 1921, involving 600,000 workers and a loss of
seven million workdays. The countryside was seething with discontent too. Hill
tribes in northern Andhra violated the forest laws. Farmers in Awadh did not
pay taxes. Peasants in Kumaun refused to carry loads for colonial officials.
These protest movements were sometimes carried out in defiance of the local
nationalist leadership. Peasants, workers, and others interpreted and acted
upon the call to “non-cooperate” with colonial rule in ways that best suited
their interests, rather than conform to the dictates laid down from above.
The British Raj was shaken to its foundations for the first time since the Revolt
of 1857.The Non-cooperation movement was suspended in 1922 after the
Chauri-Chaura incident where 22 policemen were killed by a violent crowd.
This act of violence prompted Gandhiji to call off the movement altogether.
“No provocation,” he insisted, “can possibly justify the brutal murder of men
who had been rendered defenceless and who had virtually thrown themselves
on the mercy of the mob.”
Do you know: The Chauri Chaura incident occurred at Chauri Chaura in the
Gorakhpur district of the United Province, (modern Uttar Pradesh) in British
India on 4 February 1922, when a large group of protesters, participating in the
Non-cooperation movement, clashed with police, who opened fire.
During the Non-Cooperation Movement thousands of Indians were put in jail.

Gandhiji himself was arrested in March 1922, and charged with sedition.
A People’s Leader
By 1922 Gandhiji had transformed Indian nationalism. It was no longer a

movement of professionals and intellectuals; now hundreds of thousands of
peasants, workers, and artisans also participated in it.
Reasons of Gandhiji’s popularity among Indians was that– he dressed like them,
lived like them and spoke their language. Rumours about the miraculous power
of Mahatma Gandhi resulted in widespread followers.
While Mahatma Gandhi’s mass appeal was undoubtedly genuine – and in the
context of Indian politics, without precedent – it must also be stressed that his
success in broadening the basis of nationalism was based on careful
organisation. New branches of the Congress were set up in various parts of
India. Notes
A series of “Praja Mandals” were established to promote the nationalist creed

in the princely states. Gandhiji encouraged the communication of the
nationalist message in the mother tongue, rather than in the language of the
rulers, English. Thus, the provincial committees of the Congress were based on
linguistic regions, rather than on the artificial boundaries of British India. In
these different ways nationalism was taken to the farthest corners of the
country and embraced by social groups previously untouched by it.
By now, among the supporters of the Congress were some very prosperous
businessmen and industrialists. Indian entrepreneurs were quick to recognise
that, in a free India, the favours enjoyed by their British competitors would
come to an end. Some of these entrepreneurs, such as G.D. Birla, supported
the national movement openly; others did so tacitly. Thus, among Gandhiji’s
admirers were both poor peasants and rich industrialists.
Between 1917 and 1922, a group of highly talented Indians attached

themselves to Gandhiji. They included Mahadev Desai, Vallabh Bhai Patel, J.B.
Kripalani, Subhas Chandra Bose, Abul Kalam Azad, Jawaharlal Nehru, Sarojini
Naidu, Govind Ballabh Pant and C. Rajagopalachari. Notably, these close
associates of Gandhiji came from different regions as well as different religious
traditions. In turn, they inspired countless other Indians to join the Congress
and work for it.
Mahatma Gandhi was released from prison in February 1924. He devoted

himself in constructive work like – the promotion of home-spun cloth khadi,
the abolition of untouchability, Hindu-Muslim unity etc.
THE SALT SATYAGRAHA

For several years after the Non-cooperation Movement ended, Mahatma
Gandhi focused on his social reform work. In 1928, however, he began to think
of re-entering politics. That year there was an all-India campaign in opposition
to the all-White Simon Commission, sent from England to enquire into
conditions in the colony. Gandhiji did not himself participate in this
movement, although he gave it his blessings, as he also did to a peasant
satyagraha in Bardoli in the same year.
Note-The British Conservative government of Stanley Baldwin appointed the

Simon Commission in November 1927 to report on the workings of the Indian
constitution established by the Government of India Act of 1919. The
commission consisted of seven members—four Conservatives, two Labourites,
and one Liberal (all white). Its composition drew much condemnation in India
due to the exclusion of Indians. The Indian National Congress and most other
Indian political parties boycotted the panel. Notes
Do you know: The Simon Commission is officially known as the Indian Statutory
Commission.
Note-The Bardoli Satyagraha, 1928 was a movement in the independence

struggle led by Sardar Vallabhai Patel for the farmers of Bardoli against the
unjust raising of taxes.
In the end of December 1929, the Congress held its annual session in the city
of Lahore. The meeting was significant for two things: the election of
Jawaharlal Nehru as President, signifying the passing of the baton of leadership
to the younger generation; and the proclamation of commitment to “Purna
Swaraj”, or complete independence. Now the pace of politics picked up once
more. On 26 January 1930, “Independence Day” was observed, with the
national flag being hoisted in different venues, and patriotic songs being sung.
Gandhiji himself issued precise instructions as to how the day should be
observed.
Dandi
Soon after the observance of this “Independence Day”, Mahatma Gandhi

announced that he would lead a march to break one of the most widely disliked
laws in British India, which gave the state a monopoly in the manufacture and
sale of salt. His picking on the salt monopoly was another illustration of
Gandhiji’s tactical wisdom. For every Indian household, salt was indispensable;
yet people were forbidden from making salt even for domestic use, compelling
them to buy it from shops at a high price. The state monopoly over salt was
deeply unpopular; by making it his target, Gandhiji hoped to mobilise a wider
discontent against British rule.
The march lasted from 12th March, 1930 to 6th April, 1930 as a direct-action
campaign of tax resistance and nonviolent protest against the British salt
monopoly.
On 12th March, Gandhiji set out from Sabarmati with 78 followers on a 241-
mile march to the coastal town of Dandi on the Arabian Sea. There, Gandhi and
his supporters were to defy British policy by making salt from seawater.
At Dandi, thousands more followed his lead, and in the coastal cities of Bombay
and Karachi, Indian nationalists led crowds of citizens in making salt.
Civil disobedience broke out all across India, soon involving millions of Indians,
and British authorities arrested more than 60,000 people. Gandhiji himself was
arrested on 5th May, but the satyagraha continued without him. Notes
Do you know: On 21st May, Sarojini Naidu led 2,500 marchers on the
Dharasana Salt Works, some 150 miles north of Bombay. The incident,
recorded by American journalist Webb Miller, prompted an international outcry
against British policy in India.
Dialogues
The Salt March was notable for at least three reasons.
First, it was this event that first brought Mahatma Gandhi to world attention.
The march was widely covered by the European and American press.
Second, it was the first nationalist activity in which women participated in large
numbers. The socialist activist Kamaladevi Chattopadhyay had persuaded
Gandhiji not to restrict the protests to men alone. Kamaladevi was herself one
of numerous women who courted arrest by breaking the salt or liquor laws.
Third, and perhaps most significant, it was the Salt March which forced upon
the British the realisation that their Raj would not last forever, and that they
would have to devolvesome power to the Indians.To that end, the British
government convened a series of “Round Table Conferences” in London.
In November 1930 – First Round Table Conference was held – but without the
pre-eminent political leader in India, thus rendering it an exercise in futility.
Gandhiji was released from jail in January 1931 and the following month had
several long meetings with the Viceroy. In 1931, the ‘Gandhi-Irwin Pact’ was
signed by the terms of which civil disobedience was called off and prisoners
were released and salt manufacture allowed along the coast. This pact drew
many criticisms because Gandhiji was unable to obtain a commitment to
political independence for Indians from the Viceroy; he could obtain merely an
assurance of talks.
The Second Round Table Conference was held in 1931 in London. Gandhiji
represented the Congress in the meeting but it was inconclusive. However, his
claims that his party represented all of India came under challenge from three
parties: from the Muslim League, which claimed to stand for the interests of
the Muslim minority; from the Princes, who claimed that the Congress had no
stake in their territories; and from the brilliant lawyer and thinker B.R.
Ambedkar, who argued that Gandhiji and the Congress did not really represent
the lowest castes.
Gandhiji returned to India and relaunched Civil Disobedience but it could not
get its momentum.
In 1935 – a new Government of India Act was formed which promised a Notes
representative form of government. In 1937 – in the Provincial Elections,
Congress formed ministries in 8 out of 11 provinces.
In September 1939, two years after the Congress ministries assumed office, the
Second World War broke out. Mahatma Gandhi and Jawaharlal Nehru had both
been strongly critical of Hitler and the Nazis. Accordingly, they promised
Congress support to the war effort in return, asked The British to grant India
independence once hostilities ended. But, the British government declared
India as its ally in the war without consulting Indian leaders. In protest, the
Congress ministries resigned in October 1939.
Through 1940 and 1941, the Congress organised a series of individual

satyagrahas to pressure the rulers to promise freedom once the war had
ended.
Individual Satyagraha
Individual Satyagraha was a direct result of the August Offer. The August offer
was brought during critical period of war by the British in 1940. Both Congress
and Muslim League rejected August Offer. Congress wished to launch the Civil
disobedience Movement, but Gandhi saw the atmosphere against such a
movement; he didn’t want to hamper the War efforts. However, Congress
Socialist leaders and All India Kisan Sabha were in favour of immediate struggle.
Gandhi was convinced that the British would not modify their policy towards
India. He decided to launch Individual Satyagraha.
Aims of Individual Satyagraha:
i. to show that nationalist patience was not due to weakness
ii. To express people’s feeling that they are not interested in the war and
that they made distinction between Nazism and double autocracy that
ruled in India
iii. To give another opportunity to the Government to accept congress

demands peacefully. The demand of the Satyagrahi was to use freedom
of Speech against the war through an anti-war declaration. If the
government did not arrest the Satyagrahi, he or she would keep
repeating it in villages and start a march towards Delhi (“Delhi Chalo
Movement”).
Do you know: Vinobha Bhave was first and Nehru was second to offer
Satyagraha.
Note-On 8 August 1940, Viceroy of India Lord Linlithgow made a statement of Notes
behalf of British parliament which came to be known as the ‘August Offer’,
which proposed Dominion status as the objective for India.ItPromised that a
Constituent Assembly would be set up after the war to determine India’s
constitutional future with a caveat: no future system of government would be
instituted that did not have the support of minority political and religious
groups.
Meanwhile, in March 1940, the Muslim League passed a resolution

demanding a measure of autonomy for the Muslim-majority areas of the
subcontinent. The political landscape was now becoming complicated: it was
no longer Indians versus the British; rather, it had become a three-way struggle
between the Congress, the Muslim League, and the British.
At this time Britain had an all-party government, whose Labour members were
sympathetic to Indian aspirations, but whose Conservative Prime Minister,
Winston Churchill, was a diehard imperialist who insisted that he had not been
appointed the King’s First Minister in order to preside over the liquidation of
the British Empire.
In the spring of 1942, Churchill was persuaded to send one of his ministers, Sir
Stafford Cripps, to India to try and forge a compromise with Gandhiji and the
Congress.
Note-The Cripps Mission was sent by the British government to India in March
1942 to obtain Indian cooperation for the British war efforts in the 2nd World
War. It was headed by Sir Richard Stafford Cripps, a labour minister in Winston
Churchill’s coalition government in Britain.
The Cripps Mission failed because the Congress objected to the offer of
dominion status instead of a provision for complete independence. The Muslim
League criticised the idea of a single Indian Union.
QUIT INDIA
After the failure of the Cripps Mission, Mahatma Gandhi decided to launch his
third major movement against British rule. This was the “Quit India” campaign.
The Quit India Movement, also known as the August Movement or August
Kranti, was a rallying call issued by Mahatma Gandhi from the Bombay session
of the All-India Congress Committee in Mumbai on August 8, 1942. It was a
part of Mahatma Gandhi's Movement, which aimed to end British rule in India.
Although Gandhiji was jailed at once, younger activists organised strikes and
acts of sabotage all over the country. Particularly active in the underground
resistance were socialist members of the Congress, such as Jayaprakash
Narayan. Notes
It was supposed to be a peaceful, nonviolent movement to persuade the British

to grant India independence. The general public attacked authority symbols
and forcibly hoisted national flags on public buildings, bridges were blown up,
railway tracks were removed, and telegraph lines were severed. This type of
activity was most prevalent in the eastern United Provinces and in Bihar.
Students reacted by striking in schools and colleges, marching in processions,

writing and distributing illegal news sheets (Patrika), and acting as couriers for
underground networks.
Many nationalists fled to the underground and engaged in subversive

activities.
Socialists, Forward Bloc members, Gandhi ashramites, revolutionary

nationalists, and local organisations from Bombay, Poona, Satara, Baroda, and
other parts of Gujarat, Karnataka, Kerala, Andhra Pradesh, United Provinces,
Bihar, and Delhi took part in these activities.
Rammanohar Lohia, Jayaprakash Narayan, Aruna Asaf Ali, Usha Mehta, Biju
Patnaik, Chhotubhai Puranik, Achyut Patwardhan, Sucheta Kripalani, and R.P.
Goenka were among the key figures involved in underground activity.
Usha Mehta founded an underground radio station in Bombay.
In several districts, such as Satara , “independent” governments were

proclaimed. The British responded with much force, yet it took more than a
year to suppress the rebellion.
Notes
“Quit India” was genuinely a mass movement, bringing into its ambit hundreds
of thousands of ordinary Indians. It especially energized the young who, in very
large numbers, left their colleges to go to jail. However, while the Congress
leaders languished in jail, Jinnah and his colleagues in the Muslim League
worked patiently at expanding their influence. It was in these years that the
League began to make a mark in the Punjab and Sind, provinces where it had
previously had scarcely any presence.
In June 1944, with the end of the war in sight, Gandhiji was released from
prison. Later that year he held a series of meetings with Jinnah, seeking to
bridge the gap between the Congress and the League.
In 1945, a Labour government came to power in Britain and committed itself

to granting
independence to India. Meanwhile, back in India, the Viceroy, Lord Wavell,

brought the Congress and the League together for a series of talks.
Early in 1946 fresh elections were held to the provincial legislatures. The
Congress swept the “General” category, but in the seats specifically reserved
for Muslims the League won an overwhelming majority. The political
polarisation was complete.
A Cabinet Mission sent in the summer of 1946 failed to get the Congress and Notes
the League to agree on a federal system that would keep India together while
allowing the provinces a degree of autonomy. (The Congress Party wanted a
strong centre with minimum powers for the provinces. The Muslim League
wanted strong political safeguards for the Muslims like parity in the
legislatures.)
After the talks broke down, Jinnah called for a “Direct Action Day” to press the
League’s demand for Pakistan. On the designated day, 16 August 1946, bloody
riots broke out in Calcutta. The violence spread to rural Bengal, then to Bihar,
and then across the country to the United Provinces and the Punjab.
Note-Cabinet Mission was a high-powered mission sent in February 1946 to

India by the Attlee Government (British Prime Minister.) The mission had three
British cabinet members – Pethick Lawrence, Stafford Cripps, & and A.V.
Alexander. The Cabinet Mission’s aim was to discuss the transfer of power from
British to Indian leadership.
In February 1947, Wavell was replaced as Viceroy by Lord Mountbatten.

Mountbatten called one last round of talks, but when these too proved
inconclusive he announced that British India would be freed, but also divided.
The last heroic days of Gandhiji:-
On 15th August 1947, Gandhiji was not in Delhi to witness the festivities. He
was at Calcutta and undertook 24 hours fast in opposition to the communal
violence that took place due to partition.
Due to the initiative of Gandhiji and Nehru, the Congress passed a resolution
on the rights of the minorities.
After working to bring peace to Bengal, Gandhiji shifted to Delhi from where
he hoped to move on to the riot-torn districts of Punjab. On 30th January 1948,
Gandhiji was shot dead by Nathuram Godse.
Previous years questions:
Q1. Which one of the following observations is not true about the Quit India
Movement of 1942?(2011)
a) It was a nonviolent movement

b) It was led by Mahatma Gandhi
c) It was a spontaneous movement
d) It did not attract the labour class in general
Q2. Quit India Movement was launched in response to: (2013) Notes
a) Cabinet Mission Plan

b) Cripps Proposals
c) Simon Commission Report
d) Wavell Plan
Q3. The people of India agitated against the arrival of Simon Commission
because: (2013)
a) Indians never wanted the review of the working of the Act of 1919
b) Simon Commission recommended the abolition of Dyarchy (Diarchy) in
the Provinces
c) there was no Indian member in the Simon Commission
d) the Simon Commission suggested the partition of the country
Q4. With reference to Indian freedom struggle, Usha Mehta is well-known for:
(2011)
a) Running the secret Congress Radio in the wake of Quit India Movement
b) Participating in the Second Round Table Conference
c) Leading a contingent of Indian National Army
d) Assisting in the formation of Interim Government under Pandit
Jawaharlal Nehru
Q5. The Rowlatt Act aimed at: (2012)
a) compulsory economic support to war efforts

b) imprisonment without trial and summary procedures for trial
c) suppression of the Khilafat Movement
d) imposition of restrictions on freedom of the press
Q6. The Lahore Session of the Indian National Congress (1929) is very important
in history, because(2012)
1. the Congress passed a resolution demanding complete independence

2. the rift between the extremists and moderates was resolved in that
Session
3. a resolution was passed rejecting the two-nation theory in that Session
Which of the statements given above is/are correct?
a) I only
b) 2 and 3 Notes
c) 1 and 3
d) None of the above
Q7. The 1929 Session of Indian, National Congress is of significance in the

history of the Freedom Movement because the (2014)
a) attainment of Self-Government was declared as the objective of the

Congress
b) attainment of Poorna Swaraj Was adopted as the goal of the Congress
c) Non-Cooperation Movement was launched
d) decision to participate in the Round Table Conference in London was
taken
PARTITION
This chapter will examine the history of Partition: why and how it happened as
well as the harrowing experiences of ordinary people during the period 1946-
50 and beyond.
A MOMENTOUS MARKER
Several hundred thousand people were killed and innumerable women raped
and abducted. Millions were uprooted, transformed into refugees in alien
lands. It is impossible to arrive at any accurate estimate of casualties: informed
and scholarly guesses vary from 200,000 to 500,000 people. In all probability,
some 15 million had to move across hastily constructed frontiers separating
India and Pakistan. Thus, stripped of their local or regional cultures, they were
forced to begin picking up their life from scratch.
Note-On 17 August 1947, the borderline that separated India from Pakistan,
known as the Radcliffe Line was revealed. The Radcliffe line is spread through
the Rann of Kutch in Gujarat to the international border in Jammu in Jammu &
Kashmir, dividing India and Pakistan into two different countries.
You would have read about the German Holocaust under the Nazis. The term
“holocaust” in a sense captures the gravity of what happened in the
subcontinent in 1947, something that the mild term “partition” hides. It also
helps to focus on why Partition, like the Holocaust in Germany, is remembered
and referred to in our contemporary concerns so much. Yet, differences
between the two events should not be overlooked. In 1947-48, the
subcontinent did not witness any state-driven extermination as was the case
with Nazi Germany where various modern techniques of control and
organisation had been used. The “ethnic cleansing” that characterised the Notes
partition of India was carried out by self-styled representatives of religious
communities rather than by state agencies.
Note-In the course of the Second World War, the Nazis murdered nearly six
million European Jews. This genocide is called the Holocaust. The word
‘holocaust’ comes from ancient Greek and means ‘burnt offering’. Even before
the Second World War, the word was sometimes used to describe the death of
a large group of people, but since 1945, it has become almost synonymous with
the murder of the European Jews during the Second World War. That's why we
use the term 'the Holocaust'. Jews also refer to it with the word ‘Shoah’, which
is Hebrew for 'catastrophe'.
The Power of Stereotypes
India-haters in Pakistan and Pakistan-haters in India are both products of

Partition. At times, some people mistakenly believe that the loyalties of Indian
Muslims lie with Pakistan. The stereotype of extra-territorial, pan-Islamic
loyalties comes fused with other highly objectionable ideas: Muslims are cruel,
bigoted, unclean, descendants of invaders, while Hindus are kind, liberal, pure,
children of the invaded.
Journalist R.M. Murphy has shown that similar stereotypes proliferate in

Pakistan. According to him, some Pakistanis feel that Muslims are fair, brave,
monotheists and meat-eaters, while Hindus are dark, cowardly, polytheists and
vegetarian. Some of these stereotypes pre-date Partition but there is no doubt
that they were immensely strengthened because of 1947. Every myth in these
constructions has been systematically critiqued by historians. But in both
countries voices of hatred do not mellow.
The relationship between Pakistan and India has been profoundly shaped by
this legacy of Partition. Perceptions of communities on both sides have been
structured by the conflicting memories of those momentous times.
WHY AND HOW DID PARTITION HAPPEN?
Some historians, both Indian and Pakistani, suggest that Mohammad Ali
Jinnah’s theory that the Hindus and Muslims in colonial India constituted two
separate nations can be projected back into mediaeval history. They emphasise
that the events of 1947 were intimately connected to the long history of Hindu-
Muslim conflict throughout medieval and modern times.
Some scholars see Partition as a culmination of a communal politics that Notes

started developing in the opening decades of the twentieth century. They
suggest that separate electorates for Muslims, created by the colonial
government in 1909 and expanded in 1919, crucially shaped the nature of
communal politics. Separate electorates meant that Muslims could now elect
their own representatives in designated constituencies. This created a
temptation for politicians working within this system to use sectarian slogans
and gather a following by distributing favours to their own religious groups.
Religious identities thus acquired a functional use within a modern political
system; and the logic of electoral politics deepened and hardened these
identities.
Communal identities were consolidated by a host of other developments in the

early twentieth century. During the 1920s and early 1930s tension grew around
a number of issues. Muslims were angered by “music-before-mosque”, by the
cow protection movement, and by the efforts of the Arya Samaj to bring back
to the Hindu fold (shuddhi) those who had recently converted to Islam.
Hindus were angered by the rapid spread of tabligh (propaganda) and tanzim
(organisation) movements after 1923.
Note- In 1920s Arya Samaj began the Shuddhi campaign. Particularly for
converting Malkhana Rajputs back into Kshtriyas. As a counter response-
Muslim leaders began Tanzim (organization) and Tablighi (propoganda /
religious proselytisation) movement in Northern India. Tanzim-Tabligh were
mean to promote Muslim prayers, orgnization and culture.
A class of publicists and communal activists sought to build greater solidarity Notes
within their communities, mobilising people against the other community, riots
spread in different parts of the country. Every communal riot deepened
differences between communities, creating disturbing memories of violence.
The Provincial Elections of 1937 and the Congress Ministries
In 1937, elections to the provincial legislatures were held for the first time. Only
about 10 to 12 per cent of the population enjoyed the right to vote. The
Congress did well in the elections, winning an absolute majority in five out of
eleven provinces and forming governments in seven of them.
Note-Elections were held in eleven provinces – Madras, Central Provinces,

Bihar, Orissa, United Provinces, Bombay Presidency, Assam, NWFP, Bengal,
Punjab and Sindh.
Note-Congress had clear majority in five provinces i.e. United Provinces (U.P.),
Bihar, Madras, Central Provinces (C.P.), Orissa .Congress formed its own
government in 7 provinces i.e. Bombay, UP, Madras, Orrisa, Central Provinces,
Bihar, NWFP.
It did badly in the constituencies reserved for Muslims, but the Muslim League
also fared poorly, polling only 4.4 per cent of the total Muslim vote cast in
this election. Notes
The League failed to win a single seat in the North West Frontier Province
(NWFP) and could capture only two out of 84 reserved constituencies in the
Punjab and three out of 33 in Sind.
In the United Provinces, the Muslim League wanted to form a joint government
with the Congress. The Congress had won an absolute majority in the province,
so it rejected the offer. Some scholars argue that this rejection convinced the
League that if India remained united, then Muslims would find it difficult to
gain political power because they would remain a minority. The League
assumed, of course, that only a Muslim party could represent Muslim interests,
and that the Congress was essentially a Hindu party.
Social support for the League was still fairly weak in three of the provinces
from which Pakistan was to be carved out just ten years later – Bengal, the
NWFP and Punjab. Even in Sind it failed to form a government. It was from this
point onwards that the League doubled its efforts at expanding its social
support.
While the leading Congress leaders in the late 1930s insisted more than ever
before on the need for secularism, these ideas were by no means universally
shared lower down in the party hierarchy, or even by all Congress ministers.
Maulana Azad, an important Congress leader, pointed out in 1937 that
members of the Congress were not allowed to join the League, yet
Congressmen were active in the Hindu Mahasabha– at least in the Central
Provinces (present-day Madhya Pradesh).
Only in December 1938 did the Congress Working Committee declare that
Congress members could not be members of the Mahasabha. Incidentally, this
was also the period when the Hindu Mahasabha and the Rashtriya
Swayamsevak Sangh (RSS) were gaining strength. The latter spread from its
Nagpur base to the United Provinces, the Punjab, and other parts of the
country in the1930s. By 1940, the RSS had over 100,000 trained and highly
disciplined cadres pledged to an ideology of Hindu nationalism, convinced that
India was a land of the Hindus.
Note-The Hindu Mahasabha was founded in 1914-15 by Madan Mohan

Malviya. It became a political party in 1933.V.D.Savarkar, Lala Lajpat Rai,
Madan Mohan Malviya were its early leaders.The organisation was formed to
protect the rights of the Hindu community.
Note-RSS was founded in 1925 by Keshav Baliram Hedgewar, a doctor in the

city of Nagpur.
Notes
The “Pakistan” Resolution
The Pakistan demand was formalised gradually. On 23 March 1940, the League
moved a resolution demanding a measure of autonomy for the Muslim
majority areas of the subcontinent. This ambiguous resolution never
mentioned partition or Pakistan.
The origins of the Pakistan demand have also been traced back to the Urdu
poet Mohammad Iqbal, the writer of “Sare Jahan Se Achha Hindustan
Hamara”. In his presidential address to the Muslim League in 1930, the poet
spoke of a need for a “Northwest Indian Muslim state”. Iqbal, however, was
not visualising the emergence of a new country in that speech but a
reorganisation of Muslim-majority areas in north-western India into an
autonomous unit within a single, loosely structured Indian federation.
Notes
The Suddenness of Partition
We have seen that the League itself was vague about its demand in 1940. There
was a very short time – just seven years – between the first formal articulation
of the demand for a measure of autonomy for the Muslim-majority areas of
the subcontinent and Partition.
No one knew what the creation of Pakistan meant, and how it might shape
people’s lives in the future. Many who migrated from their homelands in 1947
thought they would return as soon as peace prevailed again.
Initially even Muslim leaders did not seriously raise the demand for Pakistan as
a sovereign state. In the beginning Jinnah himself may have seen the Pakistan
idea as a bargaining counter, useful for blocking possible British concessions to
the Congress and gaining additional favours for the Muslims.
Post-War Developments
When negotiations were begun again in l945, the British agreed to create an
entirely Indian central Executive Council, except for the Viceroy and the
Commander -in-Chief of the armed forces, as a preliminary step towards full
independence.
Discussions about the transfer of power broke down due to Jinnah’s

unrelenting demand that the League had an absolute right to choose all the
Muslim members of the Executive Council.
The League’s demand was quite extraordinary, for a large section of the
nationalist Muslims supported the Congress (its delegation for these
discussions was headed by Maulana Azad), and in West Punjab members of the
Unionist Party were largely Muslims. Notes
Provincial elections were again held in 1946. The Congress swept the general
constituencies, capturing 91.3 per cent of the non-Muslim vote. The League’s
success in the seats reserved for Muslims was equally spectacular: it won all 30
reserved constituencies in the Centre with 86.6 per cent of the Muslim vote
and 442 out of 509 seats in the provinces. Only as late as 1946, therefore, did
the League establish itself as the dominant party among Muslim voters, seeking
to vindicate its claim to be the “sole spokesman” of India’s Muslims.
However, the franchise was extremely limited. About 10 to 12 percent of the

population enjoyed the right to vote in the provincial elections and a mere one
per cent in the elections for the Central Assembly.
Note-The Unionist Party (Punjab) was a political party of Punjab, British India.
It was founded by Sir Fazli Husain, Sir Chotu Ram and Sir Sikandar Hayat Khan
in 1923 and basically represented the Punjabi zamindars interests.
Towards Partition
The Muslim League decided on “Direct Action” for winning its Pakistan
demand. It announced 16 August 1946 as “Direct Action Day”. On this day,
riots broke out in Calcutta, lasting several days and leaving several thousand
people dead. By March 1947 violence spread to many parts of northern India.
The one-man army
Amidst all this turmoil, one man’s valiant efforts at restoring communal
harmony bore fruit. The 77-year-old Gandhiji decided to stake his all in a bid to
vindicate his lifelong principle of non-violence, and his conviction that people’s
hearts could be changed.
He moved from the villages of Noakhali in East Bengal (present-day

Bangladesh) to the villages of Bihar and then to the riot-torn slums of Calcutta
and Delhi, in a heroic effort to stop Hindus and Muslims kill each other. In
October 1946, Muslims in East Bengal targeted Hindus. Gandhiji visited the
area, toured the villages on foot, and persuaded the local Muslims to guarantee
the safety of Hindus. Similarly, in other places such as Delhi he tried to build a Notes
spirit of mutual trust and confidence between the two communities.
A Delhi Muslim, Shahid Ahmad Dehlavi, compelled to flee to a dirty,

overcrowded camp in Purana Qila, likened Gandhiji’s arrival in Delhi on 9
September 1947 to “the arrivalof the rains after a particularly long and harsh
summer”. Dehlavi recalled in his memoir how Muslims said to one another:
“Delhi will now be saved”. When he began a fast to bring about a change of
heart, amazingly, many Hindu and Sikh migrants fasted with him.
FRAMING THE CONSTITUTION
The Indian Constitution, which came into effect on 26 January 1950, has the
distinction of being the longest written constitution in the world. Its length and
complexity are perhaps understandable when one considers the country’s size
and diversity.
The idea of a constituent assembly was put forward for the first time by MN
Roy. In 1935, the Indian National Congress (INC), for the first time, officially
called for a constituent assembly to frame a constitution for India. In 1938, J
Nehru made this emphatic statement regarding the constitution- ‘The
constitution of free India must be framed, without outside interference, by a
constituent assembly elected on the basis of adult franchise’
The demand for a constituent assembly was accepted for the first time by the
British through their ‘August offer’ of 1940. Eventually, a constituent assembly
was established under the provisions of the Cabinet Mission plan.
Initially, the strength of the Constituent assembly was 389.296 seats for British
India and 93 seats for princely states.
Representatives of each communities were to be elected by members of that

community in the provincial legislative assembly and voting was to be by the
method of proportional representation by means of single transferable vote.
Representatives of princely states were to be nominated by head of these
princely states. So, it was a partly elected and partly nominated body. The
mode of election was indirect.
The Constituent Assembly that came into being was dominated by one party:
the Congress. The Congress swept the general seats in the provincial elections,
and the Muslim League captured most of the reserved Muslim seats. But the
League chose to boycott the Constituent Assembly, pressing its demand for
Pakistan with a separate constitution. The Socialists too were initially unwilling
to join, for they believed the Constituent Assembly was a creation of the British, Notes
and therefore incapable of being truly autonomous. In effect, therefore, 82 per
cent of the members of the Constituent Assembly were also members of the
Congress.
The Congress however was not a party with one voice. Its members differed in
their opinion on critical issues. Some members were inspired by socialism while
others were defenders of landlordism. Some were close to communal parties
while others were assertively secular. Through the national movement,
Congress members had learnt to debate their ideas in public and negotiate
their differences. Within the Constituent Assembly too, Congress members did
not sit quiet.
The discussions within the Constituent Assembly were also influenced by the
opinions expressed by the public. As the deliberations continued, the
arguments were reported in newspapers, and the proposals were publicly
debated.
Working of the Constituent Assembly
• First meeting was held on December 9, 1946.

• Muslim league did not participate in the first meeting
• Temporary president in the first meeting: Dr Sachchidanand Sinha
• After elections were held- Dr Rajendra Prasad and HC Mukherjee were
elected as the President and Vice-President of the Assembly
respectively.
• Sir BN Rau was appointed as the constitutional advisor of the assembly.
• Once the Mountbatten plan was passed even members of Muslim
league who were part of Indian territory participated in the proceedings
of the council.
• Members of princely states who had stayed away from the proceedings
initially also participated.
• After partition, some of the members went to Pakistan and the number
came down to 299. Out of this, 229 were from the British provinces and
70 were nominated from the princely states.
Constituent assembly held 11 sessions over two years, 11 months and 18 days
Last session of the constituent assembly was held on January 24, 1950.
On 13 Dec.1946 Nehru moved the “Objective Resolution” in the Constituent

Assembly.
It was a momentous resolution that outlined the defining ideals of the

Constitution of Independent India and provided the framework within which
the work of constitution-making was to proceed. The resolution highlighted the Notes
following objectives:
i. Free India will be nothing but a republic.
ii. The ideal of social, political and economic democracy would be

guaranteed to all people.
iii. The republic would grant Fundamental rights.
iv. The state would safeguard the rights of the minorities and backward
classes.
Constituent assembly acted as the temporary legislature until a new one was
to be constituted. An interim Government was constituted under the
leadership of Jawaharlal Nehru. Some of the functions it performed at this
stage were:
i. Ratification of India’s membership of the commonwealth.
ii. It adopted the national flag.
iii. It adopted the national anthem.
iv. Adoption of the national song.
v. Electing Dr Rajendra Prasad as the first President of India.
Committees of Constituent Assembly Notes
There were eight committees, mentioned below
Leaders like Somnath Lahiri thought that constituent assembly was the creation
of the British and urged to be free from imperial influence Jawahar Lal Nehru
also felt the same and urged the members to work for the will of the people.
Heated arguments took place on issues of minority rights and separate

electorates. Mr Jaipal Singh demanded seats reserved for the tribal people and
special rights for the protection J. Nagappa demanded seats reservation in the
legislature and reservation for the depressed class people of India.
After a lot of deliberations, the Constituent Assembly finally recommended

that untouchability be abolished, Hindu temples be thrown open to all castes,
and seats in legislatures and jobs in government offices be reserved for the
lowest castes.
There was a vigorous debate in the Constituent Assembly on the matter of the
rights of the central Government and the state. Leaders like B R Ambedkar and
Nehru were advocating for a strong centre and k Santhanam defended the
rights of the state. Notes
Centralization was seen as necessary both to forestall chaos and to plan for the
country’s economic development. The Constitution thus showed a distinct bias
towards the right of the Union of India over those of its constituent states.
The language issue was also debated for many months within the Constituent
Assembly. Mahatma Gandhi believed that everyone should speak a language
which even common man could be able to understand and he advocated
Hindustani a mixture of many languages and dialects.
R V Dhulekar made a strong plea for Hindi but the leaders from the south feared
the dominance of Hindi. As the discussion became acrimonious, many
members appealed for a spirit of accommodation. It was declared that Hindi in
the Devanagari script would be the official language. English would continue to
be used for all official purposes. Each province was to be allowed to choose one
of the regional languages for official work within the province. By referring to
Hindi as the official rather than the national language, the Constituent
Assembly hoped to placate ruffled emotions and arrive at a solution that would
be acceptable to all.
The Constitution of India thus emerged through a process of intense debate

and discussion. Many of its provisions were arrived at through a process of give-
and-take, by forging a middle ground between two opposed positions.
NOTE- You will cover the details under Polity Modules.
Copyright © by IASbaba
All rights are reserved. No part of this document should be reproduced,
stored in a retrieval system or transmitted in any form or by any means,
electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording or otherwise, without prior
permission of IASbaba.

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NCERT MODULE (HISTORY)

Integrated Learning Programme (ILP) 2023 – History VAN (Part 2)

NCERT HISTORY MODULE 1 Notes

Following are your sources for today:

THEMES IN INDIAN HISTORY-PART I

THE HARAPPAN CIVILISATION

The Indus Valley Civilization or Harappan Civilization was the culmination of a

It is considered to be the continuation of the Neolithic Mehrgarh culture which

i. Early Harappan Phase (3300 BCE-2600 BCE),

ii. Mature Harappan Phase (2600 BCE-1900 BCE),

iii. Late Harappan Phase (1900 BCE-1300 BCE).

Integrated Learning Programme (ILP) 2023 – History VAN (Part 2)

Integrated Learning Programme (ILP) 2023 – History VAN (Part 2)

• It is called the Indus valley civilization because it flourished on the bank

• In 1924, John Hubert Marshall, Director-General of the Archaeological

• It was a trade-based civilization which had overseas trade links with

Integrated Learning Programme (ILP) 2023 – History VAN (Part 2)

large, non-residential buildings, new techniques in metallurgy, seal Notes

Architecture and Town Planning of Indus Valley Civilization:

Salient Features of Indus Valley Town Planning:

1. The Citadel and the lower city:

Integrated Learning Programme (ILP) 2023 – History VAN (Part 2)

2. The uniform chess-board or grid pattern planning of towns and cities:

• IVC people-built houses and other buildings by the side of roads.

Integrated Learning Programme (ILP) 2023 – History VAN (Part 2)

• Archaeologists have discovered the lamp posts at intervals. This Notes

• People of Indus valley civilization-built houses and other buildings by

• The houses were designed around an inner courtyard and contained

• Besides residential quarters, elaborate structures such as granaries,

Integrated Learning Programme (ILP) 2023 – History VAN (Part 2)

4. Drainage System: Notes

• One of the most remarkable features of the Indus valley civilization is

• Thus, Indus people had a perfect underground drainage system. No

Trade and Economy:

Integrated Learning Programme (ILP) 2023 – History VAN (Part 2)

from -Lothal & Rangpur. Notes

Integrated Learning Programme (ILP) 2023 – History VAN (Part 2)

• Agricultural produce, industrial raw materials (including copper ores, Notes

Arts and Crafts of IVC:

Integrated Learning Programme (ILP) 2023 – History VAN (Part 2)

a bust of a bearded man in soapstone (Steatite). Notes

Bearded Man (Priest Man, Priest-King):

Integrated Learning Programme (ILP) 2023 – History VAN (Part 2)

Integrated Learning Programme (ILP) 2023 – History VAN (Part 2)

Integrated Learning Programme (ILP) 2023 – History VAN (Part 2)

• Compared to the stone and bronze statues the terracotta Notes

Integrated Learning Programme (ILP) 2023 – History VAN (Part 2)

Integrated Learning Programme (ILP) 2023 – History VAN (Part 2)

Beads, Ornaments and Cosmetics:

Integrated Learning Programme (ILP) 2023 – History VAN (Part 2)

Transport and Travel:

Integrated Learning Programme (ILP) 2023 – History VAN (Part 2)

Weights and Measures:

Integrated Learning Programme (ILP) 2023 – History VAN (Part 2)

Measuring Scale and Weights of IVC

Religious practices of IVC:

Integrated Learning Programme (ILP) 2023 – History VAN (Part 2)

Integrated Learning Programme (ILP) 2023 – History VAN (Part 2)

• No Temples: Harappans did not build temples or other places of Notes

Script and Language:

Social and Political life of IVC:

Integrated Learning Programme (ILP) 2023 – History VAN (Part 2)

Decline of the Indus Valley Civilization: