CHAPTER 1 Fundamental Concepts of Refrigeration

REFRIGERATION – branch of science that deals with the process of reducing and maintaining the temperature of a space
or material below the temperature of the surrounding

– used to describe thermal systems that maintain process space or materials at a temperature less than
the ambient conditions

Application of Refrigeration:
• Food processing, preservation/storage, and distribution
• Ice making
• Industrial applications
▪ cooling of substances in chemical plants
▪ separation of substances
▪ oil refinery processes
▪ treatment of steel
▪ cryogenics (very low temperature refrigeration)

Refrigeration System – assembly of four major components – compressor,

condenser, expansion valve, and evaporator – wherein a
very low boiling point substance (known as refrigerant)
flows in a cycle and absorbs heat from the immediate
Typical Refrigeration System
surroundings, thereby producing the cooling effect

Major Components of a Refrigeration System

1. Compressor – is the heart of a refrigeration system. It compresses the refrigerant going to the condenser.
• Common Types of Refrigeration Compressor:
a. Reciprocating compressor – consists of a piston moving back and forth in a cylinder like an
automotive engine.
▪ Types of Reciprocating Compressor
i. Open-type – the crankshaft extends through the compressor housing so that a
motor can be externally coupled to the shaft
ii. Hermetically sealed – motor and compressor are enclosed in the same leak-proof
housing
iii. Semi-hermetic – cylinder heads are removable to allow servicing of valves and
pistons
b. Rotary compressor – has two rotating elements (similar with gears) between which the
refrigerant is compressed.
c. Centrifugal compressor – comprising of an impeller and uses its rotating action to exert
centrifugal force on refrigerant inside a volute which is a round chamber
d. Screw compressor – utilizes a pair of meshing screw to compress the refrigerant between them
e. Scroll compressor – uses two offset or interleaved spiral disks nested together to compress the
refrigerant in which one is stationary/fixed and the other orbits eccentrically without rotating
2. Condenser – receives superheated refrigerant from the compressor, remove the superheat and then liquefy the
refrigerant (heat rejection); utilizes fluid such as air or water to carry away the heat (air-cooled or water-cooled)
3. Expansion valve – reduces the pressure of the liquid refrigerant and regulates/controls the flow of the refrigerant
to the evaporator thereby controlling the superheating at the outlet of the evaporator
4. Evaporator – transfers the heat from the substance being cooled to a boiling refrigerant

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REFRIGERANT – is the working substance in a refrigeration system. During a refrigeration cycle, it undergoes a phase
change from liquid to gas and back to liquid.
• Traditionally, fluorocarbons (esp. chlorofluorocarbons) were used as refrigerants, but they are
being phased out because of their ozone depletion effects.
• Other common refrigerants used in various applications are ammonia, sulfur dioxide, and non-
halogenated hydrocarbons such as methane.

Montreal Protocol – an international agreement that took effect in 1989 and the New Clean Air Act that was signed in
1990 that limits the production and regulates the use and disposal of chlorofluorocarbon (CFC) refrigerants.

CFC – is the Montreal Protocol designation for Chlorofluorocarbons that cause ozone-layer depletion
HCFC (Hydrochlorofluorocarbons) or HFC (Hydrofluorocarbons) – designation for other refrigerants that are CFC but
cause little or no ozone destruction

Ozone Depletion Potential (ODP) – is the ozone-destroying power of a substance measured relative to Refrigerant-11 (R-
11 or CFC-11)
Global Warming Potential (GWP) – a relative measure of the ability of a substance to cause an increase in the temperature
of the atmosphere by absorbing solar and Earth radiation that is relative to the effect of Refrigerant-11

CHARACTERISTICS OF REFRIGERANT
A. Thermal and thermodynamic properties
1. convenient condensation and evaporation
pressures
2. high critical and low freezing and condensing
temperatures
3. high latent heat of vaporization and high
specific heat
4. low viscosity and high film heat conductivity
5. good heat transfer characteristics

B. Desirable practical and safety characteristics

1. low cost 5. easy to detect in case of leaks
2. chemical and physical inertness under 6. non-flammable
operating conditions 7. non-irritable
3. non-corrosiveness toward ordinary 8. non-toxic
construction materials
4. low explosive hazard, both alone and
mixed with air
C. Effects on environment
1. ozone depletion potential 2. global warming potential

CLASSIFICATIONS OF REFRIGERANTS
A. Refrigerant by class
- may be classified according to manner of absorption or extraction of heat from the substances to be refrigerated
Class 1 – refrigerants that cool by absorption or extraction of latent heat from the substances to be refrigerated
Class 2 – cool the substances by absorbing their sensible heats (e.g. air, calcium chloride brine, sodium chloride
brine, alcohol, and similar nonfreezing solutions)
Class 2 – their purpose is the reduction of temperature from Class 1 refrigerants and convey this lower
temperature to the area to be conditioned
Class 3 – consist of solutions that contain absorbed vapors of liquefiable agents or refrigerating media
Class 3 – carry liquefiable vapors which produce a cooling effect by the absorption of their latent heat

B. According to toxicity
Class A – signifies refrigerants for which toxicity has not been identified at concentration less than or equal to 400
ppm
Class B – signifies refrigerants for which there is evidence of toxicity at concentration below 400 ppm
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 C. According to flammability
Class 1 – indicates refrigerants that do not show flame propagation when tested in air at 21°C and 101 kPa
Class 2 – refrigerants having lower flammability limit of more than 0.10 kg/m3 at 21°C and 101 kPa, and a heat of
combustion of less than 19 kJ/kg
Class 3 – refrigerants that are highly flammable as defined by a lower flammability limit of less than or equal to
0.10 kg/m3 at 21°C and 101 kPa, or a heat of combustion greater than or equal to 19 kJ/kg

ASHRAE Refrigerant Designation System:

R XYZ
where: Z: number of fluorine, F, atoms in the compound (first digit from the right)
Y: one more than the number of hydrogen, H, atoms in the compound (second digit from the right)
X: one less than the number of carbon, C, atoms (when this digit is zero, it is omitted)

Blends – designated by their respective refrigerant numbers and weight proportions; named in the order of increasing
normal boiling points of the components - e.g. R-22/12 (90/60)

Zeotropic blends that have been commercialized are assigned an identifying number in the 400 series accompanied by
the weight proportions of the components – e.g. R-400 (90/10) for mixture of R-12 and R-114

Azeotropes are assigned an identifying number in the 500 series with no composition shown.

Mixtures – whether zeotropic or azeotropic, with flammability and/or toxicity characteristics which may change as the
composition changes during fractionation, shall be assigned a safety group classification based on the worst case of
fractionation.

Safety classification of refrigerants

The safety classification consists of two alphanumeric characters (i.e. A2); the capital letter corresponds to toxicity
and the digit refers to flammability. (e.g. R-404A is classified A1)

Organic refrigerants are assigned serial numbers in the 600 series.

Miscellaneous organic compounds

- Organic compounds are numbered with the same system as Fluorocarbons. (e.g. Propane C3H8: R-290)

Inorganic compounds – shall be assigned a number in the 700 series; identification numbers are formed by adding the
relative molecular mass of components to 700. (e.g. R-717, R-718, R-744)

List of Selected Refrigerants based on Series or Groups

Methane Series
R-11 – Trichlorofluoromethane (CCl3F)
R-12 – Dichlorodifluromethane (CCl2F2)
R-13 – Chlorotrifluoromethane (CClF3)
R-14 – Carbon tetrafluoride (CF4)
R-21 – Dichlorofluoromethane (CHCl2F)
R-22 – Chlorodifluoromethane (CHClF2)
R-23 – Trifluoromethane (CHF3)
R-50 – Methane (CH4)
Ethane Series
R-114 – Dichlorotetrafluoroethane (CClF2CClF2)
R-123 – Dichlorotrifluoroethane (CHCl2CF3)
R-124 – Chlorotetrafluoroethane (CHClFCF3)
R-125 – Pentafluoroethane (CHF2CF3)
R-134a – Tetrafluoroethane (CH2FCF3)
R-143a – Trifluoroethane (CH3CF3)
R-152a – Difluoroethane (CH3CHF2)
R-170 – Ethane (CH3CH3)

Propane Series Butane Series

R-290 – Propane (C3H4) R-600 – Butane (C4H10)
R-601 – Iso-butane (C4H10)

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Inorganic Compounds CFC Refrigerants: R-11, R-12, R-113, R-114, R-115
R-702 – Hydrogen (H2)
R-704 – Helium (He) HCFC Refrigerants (less resistant than CFC’s)
R-717 – Ammonia (NH3) R-22 or HCFC-22
R-718 – Water (H2O) R-123 or HCFC-123
R-728 – Nitrogen (N2) R-124 or HCFC-124
R-729 – Air R-141b or HCFC-141b
R-732 – Oxygen (O2) R-142b or HCFC-142b
R-744 – Carbon Dioxide (CO2)
R-764 – Sulfur Dioxide (SO2) HFC Refrigerants (less harmful to ozone layer)
R-125 or HFC-125
Zeotropes R-134a or HFC-134a
R-400 – R-12/114 R-143a or HFC-143a
R-502 – R-22/115 (48.8%/51.2%) R-152a or HFC-152a
R-23 or HFC-23
An azeotropic mixture of two substances is one that R-32 or HFC-32 – Difluoromethane (CH2F2)
cannot be separated into its components by distillation.
Halocarbon Refrigerants – contain one or more of the
Hydrocarbon Refrigerants three halogens: chlorine, fluorine, and bromine.
R-50 – Methane (CH4) R-11, R-12, R-13, R-22, R-114
R-170 – Ethane (C2H6) R-40 – Methyl Chloride (CH3Cl)
R-290 – Propane (C3H8) R-113 – Trichlorotrifluoroethane (CCl2FCClF2)
R-600 – Butane (C4H10)

• Letter C is used before number designations to identify cyclic derivatives.

• Lower case letters are appended after numbers to distinguish isomers-refrigerants with the same chemical
composition but with differing molecular structures.

Type Profile Application

household refrigerators; car air conditioning systems;
R-134a Replace R-12 in most applications heat pumps; chillers; transport refrigeration;
commercial cooling

Near azeotropic refrigerant containing cold-storage cells; supermarket display cases; ice
R-404A R-125, R-143a and R-134a (44/52/4% by machines; replacement for R-502 in transport
weight) refrigeration; retrofit of existing R-502 installations

replacement for R-22 air-conditioning systems; heat

Contains R-32, R-125 and R-134a pumps; industrial and commercial cooling; new air-
R-407C
(23/25/52 weight-%) conditioning units or retrofit of existing R-22
installations

Near azeotropic refrigerant containing air-conditioning units; heat pumps; cold storage;
R-410A R-32 and R-125 (50/50 by weight), industrial and commercial refrigeration; substitution
substitute for R-22 and R-13B1 of R-13B1 by R-410 in low temperature application

Substitute for R-502; azeotropic cold-storage cells; supermarket display cases; ice
R-507 refrigerant containing R-125 and R-143a machines; replacement for R-502 in transport
(50/50% by weight) refrigeration; retrofit of existing R-502 installations

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