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Chapter 3: Gender and Society

Objectives
At the end of this chapter, you should be able to:
1. describe gender as a social construct;
2. discuss the role and impact of gender on the different facets of
societal life;
3. explain the value of sociological methods for analyzing gendered
interactions; and
4. apply a sociological imagination to your day-to-day observations on
gender in society.
Discussion
In sociology, we make a distinction between sex and gender. Sex are the
biological traits that societies use to assign people into the category of either
male or female, whether it be through a focus on chromosomes, genitalia or
some other physical ascription. When people talk about the differences between
men and women they are often drawing on sex – on rigid ideas of biology –
rather than gender, which is an understanding of how society shapes our
understanding of those biological categories.
Gender is more fluid – it may or may not depend upon biological traits.
More specifically, it is a concept that describes how societies determine and
manage sex categories; the cultural meanings attached to men and women’s
roles; and how individuals understand their identities including, but not limited to,
being a man, woman, transgender, intersex, gender queer and other gender
positions. Gender involves social norms, attitudes and activities that society
deems more appropriate for one sex over another. Gender is also determined by
what an individual feels and does.
The sociology of gender examines how society influences our
understandings and perception of differences between masculinity (what society
deems appropriate behavior for a “man”) and femininity (what society deems
appropriate behavior for a “woman”). We examine how this, in turn, influences
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identity and social practices. We pay special focus on the power relationships
that follow from the established gender order in a given society, as well as how
this changes over time.
Sex and gender do not always align. Cis-gender describes people whose
biological body they were born into matches their personal gender identity. This
experience is distinct from being transgender, which is where one’s biological sex
does not align with their gender identity. Transgender people will undergo a
gender transition that may involve changing their dress and self-presentation
(such as a name change). Transgender people may undergo hormone therapy to
facilitate this process, but not all transgender people will undertake surgery.
Intersexuality describes variations on sex definitions related to ambiguous
genitalia, gonads, sex organs, chromosomes or hormones. Transgender and
intersexuality are gender categories, not sexualities. Transgender and
intersexual people have varied sexual practices, attractions and identities as do
cis-gender people.
People can also choose to be gender queer, by either drawing on several
gender positions or otherwise not identifying with any specific gender
(nonbinary); or they may choose to move across genders (gender fluid); or they
may reject gender categories altogether (agender). The third gender is often
used by social scientists to describe cultures that accept non-binary gender
positions.
Sexuality is different again; it is about sexual attraction, sexual practices
and identity. Just as sex and gender don’t always align, neither does gender nor
sexuality. People can identify along a wide spectrum of sexualities from
heterosexual, to gay or lesbian, to bisexual, to queer, and so on. Asexuality is a
term used when individuals do not feel sexual attraction. Some asexual people
might still form romantic relationships without sexual contact.
Regardless of sexual experience, sexual desire and behaviors can change
over time, and sexual identities may or may not shift as a result. Gender and
sexuality are not just personal identities; they are social identities. They arise
from our relationships to other people, and they depend upon social interaction
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and social recognition. As such, they influence how we understand ourselves in

relation to others.

Gender
The definition of sex (the categories of man versus woman) as we know
them today comes from the advent of modernity. With the rise of industrialization
came better technologies and faster modes of travel and communication. This
assisted the rapid diffusion of ideas across the medical world.
Sex roles describes the tasks and functions perceived to be ideally suited
to masculinity versus femininity. Sex roles have converged across many (though
not all) cultures due to colonial practices and also due to industrialization. Sex
roles were different prior to the industrial revolution, when men and women
worked alongside one another on farms, doing similar tasks. Entrenched gender
inequality is a product of modernity. It’s not that inequality did not exist before, it’s
that inequality within the home in relation to family life was not as pronounced.
In the 19th Century, biomedical science largely converged around
Western European practices and ideas. Biological definitions of the body arose
where they did not exist before, drawing on Victorian values. The essentialist
ideas that people attach to man and woman exist only because of this cultural
history. This includes the erroneous ideas that sex:
Is pre-determined in the womb;
Defined by anatomy which in turn determines sexual identity and desire;
Differences are all connected to reproductive functions;
Identities are immutable; and that
Deviations from dominant ideas of male/female must be “unnatural.”
Gender as a Social Construct
Social constructivists propose that there is no inherent truth to gender; it is
constructed by social expectations and gender performance.
The social construction of gender comes out of the general school of thought
entitled social constructionism. Social constructionism proposes that everything
people “know” or see as “reality” is partially, if not entirely, socially situated. To
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say that something is socially constructed does not mitigate the power of the
concept. Take, for example, money. Money is a socially constructed reality.
Paper bills are worth nothing independent of the value individuals ascribe to
them. The dollar is only worth as much as value as Americans are willing to
ascribe to it. Note that the dollar only works in its own currency market; it holds
no value in areas that don’t use the dollar. Nevertheless, the dollar is extremely
powerful within its own domain.
These basic theories of social constructionism can be applied to any issue
of study pertaining to human life, including gender. Is gender an essential
category or a social construct? If it is a social construct, how does it function?
Who benefits from the way that gender is constructed? A social constructionist
view of gender looks beyond categories and examines the intersections of
multiple identities and the blurring of the boundaries between essentialist
categories. This is especially true with regards to categories of male and female,
which are viewed typically as binary and opposite. Social constructionism seeks
to blur the binary and muddle these two categories, which are so frequently
presumed to be essential.
Gender, like all social identities, is socially constructed. Social
constructionism is one of the key theories sociologists use to put gender into
historical and cultural focus. Social constructionism is a social theory about how
meaning is created through social interaction – through the things we do and say
with other people. This theory shows that gender it is not a fixed or innate fact,
but instead it varies across time and place.
Gender norms (the socially acceptable ways of acting out gender) are
learned from birth through childhood socialization. We learn what is expected of
our gender from what our parents teach us, as well as what we pick up at school,
through religious or cultural teachings, in the media, and various other social
institutions.
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Judith Butler and Gender Performativity

Judith Butler is one of the most prominent social theorists currently
working on issues pertaining to the social construction of gender. Butler is a
trained philosopher and has oriented her work towards feminism and queer
theory. Butler’s most known work is Gender Trouble: Feminism and the
Subversion of Identity, published in 1991, which argues for gender performativity.
This means that gender is not an essential category. The repetitious
performances of “male” and “female” in accordance with social norms reifies the
categories, creating the appearance of a naturalized and essential binary.
Gender is never a stable descriptor of an individual, but an individual is always
“doing” gender, performing or deviating from the socially accepted performance
of gender stereotypes. Doing gender is not just about acting in a particular way. It
is about embodying and believing certain gender norms and engaging in
practices that map on to those norms. These performances normalize the
essentialism of gender categories. In other words, by doing gender, we reinforce
the notion that there are only two mutually exclusive categories of gender. The
internalized belief that men and women are essentially different is what makes
men and women behave in ways that appear essentially different. Gender is
maintained as a category through socially constructed displays of gender.
Doing gender is fundamentally a social relationship. One does gender in
order to be perceived by others in a particular way, either as male, female, or as
troubling those categories. Certainly, gender is internalized and acquires
significance for the individual; some individuals want to feel feminine or
masculine. Social constructionists might argue that because categories are only
formed within a social context, even the effect of gender is in some ways a social
relation. Moreover, we hold ourselves and each other for our presentation of
gender, or how we “measure up.” We are aware that others evaluate and
characterize our behavior on the parameter of gender. Social constructionists
would say that gender is interactional rather than individual—it is developed
through social interactions. Gender is also said to be Omni relevant, meaning
that people are always judging our behavior to be either male or female.
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Gender and Society

Our society has a set of ideas about how we expect men and women to
dress, behave, and present themselves. Gender roles in society means how
we’re expected to act, speak, dress, groom, and conduct ourselves based upon
our assigned sex. For example, girls and women are generally expected to dress
in typically feminine ways and be polite, accommodating, and nurturing. Men are
generally expected to be strong, aggressive, and bold.
Every society, ethnic group, and culture has gender role expectations, but
they can be very different from group to group. They can also change in the
same society over time. For example, pink used to be considered a masculine
color in the U.S. while blue was considered feminine.
A stereotype is a widely accepted judgment or bias about a person or
group — even though it’s overly simplified and not always accurate. Stereotypes
about gender can cause unequal and unfair treatment because of a person’s
gender. This is called sexism.

Four Basic Kinds of Gender Stereotypes

A. Personality traits — For example, women are often expected to be
accommodating and emotional, while men are usually expected to be self-
confident and aggressive.
B. Domestic behaviors — For example, some people expect that women will
take care of the children, cook, and clean the home, while men take care
of finances, work on the car, and do the home repairs.
C. Occupations — Some people are quick to assume that teachers and
nurses are women, and that pilots, doctors, and engineers are men.
D. Physical appearance — For example, women are expected to be thin and
graceful, while men are expected to be tall and muscular. Men and women
are also expected to dress and groom in ways that are stereotypical to
their gender (men wearing pants and short hairstyles, women wearing
dresses and make-up.
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Hyperfemininity is the exaggeration of stereotyped behavior that’s believed to

be feminine. Hyperfeminine folks exaggerate the qualities they believe to be
feminine. This may include being passive, naive, sexually inexperienced, soft,
flirtatious, graceful, nurturing, and accepting.
Hypermasculinity is the exaggeration of stereotyped behavior that’s believed
to be masculine. Hypermasculine folks exaggerate the qualities they believe to
be masculine. They believe they’re supposed to compete with other men and
dominate feminine folks by being aggressive, worldly, sexually experienced,
insensitive, physically imposing, ambitious, and demanding.
These exaggerated gender stereotypes can make relationships between
people difficult. Hyperfeminine folks are more likely to endure physical and
emotional abuse from their partners. Hypermasculine folks are more likely to be
physically and emotionally abusive to their partners.
Extreme gender stereotypes are harmful because they don’t allow people to
fully express themselves and their emotions. For example, it’s harmful to
masculine folks to feel that they’re not allowed to cry or express sensitive
emotions. And it’s harmful to feminine folks to feel that they’re not allowed to be
independent, smart or assertive. Breaking down gender stereotypes allows
everyone to be their best selves.
Fighting Gender Stereotypes
You probably see gender stereotypes all around you. You might also have
seen or experienced sexism, or discrimination based on gender. There are ways
to challenge these stereotypes to help everyone — no matter their gender or
gender identity — feel equal and valued as people.
a. Point it out — Magazines, TV, film, and the Internet are full of negative
gender stereotypes. Sometimes these stereotypes are hard for people to
see unless they’re pointed out. Be that person! Talk with friends and family
members about the stereotypes you see and help others understand how
sexism and gender stereotypes can be hurtful.
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b. Be a living example — Be a role model for your friends and family.

Respect people regardless of their gender identity. Create a safe space
for people to express themselves and their true qualities regardless of
what society’s gender stereotypes and expectations are.
c. Speak up — If someone is making sexist jokes and comments, whether
online or in person, challenge them.
d. Give it a try — If you want to do something that’s not normally associated
with your gender, think about whether you’ll be safe doing it. If you think
you will, give it a try. People will learn from your example.
Gender Differences in Social Interaction
Social and cultural norms can significantly influence both the expression of
gender identity, and the nature of the interactions between genders.
Differences between “gender cultures” influence the way that people of
different genders communicate. These differences begin at childhood. Maltz and
Broker’s research showed that the games children play contribute to socializing
children into masculine and feminine cultures. For example, girls playing house
promotes personal relationships, and playing house does not necessarily have
fixed rules or objectives. Boys, however, tend to play more competitive team
sports with different goals and strategies. These differences as children cause
women to operate from assumptions about communication, and use rules for
communication that differ significantly from those endorsed by most men.
Masculine and feminine cultures and individuals generally differ in how
they communicate with others. For example, feminine people tend to self-
disclose more often than masculine people, and in more intimate details.
Likewise, feminine people tend to communicate more affection, and with greater
intimacy and confidence than masculine people. Generally speaking, feminine
people communicate more and prioritize communication more than masculine
people.
Traditionally, masculine people and feminine people communicate with
people of their own gender in different ways. Masculine people form friendships
with other masculine people based on common interests, while feminine people
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build friendships with other feminine people based on mutual support. However,
both genders initiate opposite-gender friendships based on the same factors.
These factors include proximity, acceptance, effort, communication, common
interests, affection and novelty.
Context is very important when determining how we communicate with
others. It is important to understand what script it is appropriate to use in each
respective relationship. Specifically, understanding how affection is
communicated in a given context is extremely important. For example, masculine
people expect competition in their friendships.They avoid communicating
weakness and vulnerability. They avoid communicating personal and emotional
concerns. Masculine people tend to communicate affection by including their
friends in activities and exchanging favors. Masculine people tend to
communicate with each other shoulder-to-shoulder (e.g., watching sports on a
television).
In contrast, feminine people are more likely to communicate weakness
and vulnerability. In fact, they may seek out friendships more in these times. For
this reason, feminine people often feel closer to their friends than masculine
people do. Feminine people tend to value their friends for listening and
communicating non-critically, communicating support, communicating feelings of
enhanced self-esteem, communicating validation, offering comfort and
contributing to personal growth. Feminine people tend to communicate with each
other face-to-face (e.g., meeting together to talk over lunch).

Communication and Gender Cultures

A communication culture is a group of people with an existing set of norms
regarding how they communicate with each other. These cultures can be
categorized as masculine or feminine. Gender cultures are primarily created and
sustained by interaction with others. Through communication we learn about
what qualities and activities our culture prescribes to our sex. While it is
commonly believed that our sex is the root source of differences and how we
relate and communicate to others, it is actually gender that plays a larger role.
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Whole cultures can be broken down into masculine and feminine, each differing
in how they get along with others through different styles of communication. Julia
T. Wood’s studies explain that “communication produces and reproduces cultural
definitions of masculinity and femininity. ” Masculine and feminine cultures differ
dramatically in when, how, and why they use communication.
Communication Styles
Deborah Tannen’s studies found these gender differences in
communication styles (where men more generally refers to masculine people,
and women correspondingly refers to feminine people):
a. Men tend to talk more than women in public situations, but women tend to
talk more than men at home.
b. Women are more inclined to face each other and make eye contact when
talking, while men are more likely to look away from each other.
c. Men tend to jump from topic to topic, but women tend to talk at length
about one topic.
d. When listening, women make more noises such as “mm-hmm” and “uh-
huh”, while men are more likely to listen silently.
e. Women are inclined to express agreement and support, while men are
more inclined to debate.
Guide Question
How does gender affect the society?

Answer to Guide Questions

Gender roles in society means how we're expected to act, speak, dress,
groom, and conduct ourselves based upon our assigned sex. For example, girls
and women are generally expected to dress in typically feminine ways and be
polite, accommodating, and nurturing.
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References
Boundless. “The Social Construction of Gender.” Sociology – Cochise College
Boundless, 26 May. 2016. Retrieved 27 Feb. 2017 from
https://www.boundless.com/users/493555/textbooks/sociology-cochise-college/
gender-stratification-and-inequality-11/gender-and-socialization-86/the-social-
construction-of-gender-496-8675/
Gender Differences in Social Interaction. (n.d.). Retrieved from
https://courses.lumenlearning.com/cochise-sociology-os/chapter/gender-
differences-in-social-interaction/
Sociology of Gender. (n.d.). Retrieved from
https://othersociologist.com/sociology-of-gender/