ecology

- is the systematic study of the inter- relationships that exist between

organisms and their environment

Microbial ecology
- is the study of the numerous interrelationships between microorganisms
and the world around them; how microbes interact with other microbes,
how microbes interact with organisms other than microbes, and how
microbes inter- act with the nonliving world around them

human ecology
- you would study the interrelationships between humans and the world
around them—the nonliving world as well as the living world

Symbiosis or a symbiotic relationship

- is defined as the living together or close association of two dissimilar
organisms (usually two different species)

symbionts
- the organisms that live together in such a relationship

Three Categories of Symbiotic relationships:

1. mutualistic relationships: are beneficial to both symbionts
2. commensalistic relationships: are beneficial to only one symbiont
3. parasitic relationships: are harmful to one symbiont

neutralism
- is used to describe a symbiotic relationship in which neither symbiont is
affected by the relationship
- neutralism reflects a situation in which different microorganisms occupy
the same ecologic niche, but have absolutely no effect on each other

Commensalism
- A symbiotic relationship that is beneficial to one symbiont and of no
consequence (i.e., is neither beneficial nor harmful) to the other
- example: tiny mite called Demodex, which lives within hair follicles and
sebaceous glands, especially those of the eyelashes and eyebrows

host
- is defined as a living organism that harbors another living organism

Mutualism
 - is a symbiotic relationship that is beneficial to both symbionts (i.e., the
relationship is mutually beneficial)
- example: intestinal bacterium Escherichia coli, which obtains nutrients from
food materials ingested by the host and produces vitamins (such as
vitamin K) that are used by the host

Parasitism
- is a symbiotic relationship that is beneficial to one symbiont (the parasite)
and detrimental to the other symbiont (the host)
- "Smart" parasites do not cause disease, but rather take only the nutrients
they need to exist.
- The especially “dumb” parasites kill their hosts; then they must either find a
new host or die.

Trypanosoma gambiense—is the parasite that causes African sleeping sickness, a

human disease that often causes death of the host.

indigenous microflora or indigenous microbiota

- sometimes referred to as “normal flora” includes all of the microbes
(bacteria, fungi, protozoa, and viruses) that reside on and within that
person

Areas of the body where most of the indigenous microflora reside:

skin
mouth
ears
eyes
upper respiratory tract
gastrointestinal tract
genitourinary tract

transient microflora
- take up temporary residence on and within humans
- attracted to moist, warm body areas

These microbes are only temporary for many reasons:

they may be washed from external areas by bathing;
they may not be able to compete with the resident microflora;
they may fail to survive in the acidic or alkaline environment of the
site;
 they may be killed by substances produced by resident microflora;
or they may be flushed away by bodily excretions or secretions (such
as urine, feces, tears, and perspiration)

Such an overgrowth or population explosion of an organism that is usually

present in low numbers is referred to as a superinfection.

The most common bacteria on the skin are species of

1. Staphylococcus (especially S. epidermidis and other coagulase-negative
staphylococci-a)
2. Corynebacterium
3. Propionibacterium

The number and variety of microorganisms present on the skin depends on

many factors, such as the:
✔ Anatomical location
✔ Amount of moisture present
✔ pH
✔ Temperature
✔ Salinity
✔ Presence of chemical wastes such as urea and fatty acids
✔ Presence of other microbes, which may be producing toxic substances

healthy carriers—harbor virulent (disease-causing) pathogens in their nasal

passages or throats, but do not have the diseases associated with them, such as
diphtheria, meningitis, pneumonia, and whooping cough

The most common organisms in the indigenous microflora of the mouth are
various species of a-hemolytic streptococci.

The bacterium most often implicated in the formation of plaque is Streptococcus

mutans.

Helicobacter pylori—that lives in some people’s stomachs and is a common cause

of ulcers.

The colon contains the largest number and variety of microorganisms of any
colonized area of the body. It has been estimated that as many as 500 to 600
different species—primarily bacteria.
The most frequent causes of urethral infection (urethritis)—Chlamydia
trachomatis, Neisseria gonorrhoeae, and mycoplasmas—are easily introduced
into the urethra by sexual intercourse.

microbial antagonism
- means “microbes versus microbes” or “microbes against microbes.”
- Many of the microbes of our indigenous microflora serve a beneficial role
by preventing other microbes from becoming established in or colonizing a
particular anatomic location.

Some bacteria produce proteins called bacteriocins which kill other bacteria. An
example is colicin, a bacteriocin produced by E. coli.

microbes are often organized into what are known as biofilms—complex and
persistant communities of assorted microbes

The bacteria grow in tiny clusters—called microcolonies—that are separated by a

network of water channels.

Biofilms have been implicated in diseases such as

● endocarditis
● cystic fibrosis
● middle ear infections
● kidney stones
● periodontal disease
● prostate infections

It has been estimated that perhaps as many as 60% of human infections are due
to biofilms.

Sometimes, two (or more) microorganisms may “team up” to produce a disease
that neither could cause by itself. This is referred to as synergism or a synergistic
relationship. The diseases are referred to as synergistic infections, polymicrobial
infections, or mixed infections.

Certain oral bacteria can work together to cause a serious oral disease called
acute necrotizing ulcerative gingivitis (ANUG; also known as Vincent disease and
“trench mouth”)

Microbes are used in many aspects of biotechnology. Some examples are listed
here:
1. Production of therapeutic proteins.
2. Production of DNA vaccines.
3. Production of vitamins.
4. Use of microbial metabolites as antimicrobial agents and other types of
therapeutic agents.
5. Agricultural applications.
6. Food technology.
7. Production of chemicals.
8. Biomining.
9. Bioremediation.