REPUBLIC OF THE PHILIPPINES

SORSOGON STATE UNIVERSITY

COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING AND ARCHITECTURE
Bibincahan Baribag,Sorsogon City
MODERN MATERIALS

The electronic structure of a material refers to the arrangement and behavior

of electrons within that material. It is a crucial aspect that determines many of
the material's properties, including its electrical conductivity, optical
characteristics, and magnetic behavior. Understanding electronic structure is
essential in fields such as physics, chemistry, and materials science.

Key concepts related to electronic structure include:

1. Energy Bands:
- Valence Band: The energy band occupied by the valence electrons, which
are involved in bonding.
- Conduction Band: The energy band above the valence band where
electrons can move freely, contributing to electrical conductivity.

2. Band Gap:
- The energy gap between the valence and conduction bands. Materials can
be classified as insulators, semiconductors, or conductors based on the size of
this gap.

3. Fermi Level:
- The energy level at which the probability of finding an electron is 0.5. It
separates filled and unfilled electron states at absolute zero temperature.

4. Doping:
- The process of intentionally introducing impurities into a semiconductor to
alter its electrical properties.

Semiconductors: Silicon (Si)

- Electronic Structure:
- Silicon has four valence electrons.
- The crystal structure of silicon forms a tetrahedral lattice.
- At absolute zero, all electrons occupy the valence band.
- Silicon has a small band gap, making it a semiconductor.

- Doping:
- Adding a small amount of an impurity like phosphorus (P) introduces extra
electrons, creating an n-type semiconductor.
- Adding boron (B) creates a p-type semiconductor by creating "holes" where
electrons can move.
- Applications:
- Silicon is the basis for most modern electronic devices, including transistors
and integrated circuits.
- The ability to control the conductivity through doping is fundamental to
the functioning of these devices.

Understanding the electronic structure of materials is crucial for designing and

optimizing materials for specific applications, such as in electronics, photonics,
and energy storage. Researchers and engineers use this knowledge to develop
materials with tailored properties to meet the demands of various
technologies.

POLYMERS AND PLASTIC

A polymer is a substance or material consisting of very large molecules called

macromolecules, composed of many repeating subunits. Due to their broad
spectrum of properties, both synthetic and natural polymers play essential and
ubiquitous roles in everyday life.The study of polymers combines elements of
chemical and statistical thermodynamics to give thermodynamic and
mechanical descriptions of physical properties.These monomers are covalently
bonded to form a long chain or network.

Uses of Polymers:

Plastics: Many everyday items, such as bottles, containers, and packaging

materials, are made from polymers, particularly plastics. Common plastics
include polyethylene, polypropylene, polyvinyl chloride (PVC), and polystyrene.
Rubber: Natural rubber is a polymer derived from the latex sap of rubber
trees. Synthetic rubbers, such as neoprene and styrene-butadiene rubber, are
also polymers with applications in tires, hoses, and various industrial products.
Fibers: Polymers like nylon, polyester, and acrylic are used in the production
of synthetic fibers. These fibers are widely used in textiles for clothing, carpets,
and other fabric-based products.
Adhesives: Polymers play a crucial role in adhesives and glues. They provide
the bonding properties needed for various applications, from simple
household glues to industrial-strength adhesives.
Biopolymers: Polymers can also be found in biological systems, where they
serve essential functions. Examples include DNA, RNA, proteins, and
polysaccharides, which are critical components of living organisms.
Example: Polyethylene : Polyethylene is one of the most common types of
plastics. It is a versatile polymer with a wide range of applications. There are
two main types of polyethylene:

Low-Density Polyethylene : LDPE is flexible and commonly used in

packaging materials, plastic bags, and various containers.
High-Density Polyethylene : HDPE is more rigid and is often used in
applications such as bottles for milk and detergent, pipes, and plastic lumber.

Polyethylene is preferred for its durability, resistance to moisture, and

versatility, making it a key player in the plastics industry.

BIOMATERIALS

A biomaterial is a substance that has been engineered to interact with

biological systems for medical purposes. These materials are designed to be
compatible with living tissues and can be used in various medical applications
to replace or repair damaged biological structures. Biomaterials can be
synthetic or natural and are often used in the fields of medicine and biology.

Uses of Biomaterials

Medical Implants
- Biomaterials are frequently utilized in the production of medical implants
such as artificial joints, bone plates, and dental implants. These materials aim
to integrate seamlessly with the body and restore function to damaged or
diseased tissues.

Tissue Engineering
- Biomaterials play a crucial role in the field of tissue engineering, where
they are used to create scaffolds that support the growth and regeneration of
tissues. This is particularly important in the development of artificial organs
and tissues.

Drug Delivery Systems

- Biomaterials are employed in drug delivery systems to control the release
of medications within the body. This allows for targeted and sustained delivery
of therapeutic agents, improving treatment efficacy while minimizing side
effects.

Diagnostic Tools
- Some biomaterials are used in the development of diagnostic tools, such
as contrast agents for medical imaging. These materials enhance the visibility
of specific structures during procedures like magnetic resonance imaging (MRI)
or computed tomography (CT) scans.

Biocompatible Coatings
- Biomaterials are used to create biocompatible coatings for medical devices
and instruments. This helps reduce the risk of adverse reactions when these
devices come into contact with biological tissues.

Example of a Biomaterial

Hyaluronic Acid
- Hyaluronic acid is a natural biomaterial found in the human body,
particularly in connective tissues, skin, and the fluid surrounding the eyes. It is
used in various medical applications, including:
- Dermal Fillers:Hyaluronic acid is used in cosmetic procedures to reduce
wrinkles and add volume to the skin.
- Joint Injections:It is used to provide lubrication and reduce pain in
osteoarthritis patients.
- Wound Healing: Hyaluronic acid is sometimes used in wound dressings
to promote healing.
Hyaluronic acid exemplifies a biomaterial that is well-tolerated by the body,
demonstrating the diverse applications and importance of biomaterials in
medical advancements.

Liquid Crystals

Liquid crystals are a unique state of matter that exhibits properties of both
liquids and solids. In a liquid crystal, the molecules are ordered like in a solid,
but they have the mobility characteristic of liquids. This phase is sensitive to
changes in temperature, pressure, or electric fields, leading to different
arrangements of the molecules and corresponding changes in optical
properties.

Uses of Liquid Crystals

Display Technology
 - Liquid crystal displays (LCDs) are perhaps the most well-known application
of liquid crystals. In LCDs, the orientation of liquid crystal molecules is
controlled by electric fields to modulate the passage of light, enabling the
display of images in devices like TVs, computer monitors, and smartphones.

Temperature Sensing Devices

- Liquid crystals are used in thermometers and temperature-sensitive labels.
The change in the arrangement of liquid crystal molecules with temperature
results in a visible change in color, providing a simple and effective means of
temperature measurement.

Optical Devices
- Liquid crystals are employed in various optical devices, including variable
optical attenuators and tunable filters. By manipulating the orientation of
liquid crystal molecules, these devices can control the passage of light in
optical systems.

Biomedical Applications
- Liquid crystals have found applications in biomedical devices, such as
temperature-sensitive labels for monitoring body temperature. Additionally,
they are used in some types of diagnostic assays where the change in liquid
crystal alignment can indicate the presence of specific biomolecules.

Smart Windows
- Liquid crystal technology is explored for "smart windows" that can
dynamically control the transmission of sunlight and heat in buildings. By
applying an electric field, the transparency of the windows can be adjusted,
providing energy efficiency and comfort.

Example of Liquid Crystal

Twisted Nematic Liquid Crystal

- TN liquid crystals are commonly used in LCDs. In their natural state, the
molecules are twisted, allowing light to pass through. When an electric field is
applied, the molecules align, and the passage of light is blocked or allowed,
depending on the specific design of the display. This technology is widely
used in flat-panel displays due to its simplicity and fast response times.

Nanomaterials
Nanomaterials are substances characterized by having structures or features
with dimensions on the nanoscale. The term "nano" refers to one billionth of a
meter, and materials at this scale often exhibit unique and enhanced
properties compared to their bulk counterparts. Nanomaterials can be
engineered or naturally occurring, and they play a significant role in various
scientific and technological fields.

Uses of Nanomaterials

Electronics and Computing

- Nanomaterials are used in the development of smaller and more efficient
electronic components. Quantum dots, for example, can be employed in
displays and transistors for improved performance.

Medicine
- In medicine, nanomaterials are used for drug delivery, imaging, and
diagnostics. Nanoparticles can be designed to deliver medications directly to
target cells, enhancing treatment effectiveness while minimizing side effects.

Materials Science
- Nanomaterials contribute to the development of advanced materials with
improved strength, conductivity, and other properties. Carbon nanotubes and
graphene, for instance, have exceptional mechanical and electrical
characteristics.

Environmental Remediation
- Nanomaterials are explored for applications in environmental cleanup.
Nanoparticles can be designed to absorb pollutants, and nanocatalysts can
enhance the efficiency of chemical processes for water treatment and air
purification.

Energy
- Nanomaterials play a role in energy-related applications. For example,
nanomaterials are used in the development of more efficient solar cells,
batteries, and fuel cells.

Example of Nanomaterial

Silver Nanoparticles
 - Silver nanoparticles are nanomaterials with dimensions in the nanoscale
range. They exhibit unique antibacterial properties and are used in various
applications, such as:
- Antimicrobial Coatings Silver nanoparticles are incorporated into
coatings for surfaces, fabrics, and medical devices to inhibit the growth of
bacteria and other microorganisms.
- Wound Dressings In the medical field, silver nanoparticles are used in
wound dressings to prevent infections and promote healing.
- Water Purification Silver nanoparticles can be employed in water
treatment to disinfect water by eliminating bacteria and other pathogens.

CHEMICAL SAFETY :

Chemical safety in chemistry is essential to protect individuals, the

environment, and property from the potential hazards associated with the use,
handling, and storage of chemicals. Here are some examples of chemical
safety measures and practices:

1. Personal Protective Equipment (PPE)

- Examples: Safety goggles, lab coats, gloves, and closed-toe shoes.
- Purpose:To protect individuals from direct contact with chemicals, spills,
splashes, or airborne particles.

2. Chemical Storage:
- Examples: Properly labeled and segregated storage of chemicals based on
compatibility.
- Purpose: To prevent accidental mixing of incompatible substances, which
can lead to hazardous reactions.

3. Ventilation:
- Examples: Fume hoods, local exhaust systems.
- Purpose: To control and remove potentially harmful vapors, gases, or dust
from the work area.

4. Emergency Equipment:
- Examples: Eyewash stations, emergency showers, fire extinguishers.
- Purpose: To provide immediate response in case of chemical exposure,
spills, or fires.

5. Risk Assessment:
- Examples: Hazard assessments, safety data sheets (SDS).
 - Purpose:To identify and evaluate the potential risks associated with a
particular chemical, process, or activity.

6. Training and Education:

- Examples: Chemical hygiene training, emergency response drills.
- Purpose: To ensure that individuals working with chemicals are
knowledgeable about proper procedures, hazards, and emergency responses.

7. Waste Management:
- Examples:Proper disposal of chemical waste.
- Purpose: To prevent environmental contamination and ensure compliance
with regulations.

These examples illustrate the multifaceted approach to chemical safety in a

laboratory or industrial setting, where a combination of engineering controls,
administrative practices, and personal protective measures work together to
mitigate risks.

CHARACTERISTIC
Polymers are large molecules composed of repeating structural units called
monomers. They can be natural or synthetic, and one of the most common
types of synthetic polymers is plastic. Here are some key characteristics of
polymers and plastics:

Characteristics of Polymers:

1. High Molecular Weight:

- Polymers are characterized by their high molecular weight, as they consist
of long chains of repeating units (monomers). The molecular weight can vary
widely depending on the type of polymer.

2. Chain Structure:
- Polymers have a chain-like structure, where monomer units are repetitively
linked together. This chain structure gives them unique physical and chemical
properties.

3. Polymerization:
- The process of forming a polymer from monomers is called polymerization.
There are different methods of polymerization, including addition
polymerization and condensation polymerization.

4. Macromolecules:
 - Polymers are considered macromolecules, meaning they have large
molecular sizes compared to small molecules. This characteristic is responsible
for their unique properties.

5. Variety of Monomers:
- Polymers can be made from a wide variety of monomers. The specific
combination of monomers and the arrangement of the polymer chains
determine the properties of the resulting polymer.

Characteristics of Plastics (Synthetic Polymers):

1. Thermoplastic or Thermosetting:
- Plastics can be classified into thermoplastics, which can be melted and re-
molded multiple times without significant degradation, and thermosetting
plastics, which undergo irreversible chemical changes when heated and
molded.

2. Versatility:
- Plastics are versatile materials with a wide range of applications. They can
be rigid or flexible, transparent or opaque, and can mimic the properties of
natural materials like wood or metal.

3. Low Density:
- Most plastics have low density, making them lightweight. This
characteristic is advantageous in applications where weight is a critical factor.

4. Insulating Properties:
- Plastics generally have good electrical and thermal insulating properties.
This makes them suitable for use in electrical components and insulation
materials.

5. Chemical Resistance:
- Plastics are often resistant to chemicals, which contributes to their
durability and long lifespan in various applications.

6. Moldability:
- Plastics can be easily molded into complex shapes during manufacturing
processes such as injection molding, extrusion, and blow molding. This
property is crucial for their widespread use in different industries.

7. Recyclability:
 - Many efforts are made to improve the recyclability of plastics. However, it's
essential to note that not all plastics are easily recyclable, and this depends on
the specific type of polymer.

Understanding these characteristics is important for designing and selecting

polymers and plastics for specific applications based on their unique
properties.

Liquid crystals are a state of matter that exhibits properties of both liquids and
crystalline solids. They have unique characteristics that make them valuable in
various modern material applications. Here are some key characteristics of
liquid crystals:

1. Anisotropy:
- Liquid crystals exhibit anisotropic properties, meaning their physical
properties (such as electrical conductivity, refractive index, and mechanical
strength) can vary depending on the direction. This anisotropy is crucial for
certain applications, including display technologies.

2. Phase Transitions:
- Liquid crystals undergo phase transitions between different states (e.g.,
isotropic liquid, nematic, smectic) based on changes in temperature or
external factors. These transitions can be controlled and exploited for specific
applications.

3. Responsive to External Stimuli:

- Liquid crystals can respond to external stimuli, such as changes in
temperature, electric fields, or pressure. This responsiveness is utilized in
devices like liquid crystal displays (LCDs) where electrical signals control the
arrangement of liquid crystal molecules.

4. Optical Properties:
- Liquid crystals have unique optical properties, including the ability to
rotate the polarization of light. This property is harnessed in LCDs, where the
manipulation of light by liquid crystals is used to create images in displays.

5. Flexibility and Malleability:

- Liquid crystals are flexible and can be molded into various shapes, making
them suitable for applications in flexible display technologies and other
deformable electronic devices.

6. Low Viscosity:
 - Liquid crystals typically have lower viscosity than traditional liquids,
allowing them to flow and reorient under the influence of external fields. This
property is important for rapid response in display applications.

7. Tunable Properties:
- The properties of liquid crystals can be tuned by modifying their chemical
composition or by applying external stimuli. This tunability is advantageous
for customizing liquid crystal materials for specific applications.

8. Memory Effect:
- Liquid crystals can retain their orientation even after the removal of an
external stimulus, exhibiting a memory effect. This property is exploited in
non-volatile memory devices and optical storage applications.

9. Alignment:
- The alignment of liquid crystal molecules can be controlled, influencing
their optical and electrical properties. This controllable alignment is essential
for the operation of liquid crystal displays.

10. Light Modulation:

- Liquid crystals can modulate the transmission of light, enabling the
creation of dynamic and adjustable optical elements. This property is
exploited in various optical devices, including tunable lenses and light shutters.

11. High Dielectric Constant:

- Liquid crystals often have high dielectric constants, making them useful in
applications involving the storage and transmission of electrical charge.

12. Biomedical Applications:

- Liquid crystals have been explored for various biomedical applications,
including drug delivery systems, biosensors, and imaging technologies.

13. Energy Efficiency:

- Liquid crystal devices, such as LCDs, are known for their energy efficiency
compared to other display technologies, as they consume power only when
the display content changes.

Liquid crystals have found widespread use in technologies such as displays,

tunable lenses, and optical devices. Ongoing research continues to explore
new applications and improve the performance of liquid crystal materials in
modern materials science.
Nanomaterials exhibit unique characteristics and properties due to their
nanoscale dimensions, typically ranging from 1 to 100 nanometers. These
materials have gained significant attention in modern materials science and
various industries. Here are some key characteristics of nanomaterials:

1. Size-Dependent Properties:
- Nanomaterials often display size-dependent properties, meaning their
physical and chemical properties can significantly differ from those of bulk
materials. This is due to the increased surface area and quantum effects at the
nanoscale.

2. Large Surface Area:

- The high surface area-to-volume ratio of nanomaterials makes them
particularly reactive. This property is advantageous in catalysis, sensing, and
other applications where surface interactions are crucial.

3. Quantum Effects:
- At the nanoscale, quantum effects become more pronounced. This can
lead to unique optical, electronic, and magnetic properties that are not
observed in larger materials.

4. Enhanced Mechanical Properties:

- Nanomaterials can exhibit enhanced mechanical properties, such as
increased strength and hardness, which can be valuable for applications in
structural materials and coatings.

5. Optical Properties:
- Nanomaterials often have distinctive optical properties, including
enhanced absorption, fluorescence, and color changes. These properties are
utilized in various applications, such as sensors, imaging, and displays.

6. Electrical and Conductive Properties:

- Nanomaterials may exhibit improved electrical conductivity, making them
suitable for applications in electronics, conductive coatings, and energy
storage devices.

7. Thermal Properties:
- Nanomaterials can have unique thermal properties, including high thermal
conductivity. This is beneficial in applications such as thermal management,
heat dissipation, and thermoelectric devices.

8. Chemical Reactivity:
 - Nanomaterials often show increased chemical reactivity due to their high
surface area. This property is exploited in catalysis and sensing applications.

9. Biocompatibility:
- Some nanomaterials exhibit excellent biocompatibility, making them
suitable for use in medical applications, such as drug delivery, imaging, and
tissue engineering.

10. Self-Assembly and Nanostructuring:

- Nanomaterials can self-assemble into organized structures, leading to
novel nanostructures and nanocomposites with tailored properties. This self-
assembly is used in nanotechnology for creating functional materials.

11. Multi-Functionality:
- Nanomaterials can be engineered to possess multiple functionalities
simultaneously. For example, a nanoparticle may have magnetic, optical, and
drug-carrying capabilities, allowing for multifunctional applications.

12. Tunability:
- The properties of nanomaterials can often be tuned or modified by
controlling their size, shape, and composition, offering a high degree of
customization for specific applications.

Understanding and harnessing these unique characteristics of nanomaterials

have led to advancements in a wide range of fields, including electronics,
medicine, energy, and materials science. However, it's important to consider
and address the potential environmental and health implications associated
with the use of nanomaterials.

Biomaterials are substances that interact with biological systems for medical
purposes, such as for the repair, replacement, augmentation, or monitoring of
biological tissues. These materials are extensively used in modern medicine
and healthcare. Here are some key characteristics of biomaterials:

1. Biocompatibility:
- Biomaterials must be biocompatible, meaning they do not elicit an adverse
immune response when in contact with living tissues. This characteristic is
crucial to ensure the safety and effectiveness of medical implants and devices.

2. Biofunctionality:
- Biomaterials often possess specific biofunctionalities, such as promoting
cell adhesion, tissue integration, or controlled release of bioactive substances.
These functionalities are designed to enhance their performance in biological
environments.

3. Mechanical Properties:
- Biomaterials should have mechanical properties that match those of the
tissues they are intended to interact with. For example, materials used in bone
implants need to have strength and stiffness similar to natural bone.

4. Degradability:
- Some biomaterials are designed to degrade over time, either through
enzymatic processes or other mechanisms, to allow for tissue regeneration.
The degradation rate should be carefully controlled to match the healing and
remodeling of the surrounding tissues.

5. Surface Modifications:
- Surface properties of biomaterials can be modified to control interactions
with biological entities. This includes modifying surface chemistry, roughness,
and the addition of bioactive coatings to enhance specific functions.

6. Sterilizability:
- Biomaterials used in medical applications must be sterilizable to prevent
infections. The chosen sterilization method should not compromise the
material's structural and functional integrity.

7. Corrosion Resistance:
- For implants and devices intended for long-term use, biomaterials should
resist corrosion or degradation over time to maintain their mechanical and
functional properties.

8. Tailored Drug Delivery:

- Biomaterials are often used as carriers for controlled drug delivery. This
allows for the targeted release of therapeutic agents, such as drugs or growth
factors, to specific tissues or cells.

9. Radiopacity:
- Some biomaterials, especially those used in medical imaging or
implantation, may need to be radiopaque to facilitate visualization using
medical imaging techniques like X-rays.

10. Electrical Conductivity:

- Certain biomaterials, particularly those used in neural applications or for
electronic interfaces with tissues, may require specific electrical conductivity
properties.
 11. Integration with Host Tissues:
- Ideal biomaterials seamlessly integrate with host tissues, promoting tissue
ingrowth and minimizing the formation of scar tissue around implants.

12. Ease of Fabrication:

- Biomaterials should be amenable to manufacturing processes that allow
for the creation of complex shapes, structures, and surface modifications
required for specific applications.

13. Cost-Effectiveness:
- Cost considerations are important in the development and application of
biomaterials, especially in the context of medical devices and implants.

Biomaterials play a crucial role in medical advancements, including the

development of implants, prosthetics, drug delivery systems, and tissue
engineering. Researchers continually work to improve biomaterials' properties
to meet the diverse and evolving needs of modern healthcare.

REFERRENCE:
https://chem.libretexts.org/Ancillary_Materials/Demos_Techniques_and_Experi
ments/Chemical_Safety
https://ehs.stanford.edu/topic/hazardous-materials/nanomaterials#:
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ceramic
https://www.rspinc.com/blog/plastic-injection-molding/polymer-vs-plastic/
https://study.com/academy/lesson/what-is-a-biomaterial-definition-
examples.html
https://uh.edu/~chembi/liquidcrystals.pdf