Protecting A Client's Reputation: Image Repair Theory and Its Suitability To A Social Media-Generated Crisis

Protecting a Client’s Reputation: Image Repair Theory and Its Suitability to a
Social Media-Generated Crisis
Dissertation Manuscript
Submitted to Northcentral University
School of Business
in Partial Fulfillment of the
Requirements for the Degree of
DOCTOR OF BUSINESS ADMINISTRATION
by
JAMES BRYAN PARHAM
La Jolla, California
April 2021

Approval Page

By
JAMES BRYAN PARHAM
Approved by the Doctoral Committee:
DBA,MBA 05/21/2021 | 18:02:57 MST
Paul Markham
Dissertation Chair: INSERT NAME Degree Held Date
Ph.D., MBA 05/24/2021 | 17:57:50 MST
Committee Member: Samer

INSERTSarofim
NAME Degree Held Date
05/22/2021 | 04:43:45 MST

Ph.D., ASCE
INSERT
Committee Member: Sharon NAME Degree Held
Kimmel Date
2
Abstract
The impact of social media upon traditional public relations activities has greatly changed the
profession. The problem addressed by this qualitative study is if Benoit’s image repair theory
(IRT) is still applicable and appropriate when dealing with a social media-generated crisis. The
study explored if age, gender, and experience impact a practitioner’s strategic and tactical
response to a social media-generated crisis, and if IRT remains applicable as a theoretical
framework during a social media-generated crisis? The target audience was working public
relations practitioners and current members of the Public Relations Society of America in
Indiana. Research questions included: How do public relations professionals use traditional
public relations strategies such as IRT, what are traditional crisis communication strategies
employed by practitioners dealing with a social media-generated crisis, how are crisis managers
choosing response channels and does age, gender, or experience levels influence the manner and
methodologies chosen by practitioners? Through detailed executive interviews of 31 pre-
qualified individuals, thematic analysis of the data resulted in several core themes addressing the
five research questions.
Public relations practitioners may find value in the study that found Benoit's theoretical
framework still applicable in today's social media environment as participants identified and
used most of Benoit’s response categories. However, many of the strategies employed in image
repair in an online, digital setting did not suggest denial and apology as preferred crisis response
pathways. This study found critical implications to the practice. First, response accuracy and
speed are critical factors. Second, study respondents did not prefer responses to negative social
media posts, instead preferring making no response or taking the conversations offline. This
3
study suggests further research is needed with a more in-depth examination of how strategies are
developed and deployed in a social media crisis. Additionally, it could also be advantageous to
test messaging types that apply to Benoit's IRT response analyses (denial to mortification) with
specific publics.
4
Acknowledgements
As I complete this academic pursuit, I acknowledge with heartfelt gratitude those who
helped me throughout. While countless people supported my efforts, I want to thank especially
my parents, who were instrumental in my entire education. Born poor and without much formal
education, my folks had great foresight and pushed my siblings and me to understand the value
education would provide throughout life. Insisting my older sister and brother go to college in
the 1960s was unusual for a factory worker family, and few kids on my block had the chance for
further schooling. My parents supported my early start in college at the age of 16. I have
attended college since then, and now I finish my terminal degree at age 64. Thanks to my mom
and dad, who now are at home together in heaven. I hope they see the impact they made on my
life in so many good ways.
Thanks also to my kids, Isabel and Eleanor. Isabel is now finishing her undergraduate
degree in the school where her mom and I graduated.
I must thank, too, those who have endured this pathway with me for the past four years at
my workplace, Hirons. Particular thanks to the company's founder, Tom Hirons, when he retired
asked me to assume the CEO job at the company. Ann Kneifel and Deana Haworth have been
unfaltering in their support of my efforts; I could not have completed this degree and dissertation
without them.
My mentors were a tremendous help in my journey. Jim Ridenour was my boss for
almost 15 years in Indiana and Washington DC, and gave me the opportunity to both work in the
George H. W. Bush administration and complete my Masters in Public Affairs at American

5
University. Thanks also to my classmate, Jeff Neely, in the Key Executive program at American.
Our daily runs made work and school go so much easier.
Paul Markham, chairman of my dissertation committee, was a very patient and
understanding man. He gave excellent advice, and pushed me to understand fully the theoretical
underpinnings of my research and how academics view the written word. His insight was crucial
to my success.
I want to thank those outstanding supporters who read, edited, and proofed my study,
Theresa Browning, Valory Myers, and Sandra Cline. I was blessed to have such talented people
keep me on the right path. Their expertise and perseverance were critical, giving me the boost
across the finish line.
I cannot fail to acknowledge the 31 public relations practitioners who gave me their
candid, professional, and meaningful guidance in the research interviews. I was impressed by
how much these individuals wanted to help the profession.
Finally, let me thank America. As I wrote my dissertation, we were rocked by the
COVID pandemic and social strife we've not encountered in decades or even hundreds of years.
America is the land of opportunity, and this keyboard-playing kid from southern Indiana is a
testament to the power of education. While 2020 may be considered a year we wish to forget, I
will remember it well because of these wonderful people who helped me on this journey.
6
Table of Contents
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8
List of Tables
Table 1: Key Assumptions 84
Table 2: Breakdown of Participants' Demographics 93
Table 3: Breakdown of Findings in Response to RQ1 95
Table 4: Breakdown of Findings in Response to RQ2 104
Table 5: Breakdown of Results Addressing RQ4 115
Table 6: Breakdown of Results Addressing RQ5 127

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List of Figures
Figure 1: Traditional Public Relations Strategies 97
Figure 2: Non-Traditional Public Relations Efforts 100
Figure 3: Traditional Communications Tactics 106
Figure 4: Modified Traditional Communications Tactics 108
Figure 5: Social Media Channel Use 110
Figure 6: Benoit's Continuum 116
Figure 7: Other Image Repair Approaches 120

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Chapter 1: Introduction
The public relations profession experienced transformational change due to the varying
communication landscape and the exponential rise in the adoption and use of social media (Luo,
Jiang, & Kulemeka, 2015). The practice of public relations has significantly evolved since the
advent of the profession. Practitioners have appeared across all types of organizations, from
nonprofit and government to for-profit companies and public relations agencies (Waters, Tindall,
& Morton, 2010). The public relations field and the enormous impact of social media upon
traditional public relations functions have greatly changed the profession (Luo et al.,
2015). Public relations practitioners seek new ways to handle the constant barrage of social
media-generated crises, stemming from all forms of communication and evolving and emerging
digital platforms. As social media continues to evolve, the consequences of ineffective crisis
communication management on crisis communication increasingly presents the opportunity to
severely damage a company’s reputation (Jahng & Hong, 2017).
Historically, public relations practitioners used strategies and tactics geared toward the
world of print, broadcast, and word-of-mouth. The digital realm changed the landscape of public
relations with a barrage of social media posts rapidly occurring (Arokiasamy, Kwaider, &
Balaraman, 2019). A fast-evolving communication medium, social media challenged traditional
public relations approaches. Public relations activities, with targeted communication were
designed to create and maintain credible relationships between an organization and its
stakeholders (Etter, Ravasi, & Colleoni, 2019). It is a “management function, which evaluates
11
public attitudes, identifies the policies and procedures of an individual or an organization with
the public interest, and executes a program of action to earn public understanding and
acceptance” (Cutlip & Center, 1958, p. 5).
Crises are threats to an organization’s image and, based upon the characteristics of the
crisis, communication strategies such as social media, may follow a specific pathway (Coombs,
1998; Etter et al., 2019). How well an organization responds to an emerging crisis depends, in
part, upon the speed of response (Vignal, Lambret & Barki, 2018). Social media, an
encompassing term with new media forms that frequently evolve, are a collection of digital,
internet-based programs and applications that allow the creation and use of user-generated
content (Husain et al., 2014; Zha, Yang, Yan, Liu, & Huang, 2018). Unlike public relations
efforts of the past, the social media environment provides an unexpected and often global
audience.
Social media revolutionized many facets of communication. In comparison to traditional
methods, social media greatly altered the way in which public relations communication occurs
with various publics (Allagui & Breslow, 2016). Social media’s immediate communication
technologies enabled users to connect and facilitate public exchange of experiences, opinions,
and views. Social media were a pervasive and instantaneous phenomenon, and changed how
stakeholders evaluate the quality, competence, or character of organizations (Etter et al., 2019).
As a result, public relations practitioners involved in crisis communication turned more to
web-based responses to external reputation management threats arising from all forms of digital
communication (Ki & Nekmat, 2014). In addition, there was a belief that both public relations
and social media fostered interaction among specific target audiences in new and effective ways
12
(Baruh, 2015). Much new research focused on the effectiveness of social media during a crisis
from both a positive and negative perspective, rather than the impact of social media-generated
crises on management and leadership (Hale, 1997; Lachlan, Spence, Lin, Najarian, & Del Greco,
2016).
Further research is needed to understand the perceptions of a cross-section of public
relations practitioners when examining social media-generated crises, and much of the existing
research left out public relations senior management (Luo et al., 2015). According to Etter et al.
(2019), when it comes to understanding and managing a social media-generated crisis, practice
may be far ahead of academia, perhaps in part due to practitioners dealing with the onslaught of
new technologies and modes of communication. However, few studies have examined how
public relations practitioners use social media and implement discrete strategies for social media-
generated crises (Etter et al., 2019).
Ineffective crisis management has included late responses and insensitive or tone-deaf
reactions that could damage a corporate reputation (Arokiasamy et al., 2019). Hosseinali-Mirza,
de Marcellis-Warin, & Warin (2015) confirmed this, stating that poorly timed or inappropriately
toned communication may exacerbate or accelerate a social media crisis. Jahng and Hong (2017)
further supported these observations commenting that ineffective or poor crisis responses could
further damage reputation. Additionally, the influence of social media upon public relations
leadership had not been fully illuminated in previous literature (Jahng & Hong, 2017; Luo et al.,
2015). According to Vignal Lambret and Barki’s (2018) research in this burgeoning area of
social media-generated crises, the link between social media and corporate crises is a topic that is
gaining interest among researchers.

13
There is a need for further research assessing the best practices when public relations
practitioners confront a social media-generated crisis (Jahng & Hong, 2017). Furthermore,
research on the adoption and skills required in a social media context shows mixed results
leading to a need for further research (Jahng & Hong, 2017). This gap in knowledge among
public relations practitioners may manifest itself in a variety of strategies and tactics less suited
to crisis response.
Specifically, are public relations professionals using effective and proven management
decision-making to drive response strategies when a social media-generated crisis occurs?
Further research is needed to examine the content of social media messaging, but it might be
fruitful to “explore the duration of social media crisis consequences and the strategies for post-
crisis communication purposes” (Hosseinali-Mirza et al., 2015, p. 17). It will be advantageous to
determine the communication “channels companies employ to deliver post-crisis messages to
crisis audiences to address the reputation damage” (Hosseinali-Mirza et al., 2015, p. 17). A lack
of research-based practices limits the ability to take advantage of the benefits and avoidance of
the associated risks for individuals and organizations. Social media response needs a broad
theoretical understanding that should direct future scholarly attention (McFarland & Ployhart,
2015). McFarland and Ployhart (2015) stated the following in their study:
However, we argue that social media are not simply a technology but represent a
context that differs in important ways from traditional (e.g., face-to-face) and other
digital (e.g., email) ways of interacting and communicating. As a result, social media is a
relatively unexamined type of context that may affect the cognition, affect, and behavior
of individuals within organizations. (p. 1653)

14
Social media could create or exacerbate a crisis and public relations practitioners’
management of quickly evolving digital crises is challenged (Hudson, Huang, Roth, & Madden,
2016). The public’s expectation of instant feedback through social media creates concerns for
crisis communication that differ significantly from the planned and articulated one-way
communication in traditional media settings (Arokiasamy et al., 2019).
The highly controversial and publicized United Airlines ejection of a passenger, caught
on cell phones and viewed by millions of people in all forms of media channels, showed how
social media with its new information and communication technologies, and its ease of use and
pervasiveness, are changing how evaluations of the quality, competence, or character of
organizations are produced, disseminated, and acquired by the public (Etter et al., 2019).
How social media can facilitate two-way communication in a crisis situation has been the
subject of considerable research. While inquiry about social media and crisis management is
growing, much of the work involves the use of new media in natural disaster settings such as
hurricanes, floods, and terrorism (Graham, Avery, & Park, 2015). There might be specific
methodologies to employ during a crisis that maximize the effectiveness of social media in a
fast-moving, high-risk situation as compared to social media in a non-crisis situation (Ki &
Nekmat, 2014).
Statement of the Problem
The problem to be addressed by this study is if Benoit’s (1995) image repair theory is still
applicable and appropriate when dealing with a client’s social media-generated crises. While
some authors of popularized articles and research journals suggest preferred public
15
relations/social media practices, there is little evidence to support proposed tactical responses to
social media-generated content, activity, or crisis (Jelen-Sanchez, 2017).
Further research is needed delving into the management and handling of social media
generated crises centered on ineffective approaches and poor management. From an academic
perspective, Wang (2015) suggested that further research should be pursued to close the gap on
crisis communication because of needed development in theoretical and methodological efforts.
Hence, there is a lack of research assisting public relations practitioners to offer guidance and
solutions in crisis situations.
Purpose of the Study
The purpose of this qualitative study is to examine if image repair theory as described by
Benoit (1995) is effective for managing clients’ social media-generated crises in 2020 in the
United States. The study will explore if age, gender, or experience impact a practitioner’s tactical
and strategic response to a social media-generated crisis. Public relations practitioners need to
properly understand and attempt to manage the on-going barrage of negative stories and
unsubstantiated claims arising from social media (Jiang, Luo, & Kulemeka, 2016). Public
relations practitioners are challenged by the onslaught of social media activity since much of the
web-based content is unverified, pervasive, and instantaneous to a worldwide audience. By
further understanding how public relations practitioners respond to a social media-generated
crisis on behalf of clients, there is an opportunity to explore best practices and offer practitioners
suggested pathways and channels to better handle a crisis situation.
Public relations professionals are struggling to understand and respond to the avalanche
of damaging content and unverified sources (Schwarz, 2012). Is a public relations professional’s
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age related to efficacy in handling social media-generated crises? For example, would an older
public relations professional who had more traditional experience in crisis management and less
experience with social media-generated crises, be as positive, comfortable, and aggressive in
social media responses as a younger practitioner? This paper proposes a qualitative approach to
better understand the viewpoints of professionals. Specifically, do age, gender, and experience
matter when confronting social media-generated crises. This study will assess and interpret the
practitioner’s attitudinal and tactical approaches when crises developed, as well as their approach
and deployment of social media proactive and reactive responses.
Theoretical Framework
This study will explore if image repair theory (IRT) is still applicable as a theoretical
framework in a social media-generated crises. Benoit’s (1995) original IRT work involved a
continuum of responses based upon the five image repair strategies. Image repair theory assisted
reputation management among public relations practitioners for reputation repair (Coombs,
2016).
Numerous theories exist on handling communication during a crisis. However, many
approaches depend on traditional response strategies (Jahng & Hong, 2017). Image repair theory
is an appropriate vehicle to apply in the fast-moving environment of social media and crisis
response strategies (Lopez, 2017).
Image repair theory was a major advancement in the study of crisis communication and
its relationship to image repair (Lopez, 2017). It remains one of the dominant theoretical
perspectives for studying crisis communication. While IRT strongly relies on the use of
apologies, the evolution of image repair theory suggests differing response scenarios produce
17
differing results. Image repair theory studied response strategies and included admitting guilt,
denying if innocent, shifting blame, proving lack of control, reporting corrective action, and
minimizing the issue (Coombs, 2016). Image repair theory is a term describing what repair
strategies work in a particular case. This applicable framework emphasized what the individual
or organization said and did in the crisis. Hence, this theoretical framework allows for
practitioners’ subjective responses and focuses on how public relations practitioners respond to
social media-generated crises (Coombs, 2016).
The heart of image repair theory is that some threat to an individual or organization may
damage image or reputation (Lopez, 2017). It is important to point out that image repair theory
was developed as a general theory for responding to reputation-damaging events that could be
applied to individuals and organizations. It was not designed specifically for use in
organizational crises (Coombs, 2016). However, it was a major advancement in crisis
communication and its relationship to reputation repair (Coombs, 2016). Five image repair
strategies discussed by Coombs (2016), but developed by Benoit, were denial, evasion of
responsibility, reduction of offensiveness, corrective action, and mortification (admission of
guilt).
Other theories were examined, such as Grunig and Grunig’s (1998) excellence theory but
were not further considered due to the exactness and applicability of IRT. While IRT strongly
relied on the use of apologies, the evolution of image repair theory suggested differing responses
would produce differing results. A categorization of response possibilities could be used to
explore practitioner reactions and what particular response strategies were used during a social
18
media-generated crisis. The examination explored public relations professionals’ attitudes and
response strategies in times of crisis.
Nature of the Study
It is expected that a qualitative analysis would work in this research setting and provide
important trends and summaries to assist researchers in exploring strategic and tactical
approaches to handling social media crises (Luo et al., 2015). Upon embarking on a set of
predetermined open-ended questions for qualitative interviews or focus groups, it could become
readily apparent that some questions or focus areas are not relevant, or the interviewee has
difficulty understanding the question at hand (or even the whole line of questioning). In addition,
it might be quite possible that the interviews uncover a whole set of questions or concerns not
previously identified in the initial research design development (Rosaline, 2008).
Conducting 30 executive interviews of stratified interviewees in a qualitative effort might
set the stage for potential and further quantitative research, as sample sizes in the qualitative
work are not comprehensive in nature (Agee & Gimbel, 2009). Rather, the collection and
resulting analysis of qualitative data aimed to identify new context-specific strategies for action
within a case study design.
Subject Selection and Qualifications
The target audience is
1. People who are working public relations practitioners.
2. Current members of the Public Relations Society of America in Indiana.
3. United States-based professionals.

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4. People who work in either the private or nonprofit sector—not within government or
academia full time.
5. Gender-neutral.
6. Hold a minimum of a B.S. or B.A.
7. People who may hold a managerial position.
8. Have been involved in at least one social media-generated crisis in the past two to
four years to be relevant and current in social media.
9. People whom are not students, part-time practitioners, or government public affairs
personnel.
10. People who are Young Adult (18-29 years), Thirties (30-39 years), Mid-Life (40-64
years), Aged (65+ years), as outlined in Mid-life in the United States Survey are all
included (Drewelies, Agrigoroaei, Lachman, & Gerstorf, 2018).
Research Questions
The problem to be addressed by this study is if Benoit’s image repair theory was still
applicable and appropriate when dealing with a client’s social media-generated crises. The
purpose of this qualitative study is to examine if image repair theory, as described by Benoit
(1995), is effective for managing clients’ social media-generated crises in 2020 in the United
States.
RQ1. How do public relations professionals use traditional public relations
strategies, such as IRT, in the fast-paced and unpredictable social media setting when it
involves crises?
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RQ2. What traditional crisis communication strategies are employed by
practitioners when dealing with a social media-generated crisis?
RQ3. How are crisis managers choosing response channels (Facebook over
Twitter, for example) when handling a crisis created by social media?
RQ4. How applicable are Benoit’s continuum of response strategies from denial
to mortification in today’s social media crises environment?
RQ5. How do age, gender, or experience levels influence the manner and
methodologies chosen by public relations practitioners when confronting a social media-
generated crisis?
Significance of the Study
The significance of the study and its contribution to the public relations profession are
multi-faceted. The study will contribute timely and needed research to the current body of
research that mostly has centered on tactical response strategies viewed through a lens of
traditional public relations response strategies. Public relations practitioners need additional
guidance and insight into how social media-generated crises can be effectively managed. For
example, a social media marketing campaign is only successful if it has the right messages,
messengers, and a suitable environment (Pang, Begam Binte Abul Hassan, & Chee Yang Chong,
2014).
The transformational nature of social media has the potential to revolutionize
organizational behavior in corporate and nonprofit arenas (McFarland & Ployhart, 2015). Social
media challenges public relations practitioners and moves away from traditional public relations
responses found in print and broadcast. Additionally, Web 2.0 and the Internet, in general, has
21
accelerated the pace and scope of crises, but also gives rise to the ability to instantaneously
respond to crises that appear on social media sites (Arokiasamy et al., 2019).
The opportunity to examine how public relations practitioners are coping with the
meteoric rise in social media and social media-generated crises is being studied by scholars, but
the level of academic examination is in its infancy (Jahng & Hong, 2017). There is an
expectation from stakeholders that public relations will respond to a crisis through social media.
Practitioners are grappling with how to manage online crises as the sources emanating from
social media are numerous, and many times unplanned and instantaneous to a worldwide
audience. Just how social media responses from public relations professionals’ work in times of
crises is lesser known. Social media has become a phenomenon that organizations cannot ignore
because consumers expect timely and accurate information and much of this instantaneous
response comes from social media-generated content.
As an exploratory effort, this study relies upon the IRT as its guiding framework. This
framework is an appropriate choice as the foundation of the study as it explores how reputation
management responses can be organized into “typical” crisis response strategies (including tone
and tenor of responses). Several crises in current society are caused by social media (Pang et al.,
2014).
The heart of image repair theory suggests that a threat to an individual or organization
may damage image or reputation. It is important to point out that image repair theory was
developed as a general theory for responding to reputation-damaging events that could be
applied to individuals and organizations. This study will look at how public relations
practitioners’ response during a social media-generated crisis fit into categories developed by
22
Benoit and further advanced in literature by Coombs at a time when social media has progressed
at light-speed, but communication theory has not (Cheng, 2018).
Benefits from addressing the study problem include advancing knowledge in how crisis
communicators effectively or ineffectively respond to social media crises. Secondly, the study
will add to the body of knowledge of current strategies and tactics that public relations
professionals use on a day-to-day basis. Lastly, the study aims to provide researchers a better
understanding of how age, gender, and experience may contribute to differing responses among
professionals (Pang et al., 2014).
Definition of Key Terms
Cohort Study. A cohort study samples a group of people who share common
characteristics such as age, gender, or professional memberships
Consumer Engagement. Consumer engagement is a psychological state that occurs by
virtue of interactive, co-creative customer experiences with a focal agent/object in focal service
relationships (Brodie, Hollebeek, Juric, & Ilic, 2011, p. 258).
Crisis. A crisis is a significant threat to a company, organization, government, or
individual that can have negative consequences over differing periods of time (Bundy, Pfarrer,
Short, & Coombs, 2017). Crisis has several defining characteristics. Seeger, Sellnow, and Ulmer
(1998) say that crises have four defining characteristics that are "specific, unexpected, and non-
routine events or series of events that [create] high levels of uncertainty and threat or perceived
threat to an organization's high priority goals."
Media Convergence. Media convergence is the merging of information sources and
technologies that had previously been distinct entities. Traditional media distribution methods for
23
advertising and content have moved to more digital-friendly and multimedia content (Dwyer,
2010).
Public Relations. Public relations refers to targeted communication designed to create
and maintain credible relationships between an organization and its stakeholders (Etter et al.,
2019). Public relations is a “management function which evaluates public attitudes, identifies the
policies and procedures of an individual or an organization with the public interest, and executes
a program of action to earn public understanding and acceptance” (Cutlip & Center, 1958, p. 5).
Reputation Management. Corporate reputation management is a collective
representation of a firm's past actions that describes the firm's ability to deliver ethical and
valued outcomes to multiple stakeholders (Fombrun & Van Riel, 1997). A positive reputation
provides a strategic advantage to an organization and enables it to portray itself favorably to
stakeholders (Tucker & Melewar, 2005).
Social Media. Social media are a collection of digital, internet-based programs and
applications that allows the creation and use of user-generated content (Zha et al., 2018). The
growth of social media in worldwide communication has been rapid and profound, and these
technological advancements are transforming how crisis management is handled (Veil, Buehner,
& Palenchar, 2011).
Summary
Public relations activities and crisis communications are challenged by the emergence of
social media (Freberg, 2012). This challenge of social media-generated crises also presents
interesting challenges to the public relations’ practitioner (Baruh, 2015). There is a need to
explore how public relations practitioners are handling public relations crises that come from
24
digital, online sources, and whether or not there is adequate training, preparation, and experience
to handle this quickly growing phenomena (Navarro, Moreno, & Al-Sumait, 2017; Pang et al.,
2014).
The purpose of this qualitative study is to examine if Benoit’s IRT still holds applicability
when managing social media-generated crises for clients. From a research perspective, it is
beneficial to explore the practitioner’s viewpoint and determine if age, gender, or experience
relate to a practitioner’s tactical and strategic response to a social media-generated crisis.
Additionally, the study will explore how public relations practitioners understand and manage
the deluge of negative stories and anonymous and bogus claims arising from social media (Jiang
et al., 2016).
Significant research exists on the topics of crisis management and effective public
relations tactics in the traditional media environment. However, there are fewer studies and non-
academic literature on the subject of social media-generated crises and how public relations
practitioners are dealing with this. In chapter two, the literature review will examine traditional
media definition approaches, social media’s evolution, as well as how practitioners ware dealing
with the onslaught of social media challenges.

25
Chapter 2: The Literature Review
Cultural theorist Marshall McLuhan envisioned the digital age and the pervasiveness of
messages through electronic means. In the early 1960s, McLuhan developed a landmark work in
communication theory, suggesting that media are extensions of human faculties. McLuhan's
book, Understanding Media (1964), correctly anticipated the impact of a cultural change with
the advent of electronic media. Understanding Media explained the revolutionary cultural
changes ushered in by various media (with the meteoric rise of radio and television) during the
1960s. The ultimate aspiration proposed in Understanding Media was a condition of a
harmonious, collective, cosmic consciousness brought about by the recognition of electronic
media as the extension of all the senses at once (Hoffmann & Hoffman, 2011). Was McLuhan’s
treatise, that electronic media has transformed the communication landscape, true in 2020? A
communicator may turn to the Internet as demonstrating that McLuhan’s central idea that
electronic media will dramatically impact society was a reality.
As decades have passed and evolved, so too have communication theories, practices, and
technology. Of interest was how the public relations practice had evolved from the mid-1940s to
the present time. Along the journey, there was notable and seminal research into the theories
behind the practice. In today’s environment, it could be claimed that the public relations field has
been transformed with the advent of pervasive digital modes of communication and particularly,
the Internet, hence, social media (Kaplan & Haenlein, 2010).
According to Grunig and Grunig (1998), a public relations practice must be organized to
identify strategic internal and external audiences as part of the management process. This manner
was a way to build quality long-term relationships through symmetrical communication

26
programs. Public relations scholars had paid a great deal of attention to the excellence of the
overall public relations function, and they now were beginning to apply this theoretical edifice to
specialized areas of public relations. The excellence study identifies the eight most common
categories of stakeholders for which organizations developed specialized programs: employees,
media, investors, community, customers, government, members of associations, and donors
(Grunig & Grunig, 1998).
Just how well equipped were public relations managers to handle the onslaught of light-
speed crises in a digital environment was the subject of much research in the academic
community. How did traditional crisis response theories work in the digital age? Benoit’s image
repair theory (IRT) had been used by practitioners and academic researchers to explore the
response to crises, and the theory showed a continuum of response strategies. This response
approach may, or may not be, appropriate for public relations practitioners to manage a client’s
reputation in today's digital world (Benoit, 1997).
There was a notable gap in the research on responses to crises in the digital age (Coombs,
2016). With so many outlets in the social media and online space, a damaging crisis may arise
anytime from any source. The purpose of this research was to examine how public relations
managers responded to a social media-generated crisis in today's environment. Social media are
defined as interactive computer-mediated technologies that facilitate the creation or sharing of
information, ideas, career interests, and other forms of expression via virtual communities and
networks (Coombs, 2016).
Databases, such as ERIC, EBSCOhost, ProQuest, Sage, Roadrunner, and Google Scholar,
were used to write the literature review. The following keywords or phrases aided the search:
27
crisis communication, crisis management, crisis and leadership, crisis, image repair theory, social
media, social media crisis or crises, public relations, public relations practitioner, public relations
theories, public relations crisis management, internal crisis management, external crisis
management, end users in social media, and business communication theories.
Image Repair Theory as a Theoretical Framework for Social Media-Generated Crises
This study will test if Benoit’s (1995) traditional image repair theory is still an
appropriate theoretical framework to handle a client’s social media-generated crises.
Specifically, Benoit’s work in studying crisis response from a communications perspective has
been critically important in the public relations profession, who are responsible for protecting a
client’s reputation in a crisis. Benoit’s seminal study involved a continuum of possible response
strategies in times of crisis. Does Benoit’s highly regarded and implemented theory on crisis
communication hold validity and effectiveness in today’s social media environment? Today,
social media are quickly changing the landscape. Such tenets as speed and efficiency are
important in public relations, but now may be even more important in the light-speed digital age
As public relations practitioners deploy strategies and tactics to thwart, detour, or quell a
crisis created in the digital world, does Benoit’s continuum of responses, from denial to
mortification, apply in a social media-generated crisis? According to Smudde and Courtright
(2008), scholarship about image repair efforts tends to be retrospective. Furthermore,
retrospective scholarship looks back on past activities that have affected relationships with
publics from a corporate, non-governmental organization, or governmental perspective. The
authors suggested that IRT had its beginnings in publication with Benoit and Lindsey's (1987)
analysis of the famous Tylenol tampering scare and received further nurturing in Benoit's
28
substantial research agenda in political communication, particularly his functional approach to
presidential election discourse (Smudde & Courtright, 2008).
Image repair theory (IRT) has grown substantially from its beginning with the developer
of the concept William Benoit (1995a, 1995b; Benoit & Brinson, 1996; Benoit & Hanczor,
1994). Benoit’s early theory was developed with a variety of co-authors (e.g., Benoit &
McHale, 1999); Benoit & Nill, 1998a, 1998b; Blaney & Benoit, 2001), and IRT was often used
by other scholars beyond its original family (Anderson, 2000; Coombs & Schmidt, 2000;
Cowden & Sellnow, 2002; Thomsen & Rawson, 2000). Communication scholars and public
relations practitioners integrated Benoit’s material with their own approach to crisis
communication (Alvarez, 2000; Coombs, 2004; Ihlen, 2002; Jerome, Moffitt & Knudsen,
2007). Critiques of IRT also had been shared (Blaney & Benoit, 2001).
Until the appearance of image restoration theory (IRT), the study of rhetoric generally
had confined the analysis of apologia to Ware and Linkugel’s (1973) four factors and their four
combinations of paired strategies (Smudde & Courtright, 2008). Critics up to that time had
outlined the nature of the charges against the apologist in essays, but it was not until the early
1980s that Ryan (1982) made the point that kategoriae and their subsequent apologiae should be
analyzed as a speech set. Still, with few exceptions (Dionosopoulos & Vibbert, 1988), such
studies tended to focus on the speech set as a single interact—one kategoria followed by a single
speech that constituted the apologia (Smudde & Courtright, 2008).
IRT may provide further usefulness by applying the following components to image
repair efforts (opportunity analysis, audiences, key messages, objectives, strategies, tactics,
critical success factors, leading indicators, timing, budget, and evaluation). Practitioners can
29
develop plans and actions they could employ on short-term or long-term bases (Smudde &
Courtright, 2008).
Organizational crisis can be defined as "a specific, unexpected, and non-routine event or
series of events that create high levels of uncertainty and threaten or are perceived to threaten an
organization's high-priority goals" (Seeger et al., 1998, p. 194). Crises are occurrences that
damage the reputation of and threaten the positive face of an organization (Coombs & Schmidt,
2000). Crisis communication research had been traditionally grounded in studies identifying
effective ways for organizations to manage a crisis and the effect those strategies had on their
external publics, emphasizing image preservation, damage control, or image repair after a
significant occurrence.
The origin of Benoit’s methodology rested in the type of response offered in a crisis.
Previously, McLuhan's Understanding Media (1964), suggested, "The medium is the message,"
and did this observation from the advent of radio and television, possess merit in the digital
world. Given that the medium may be social media, it was imperative to examine if traditional
response strategies and outcomes work effectively in this channel.
Additionally, Coombs (2016) explored the crisis communication environment extensively
in work that recognized Benoit’s model and involved crisis communication strategies and
possible advantages and disadvantages of specific approaches to a social media crisis. While
sufficient research had examined how managers respond to a crisis, the constantly changing
digital environment had challenged crisis communicators (Coombs, 2016). Building on rhetorical
apologia methodologies, the highly influential IRT proposed five major strategies that companies
may use after a crisis (Benoit, 1997). These were placed on a continuum from least to most
30
acceptance of responsibility. These strategies ranged from denial strategies, which distance the
organization from the crisis completely, to mortification strategies that include acceptance of
responsibility and involve apologies (Marsen, 2020). Despite some critiques of its universality,
IRT served as the foundation of much crisis communication research and had led to diverse
reformulations since it was first proposed (Marsen 2020).
IRT, which had been described as the dominant paradigm for examining corporate
communication in times of crisis, asserted that an organization's credibility largely depended on
its image (Ho, Shin, & Pang, 2017). The purpose of using image restoration strategies was to
persuade the audience to change their attitudes positively regarding the organization that
committed the transgression.
Communication theories in the literature evolved from the observation of patterns in
phenomena that help explain or interpret other phenomena. Through a variety of studies,
researchers developed theories that explain and develop communication strategies and theories
for effective and ineffective communication responses. (Marsen, 2020). The 1980s had
significant worldwide and national crises from the Tylenol case to the Exxon Valdez oil spill in
Alaska. The 1990s saw a rise in crisis communication research propelled by the rise of digital
platforms and the rise in global crises (Marsen, 2020).
Additional Theories in Crisis Communication
Numerous theories exist about handling communication during a crisis. However, many
approaches depend on traditional response strategies (Jahng & Hong, 2017). Is IRT an
appropriate vehicle to apply in the fast-moving environment of social media and crisis response
strategies (Lopez, 2017)?

31
In the five major strategies that companies use after a crisis, Benoit (1997) outlined the
theory of image restoration (repair) discourse as an approach for understanding corporate crises.
This theory may be used by practitioners to design messages during crises and by critics or
educators to evaluate critically such messages. It offered suggestions for crisis communication
based on this theoretical approach. A qualitative study analyzing IRT, juxtaposed against current
practices, may ascertain if social media-generated crisis strategies, as advanced by public
relations practitioners during an actual crisis, fall into the response continuum outlined by Benoit
(1997).
Do traditional crisis communication theories still apply in today’s digital environment?
While sufficient research has looked at how managers respond to a crisis, the constantly
changing digital environment has challenged crisis communicators (Coombs, 2016). Do public
relations managers employ traditional response strategies, rooted in such highly adopted theories,
such as image repair theory, when facilitating effective responses to quickly rising or evolving
crises? For example, when a rogue source issues damning or unsubstantiated information about a
company or individual on a social media platform, multiple factors enter the decision-making
process. Factors include the extent of the coverage of the information (such as the pervasive and
ubiquitous nature of the Internet), and the ability of managers to employ traditional crisis
response strategies to confront the controversy quickly. Additionally, it is appropriate to
ascertain if the claims by external or internal sources are legitimate and will a traditional
response, such as denial or mortification rooted in IRT, suffice. Apologies are also found in the
response by companies, government, or nonprofits, and mortification (acceptance) may be a

32
suitable way to approach a fast-moving crisis that can appear quickly and without warning
(Coombs, 2016).
Image repair theory, from the creation of the theory to its application within traditional
crisis responses, may assist managers within the communication field. As IRT has been useful in
describing and facilitating crisis responses over past decades, does the theory possess
applicability when confronting social media-generated crises? Public relations practitioners may
intentionally follow the Benoit theory or, in some cases, may unknowingly follow the decision
continuum, as shown in IRT.
While IRT strongly relies on the use of apologies, the evolution of IRT suggests that
different response scenarios produce differing results. IRT studies response strategies and
includes admitting guilt, denying if innocent, shifting blame, proving lack of control, reporting
corrective action, and minimizing the issue (Coombs, 2016). IRT is a term describing what repair
strategies work in a particular situation (Benoit, 1997). This applicable framework emphasizes
what the individual or organization says and does in the crisis. Hence, this theoretical framework
will allow for practitioners' subjective responses and focus on how public relations practitioners
respond to social media-generated crises (Coombs, 2016).
The heart of IRT is that some threat to an individual or organization may damage image
or reputation. Note that IRT was developed as a general theory for responding to reputation-
damaging events that could be applied to individuals and organizations. It was not designed
specifically for organizational crises (Coombs, 2016). However, it was a major advancement in
crisis communication and its relationship to reputation repair (Coombs, 2016). Five image repair
strategies discussed by Coombs (2016), but developed by Benoit (1997), were denial, evasion of
33
responsibility, reduction of offensiveness, corrective action, and mortification (admission of
guilt).
Building on rhetorical apologia methodologies, the highly influential IRT proposes five
major strategies that companies may use after a crisis (Benoit, 1997). These are placed on a
continuum from least to most acceptance of responsibility. The strategies range from denial
strategies, which distance the organization from the crisis completely, to mortification strategies
that include acceptance of responsibility and involve apologies (Marsen, 2020).
Despite some critiques of its universality, IRT serves as the foundation of much crisis
communication research. It has led to diverse reformulations since it was first proposed (Marsen,
2020). Situational crisis communication theory refocused attention from company strategy to
public perception by introducing the factor of attribution, borrowed from social psychology.
Crises are inevitable for any company, and the fate of a company's image rests on how
well they respond. Few studies have experimentally tested the impact that common types of
company responses can have on consumers' perceptions when a negative complaint has been
made online. Marsen's (2020) research sought to expand the strategies put forth for crisis
management by IRT using best practice research within the context of social-mediated crisis
communication.
Some literature suggests that a crisis is defined by high consequences, low probability,
and short decision time (Hale, 1997). Additional research supports the short decision-time
scenario and places emphasis on an organization's survival that may be highly dependent on the
speed of response (Ki & Nekmat, 2014). Crisis communication focuses on responding
immediately to public needs for information (Lachlan et al., 2016).

34
Drawing from IRT and situational crisis communication theory, a study by Ferguson,
Wallace, and Chandler (2018) advanced crisis communication theory through an analysis of 800
public relations professionals' perceptions of 15 image repair strategies. A national sample of
United States public relations professionals evaluated communication strategies for their
effectiveness and preference for use in three crisis scenarios (accidents, product safety, and
illegal activity). Compensation, corrective action, and mortification were the most highly ranked
crisis response strategies, regardless of attribution of organizational responsibility or culpability,
across three types of accidental and preventable crises (Ferguson et al., 2018). According to the
authors, this hierarchical consistency suggested that using communication strategies for
maintaining and strengthening an organization's relationships with its publics might be the best
protection for sustaining and repairing a positive reputation long-term.
The study attempted to discover and distinguish if differences exist among public
relations practitioners’ approach to handling a social media-generated crisis, versus accepted,
traditional crisis communication response strategies, such as IRT.
Additional Theories in Crisis Management and Communication
Other theorists point to the fact that crises involve a multitude of stakeholders with highly
divergent perspectives and interests. Crisis communication research may cater to the multiplicity
of voices, or multivocality, present. In a research effort by Kim, Avery, and Lariscy (2009),
quantitative content analysis evaluated crisis response strategy analyzed in more than 18 years of
research, published in crisis communication literature in public relations. Analysis of 51 articles
published in 11 different journals using two dominant theories in public relations crisis
communication literature, Benoit’s IRT and Coombs’ situational crisis communication theory
35
indicate a lack of diversity in cases analyzed by scholars, gaps between theory and practice, and
pressing directions for future research in crisis communication.
Other theories examined, such as Grunig and Grunig's excellence theory (1998), were not
further considered due to the exactness and applicability of IRT. Grunig and Grunig's (1998)
excellence study reveals a more complicated but logically more satisfying explanation of the
value of public relations. For an organization to be effective, it must behave in ways that solve
the problems and satisfy the goals of stakeholders as well as that of management (Grunig &
Grunig, 1998).
Another theory, attribution theory, highlighted and emphasized the communication and
media dimension and the importance of public relations in crisis management. Attribution theory
explained how people make sense of negative occurrences and why the event occurred. People
make attributions of responsibility for events. When applied to crisis management, stakeholders
ascribe responsibility internally (organization) or externally (environmental factors). This theory
was audience-based and attempted to understand the factors in the crisis itself that shape the
crisis attributions stakeholders make (Coombs, 2010; Wise, 2004).
A study designed by Mohamed (2017) bridged the gap in research of empirical studies in
which public relations practitioners are using social media tools during the crisis. The purpose of
the study was to bring attention to the dynamics of using social media among public relations
practitioners during a crisis in countries with different economic, social, and political contexts. A
random sample of 160 public relations practitioners was selected from different public and
private organizations in the United Arab Emirates. The results indicated that public relations
practitioners are active and heavy social media users in their organizations during a crisis. The
36
study confirmed that the most commonly used communication strategies were compensation,
corrective action, and justification. Additionally, the study suggested that the organization's
website and Twitter were the most effective social media methodologies used during a crisis.
Understanding Traditional Crisis Communication and Reputation Management
Crisis management strategies evolved as a result of increased utilization of digital
communication. This study further contributes to the scholarship and adoption of various social
media strategies by public relations practitioners for crisis communication management. The
study explored if Benoit’s IRT is relevant and effective in managing a client’s reputation in a
social media-generated crisis.
To this end, a further examination into the use of communication strategies within crisis
management may improve the way public relations practitioners implement social media and
other strategies in response to a client crisis where external reputation is at risk. It is plausible to
examine closely how a specific theory, IRT, aligns with a variety of responses and strategies
found within a crisis requiring a client’s image or reputation repair. This exploration may offer
additional insights into the use of traditional communication theories and strategies used by
practitioners and educators alike.
As a focus of inquiry on crisis management in the digital age, the purpose of this study
was to explore if traditional public relations strategies that apply IRT possess relevance when
handling a social media-generated crisis and defending a client’s brand and reputation (Pang et
al., 2014). The underlying idea was that traditional public relations responses to crises have used
various theories, such as IRT, to describe decision-making by public relations professionals

37
when protecting a company’s brand or reputation. With the migration to digitally based and often
two-way interaction with opponents, does IRT maintain its value in the digital environment?
Public relations practitioners have experience using traditional strategies and tactics to
confront an emerging public relations crisis (Cutlip & Center, 1958). Historically these crises
formed over time and allowed public relations professionals to respond in traditional media
channels. Among those theories and strategies of responses, IRT was the dominant theory that
promoted response scenarios based upon the specific occurrence. However, how well do
traditional crisis response strategies work when applied to a social media-generated crisis where
issues form and re-form almost instantaneously?
IRT was a significant advancement in the study of crisis communication and its
relationship to image repair (Lopez, 2017). It remains one of the dominant theoretical
perspectives for studying crisis communication. Does image repair theory, as demonstrated by
Benoit (1997), hold value when confronting a social media-generated crisis? Traditional public
relations response times to a crisis have accelerated due to the instantaneous nature of social
media.
Defined as a group of Internet based applications that build on the ideological and
technological foundations of Web 2.0 (Kaplan & Haenlein, 2010, p. 61), the types of social
media, such as Wikipedia, Twitter, Facebook, Pinterest, Flickr, YouTube, and Slack, are
bringing a new era of crisis communication between the organizations and its publics. (Cheng,
2018).
By reviewing key approaches within crisis response research, a study by Cheng (2018)
found that all crisis response theories and models failed to consider the impact of social media,
38
which was changing the field of crisis communication by creating risks or crises and meanwhile
bringing interactive, dialogic, and fast communication between the organization and stakeholders
(Schultz, Utz & Göritz, 2011). Data from the study by Cheng showed that among types of crises,
the most common was managerial misconduct crisis (22 articles, 30%) such as melamine
contaminated milk powder of Sanlu in 2008, and Mattel's 2007 product recall. Other crisis types
included natural crises (e.g., Hurricane Irene in 2011; Sichuan earthquake in 2008); public health
crises (e.g., SARS in 2003; flu pandemic in 2009); terrorism (e.g., 9/11 attacks in 2001); social
media crises (e.g., Domino's YouTube crisis in 2009); and business and economic crisis (2008
financial crisis) (Cheng, 2018). Additionally, studies of 16 international companies (e.g., the
United States, China, France, Germany, and Mexico) found that 36% of crises were caused by
digital security failures or negative new media publicities (Burson, Marsteller, & PSB, 2011).
Juxtaposed against the general response strategies put forth by IRT, best practice
recommendations among the public relations community for dealing with negative online
comments have been slightly different. Overall, Thomas, Peters, Howell, and Robbins (2012)
recommended seven different reactions to negative online comments that a company may enact
in order to be viewed positively. Companies may delay a response, ignore the comment, respond,
partner with an outside source that can act as a brand ambassador, take legal action, or delete the
post. Each option comes with strengths and weaknesses and is best used on a case-by-case basis.
However, current empirical evidence supports that companies should respond to negative
electronic complaints (van Noort & Willemsen, 2012).
Although past research examined the impact of ignoring social media comments,
applicable research has not studied the tone of image restoration strategies. Hence, considerable
39
research potential existed to examine the tone, tenor, and syntax of crisis communication via
social media. Given the risks involved with social media, it was worthwhile to research how a
crisis can be prevented by knowing how to best deal with social media complaints. The
mortification response in the form of an apology was a current best practice in social media
advice (Thomas et al., 2012). This research sought to test an empirical version of an expanded
IRT model for social-mediated crisis communication.
In an early study by Coombs (1998), the researcher explored the situation of
communications tools and messages. Coombs’ study explored a crisis management system based
on crisis responsibility, and the analysis of a crisis determines the response to a situation from a
communication standpoint. Participants in the study were 518 undergraduate students in
communication courses at a mid-western university. An experimental design was employed and
manipulated three factors, which were attribution dimensions, performance history, and crisis
damage. Four types of crises were used to test the two attribution dimensions. In this survey
methodology, respondents' perceptions of organization image were received using the 10-item
scale derived from the model from McCroskey's (1966) seminal character measure study. Data
analysis was conducted, and there were five hypotheses tested. Crisis managers can benefit from
a systematic approach to analyzing a crisis and using the appropriate crisis communications
system, or management system, to handle the crisis.
According to the author, a basic system for analysis of a crisis was derived from this
research. The system was based upon locating a crisis on a crisis responsibility continuum. In
short, the nature of the crisis and its origins played a significant role in how the crisis was
perceived and handled. Coombs (1998) noted that further research should address a content
40
analysis of the types of messages, syntax, and nomenclature that are most effective not only with
the public but also with reporters (Hale, 1997; Netten & van Someren, 2011). Public relations
practitioners insisted it is the message, not the methodology that determined the effectiveness of
communicators (Men & Tsai, 2015). This insistence was a departure from McLuhan's notable
study, where he suggested the "medium is the message” (McLuhan, 1964).
The Role of Leadership and the Effective Management of Crises
In a crisis, decision-making by the experts should consider responses to internal and
external audiences, type of Internet platforms, speed of response, and, finally, the tone of the
response. The crisis management process requires making wise and sound decisions, as they
contribute to a successful exit of the crisis and alleviate its effects (Center & Jackson, 2002).
This process explained why decision-making often requires considerable expertise and
knowledge. A key feature of an outstanding leader was the ability to make the right decisions in
times of crisis; hence the timing of those decisions was crucial to their success and efficiency.
Leaders should not rush to conclusions and make hasty decisions about them, especially when
the nature of the crisis does not require a swift interference or decision-making process. (Center
& Jackson, 2002).
Several studies explained and explored how corporate culture and brand management
play a part in private-sector reputation management (Hudson et al., 2016; Lacoste, 2016).
Privately held companies have several advantages over governmental bodies or nonprofits during
times of crisis. Among the advantages of social media use by a private company is the ability to
exert control over the outward facing messaging and timeliness. Companies can act quickly with
41
little or no political or external pressures and provide immediate triage to a crisis quickly running
amok (Jordan, Upright, & Tice-Owens, 2016).
Research by Batra and Keller (2016) established that with the challenges presented by
new media, shifting media patterns, and divided consumer attention, the optimal integration of
marketing communications takes on increasing importance. Drawing on a review of relevant
academic research and guided by managerial priorities, the authors offered insights and advice as
to how traditional and new media, such as search, display, mobile television, and social media,
interact to affect consumer decision-making. With an enhanced understanding of the consumer
decision journey and how consumers process communications, the authors outlined a
comprehensive strategy featuring two models designed to improve the effectiveness and
efficiency of integrated marketing communication programs: a bottom-up communication and a
top-down communications optimization model.
Traditional Crisis Reputation Management Theory and Digital Communication
Crisis management has been in practice for centuries. From managing famine, epidemics,
and war, crises are part of human existence (Zamoum & Gorpe, 2018). However, as practitioners
are also facing a worldwide pandemic redefining crisis and crisis management, the use of
instantaneous channels, such as social media, is a central way for people to avoid human contact
and receive a host of information from all forms of digitally based outlets. Additionally, social
media may exacerbate a crisis through rumor transmission, non-validated news sources, and
misinformation or disinformation (Coombs, 2010).
Crises share six characteristics, which are rare, significant, high impact, ambiguous,
urgent, and involve high stakes (Simola, 2014). In the case of a corporate crisis, company
42
leadership will experience a period of discontinuity and find itself in a situation where the core
values of the organization, or system, are under threat, and this requires critical decision-making
(Simola, 2014). There is a destabilizing effect on the organization and its stakeholders, and an
escalation of one or more issues, errors, or procedures are expected in this period (Kayes, Allen,
& Self, 2013).
The Changing Landscape of the Public Relations Practice
As shown in IRT by Benoit, the tone and tenor of responses in a crisis may determine the
effectiveness of protecting or restoring a client’s reputation. Words do matter, and the ability to
craft unfiltered messages directly to affected publics versus media filtration of the messages is
growing quickly (Sung & Hwang, 2014). Another researcher explored the use of content analysis
and the types of messages preferred by highly engaged recipients (Lacoste, 2016). There is a
need to tailor content to be user-friendly and clear among various publics with differing levels of
engagement and education (Jordan et al., 2016). While the consistency of messaging is essential,
there is a need to delineate word choice and syntax among varied audience messaging, so the
recipient is not confused or misled. A messaging matrix may be useful in that it customizes word
choice (from simple to complex) and fits the socio-economic level of those receiving the
message (Baruh, 2015; Jordan et al., 2016; Men & Tsai, 2015).
A study by Bundy et al. (2017) sought an explanation of an integrative strategy for crises
and management of the crisis. In the study, a literature review was conducted from multiple
areas, including public relations, corporate communication, and organizational management.
This study used an extensive and integrated search of major academic journals. This design was
a comprehensive literature review among varying disciplines and a synthesis of journals related
43
to crisis management and integration among various responders. Noted was the fragmentation
within the literature that showed that research continued to separate crisis work, and there were
disparate perspectives about an integrated approach (Bundy et al., 2017).
There is little disagreement on the premise that effective crisis management and
communication are time-sensitive and includes essential information to reduce fears or avoid
rumormongering (Netten & van Someren, 2011). One area that needed further clarification was
how cognitive dissonance impacts social media messages. In the public relations practice, it is
common to talk about selective perception and retention but little about just how the message is
interpreted (Comfort, 2007).
As noted in several studies, critical, stressful decision-making causes many standard
communication systems or methodologies to fail, and traditional information systems may not be
useful (Hale, 1997). However, the mere adoption of digital tools may not be advantageous to
communicators in times of crisis (Ki & Nekmat, 2014). Additionally, more companies are
adopting social media to deal with a crisis versus traditional print and broadcast outlets of the
past (Graham et al., 2015; Ki & Nekmat, 2014; Sung & Hwang, 2014).
Several studies demonstrate the divergence among the crisis response strategies. There
are a wide variety of philosophies regarding how much corporate leaders and their public
relations team want to use social media during a crisis (Comfort, 2007; Ki & Nekmat, 2014). In
some cases, communication advisors suggest resisting social media use to engage external
audiences because it looks defensive or reactionary (Lachlan et al., 2016). However, the
advantages of the social media platform, regardless of the specific delivery vehicle, are abundant
(Allagui & Breslow, 2016).

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In a study by Luo et al. (2015), the team explored how social media has changed the
activities and behaviors of public relations leaders. Specifically, this study focused on the impact
of social media use on the managerial and leadership functions of public relations leadership.
Managerial staff was defined as the heads of public relations departments who supervise staff,
direct programmatic work, and interact with C-suite executives in developing responsive social
media approaches. The research comprised in-depth interviews of 43 in-house public relations
leaders who work on the client-side of the organization. These 43 interviews were completed
from a sample of 130 individuals via a solicitation email. Qualitative research design facilitated
the depth and details of complex and lesser-known phenomena. Non-probability purposive
sampling was used to recruit from a solicitation email. Twenty-five companies were randomly
selected using two corporate databases, as were 50 nonprofit organizations. This study was
completed using the Hyper-research software for data analysis, which allows multiple coders to
work on the data concurrently. All 43 agencies' interviews had adopted some form of social
media. Higher education institutions used social media more than nonprofits or corporations.
Facebook had been adopted across all organizations. More than 50% of organizations maintain
blogs. YouTube and Twitter had high adoption rates among practitioners. Theoretical
contributions included adding strategic management of social media into the practitioners'
toolbox, allowing social media to extend expert power through engagement to key stakeholders
and potential new audiences. Lastly, public relations practitioners were taking an E-leadership
role at their respective organizations (Luo et al., 2015).
Through in-depth interviews of 43 in-house senior communication managers from 15
top-tier corporations and 28 nonprofits based in the United States, Jiang et al. (2016) aimed to
45
determine both how communication executives and managers evaluate social media
engagements. Another goal was how communication executives and managers cultivate and
measure social media engagement during a crisis. The in-depth interviews revealed that senior
communication managers recognized the importance of making meaningful interpretations of
informatics, worked diligently to analyze social media engagement, and used social media to
create a credible online presence before a crisis arises. This information established social media
as a necessary tool for public relations practitioners when handling social media crises. While
best practices still needed to be developed, Jiang et al. (2016) proposed an enhanced four-
dimensional model that may be utilized by senior communication managers when evaluating
social media engagement during crises.
The Appropriateness of Traditional Theories When Confronting a Social Media Crisis
A study by Roshan, Warren, and Carr (2016) examined how social media may or may not
help in crisis communication using a qualitative methodology at 17 large Australian companies.
The premise was that traditional theories on crisis communication may not be represented in the
social media world. This qualitative study used more than 15,000 social media messages for
analysis at 17 large companies using content analysis. This study used qualitative content design
pulled from public domains for seven months. Criterion used a purposeful sampling of
organizations facing crises, including being based in Australia, for-profit companies, and having
a social media presence. A qualitative study was chosen to facilitate deeper insight and
understanding of the phenomena. Each discrete message was used in unit analysis from broad
categories. After crisis identification, the actual type of crisis was determined using the Coombs
(1998) typology. Facebook and Twitter messages were used to analyze if the organization had a
46
prior poor reputation or history. Keyword searches are used to examine prior company history in
crisis. The research findings included that when social media was used for communication in a
crisis, companies rebuilding from an accidental crisis may be more acceptable by stakeholders,
and thus, a rebuilding strategy was easier. Stakeholders were much more tolerant toward
organizations facing externally caused crises. Interestingly, companies that did not respond to
social media posts by the public and stakeholders did not benefit from its possible, beneficial
interactive use during times of crisis. The conceptual theory was explored and resulted in the
development of seven stakeholder message clusters (Roshan et al., 2016)
Another theory, the rhetorical arena theory, built on the arena metaphor, a location where
different actors compete, debate, and negotiate under the public eye (Marsen, 2020). The theory
focused on the perspectives of different stakeholders and the strategies they used to advance their
interests and concerns in a crisis. This theory encompassed the relationship aspects of
communication exploring how the discourses demonstrated produce diverse interpretations of the
crisis. Rhetorical arena theory takes the emphasis away from isolated organizational discourses
or media discourses and instead explores patterns of interaction (Marsen, 2020).
As discussed in the previous pages, numerous communication theories exist in the
research. Additionally, a wealth of information has been published on crisis communication
theory and practice. With the burgeoning social media presence, a further understanding and
appreciation of the unique nature of this medium are needed.
Social Media and Engagement of Publics and Stakeholders in a Crisis
Engagement, defined as effective two-way communication between a source and an
individual, group of individuals, or the targeted public, is enhanced by social media use in many
47
situations, including a crisis. Instantaneous two-way communication and the ability to reach
highly targeted publics bring powerful engagement opportunities (Allagui & Breslow, 2016;
Lacoste, 2016; Wang, 2016). Given the demonstrated need for a company response in a timely
and effective fashion, does the IRT continuum response strategy continue to apply?
The Jelen-Sanchez (2017) study examined the state of public engagement in terms of
themes, contexts, theoretical perspectives, and methodical approaches. The study conducted a
content analysis of 49 journal articles on public engagement published in the last decade in
scholarly journals. The results indicated that the scarce studies on public engagement tend to be
mostly concerned with social media and online engagement, studied from
management/functional and relational perspectives, focused on organizations, anchored in
western traditions, and dominated by quantitative methodology. Each article for the study was
coded in terms of type, geographical context, studied themes, mentioned theories, perspective,
methodical approach, and methods. The article concluded that public engagement tends to be
conceptualized as a phenomenon that organizations need to manage to advance their interests
rather than to understand in terms of dynamics, connectedness, participation, dialogue, and
interactions with publics.
A multitude of factors and behaviors such as culture, leadership qualities, and practitioner
experience may contribute to the effectiveness of social media responses in times of crisis. The
purpose of the paper by Vardeman-Winter and Place (2015) was to explore how public relations
practitioner culture was maintained despite legal, technical, and educational issues from social
media. The authors examined the center of practitioner culture, social media usage, and
regulatory forces such as policies, authority figures, and social norms. Qualitative interviews
48
with 20 United States public relations practitioners were conducted. The findings led to best
practices to help practitioners negotiate their identities. The study filled the need for more
qualitative and in-depth research that describes the cultural implications of social media in public
Traditional Marketing Strategies and Social Media Engagement
Were marketing segmentation practices still relevant in the new digital revolution? One
study (Canhoto, Clark, & Fennemore, 2013) found distinct advantages of social media for such
marketing strategies within an important emerging area of digital influencers, customization of
messages, and engaging with diverse customer segments. A total of 20 organizations were
identified, and senior marketing professionals were included. In the data-gathering phase, 19
interviews were conducted, including 17 from business and two from the government. This study
used an exploratory approach, collecting the data set from key informant interviews.
Segmentation was a key component in marketing endeavors. The government, too, was using
market segmentation effectively. Social media was used to identify and profile customers for
micro targeting. Companies with large customer bases reported higher investment and ownership
in segmentation.
The increased pervasiveness of social media use raises questions about potential effects
on users' subjective well being, with studies reaching contrasting conclusions. To reconcile these
discrepancies and shed new light on this phenomenon, research by Wang, Wang, Gaskin, and
Hawk (2017) examined: (1) whether upward social comparison and self-esteem mediate the
association between social networking site (SNS) usage and users' subjective well-being, and (2)
whether users' social comparison orientation moderates the associated SNS usage and upward
social comparison. In the study, the results of structural modeling analysis suggested that passive
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SNS usage relates positively to upward social comparison, which, in turn, was associated with
users' lower self-evaluation.
A study by Melancon and Dalakas (2018) defined eight dimensions of a phenomenon
called social voice. This study critically reviewed how social voice, defined as public
complaining behavior, may change the organization's behavior. This study involved content
analysis of various instances of negative consumer feedback and its impact upon the
organization. The study examined Facebook social media of 16 organizations during a 24-hour
time block, and the negative consumer response primarily pulled from Facebook. This method
included iterative reading strategy in the process of open coding using Netnography, a grounded
theory that does not test a hypothesis but seeks emerging themes. Analysis of 250 comments, 49
pages of data, and more than 17,000 words yielded a framework with eight primary dimensions
of social voice. Some vital insight was gained from this qualitative analysis, including that
standardized responses to complaints have negative connotations. Social media dialogue needs to
be customized and authentic. Social voice is an important concept to understand and use to be
effective in marketing strategies.
The study by Zha et al. (2018) indicated that following friends on social networking sites
were related to more upward social comparison, while passively reviewing strangers' information
may not be. Drawing on the elaboration likelihood model, the study explored the effectiveness of
dual-route persuasion on informational fit-to-task to highlight the importance of task-
information fit. The quantitative study used a pilot survey and further refined the questionnaire
from a pilot survey feedback to collect data. Ultimately, 381 students responded to the final
questionnaire. The study explored the effects of the central route (information quality of social
50
media) and the peripheral (source credibility of social media and reputation of social media)
on informational fit-to-task with focused immersion as an ability variable. A pilot survey was
performed, and the questionnaire items were adjusted and refined. The questionnaire was then
published online for respondents to complete. This study contributed to the theoretical
development of the structural model. It explored the basic informational influence process
underlying the effectiveness of dual-route persuasion on informational fit-to-task, which further
leads to social media usage in the specific context of more generally subjective well-being.
Image Repair Theory and Social Media and Their Roles in World Events and Disasters
An area receiving attention worldwide is the use of social media in both combating and
fostering terrorism. No time has existed in history when there is such instant and comprehensive
communication as today (Pang et al., 2014). The digital delivery of millions of messages each
day provides both an opportunity to communicate about terrorism prevention and communicate
among the populace about terror threats. Additionally, there is an opportunity to ask for the
public's help in thwarting terror acts or, once an event has happened, communicating among the
population about the act and response.
Social media is one tactic used by public relations practitioners to facilitate public
cooperation during a terror event. Social media has become a dominant force in communicating
both instructions to the public (report what they have seen), to a shelter-in-place, messaging
schema (Freberg, 2012). An area for further research is exactly how effective is social media in
helping crisis communicators provide stakeholders with important information and responses to
requests (Freberg, 2012).

51
The purpose of the Liu, Jin, and Austin (2013) study was to understand why and how the
public communicates about crises. The study used a social-mediated crisis communication
model, intended to discover how specific target audiences respond to initial crisis
communication. However, it was noted that traditional media still exert more influence on
publics than other methodologies. A single group of students was used because younger
individuals use social media more frequently than older adults. Factors included social media,
word-of-mouth, and traditional media. Interestingly, a key finding was that there were significant
interaction effects of the form and source in participants' offline communication about a crisis
when the company provided information (Liu et al., 2013). Participants were most likely to
engage in positive offline communication about crises when the origin of the information was the
company. A severe limitation of this study (Liu et al., 2013) was that it only uses college
students, and it was difficult to translate these results to the public. As part of this research
proposal, the study's contribution will be a larger sample conducted among corporate public
relations practitioners.
Using Social Media for Age, Gender, and Experience Cohorts
Of interest to communicators are social media and social networking as an ideal medium
to reach younger individuals who may not pay attention to traditional media (Men & Tsai, 2015).
However, with more than 50% of households having Internet and most Americans possessing
smartphones, social media use has expanded to an older segment of the population (Wang,
2016). While older professionals may not be engaged in social media regularly, they rely on
traditional forms of communication (television, radio) to get their news and information (Allagui
& Breslow, 2016).

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Further research should be conducted on social media and social networking sites and
their appropriateness and adaptability to non-English-speaking publics. Most U.S. research
involving social media use and crisis communication has been conducted with English-speaking
adults and publics (Graham et al., 2015). While various non-English-speaking populations have
discrete social media sites popular with consumers, little research exists on the use of social
media, such as Facebook, with said populations in times of crisis (Graham et al., 2015).
As stated previously, the growth and evolution of social media have revolutionized many
facets of communication. Social media has altered the way public relations communication
occurs with various publics (Allagui & Breslow, 2016). In addition, both public relations and
social media foster interaction among specific target audiences in new and effective ways
(Baruh, 2015). Social media can create or exacerbate a crisis as well as inform and neutralize
potential negative reactions (Hudson et al., 2016).
One area of interest to crisis communication professionals is how various publics,
including the media, use social media to learn about a crisis (a natural disaster, for example)
(Yoo & Kim, 2013). Additionally, research showed that members of the media use social media
as an initial source of information on a crisis, company, or individual (Hudson et al., 2016; Yoo
& Kim, 2013). Further research should be conducted via content analysis of the types of
messages, syntax, and nomenclature that are most effective, not only with the public but
reporters as well (Hale, 1997; van Doorn, 2011). Public relations practitioners have insisted it is
the message, not the methodology that determines the effectiveness of communicators (Linjuan,
2015).
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The Rise of Social Media and the Impact on Crisis Management Response Strategies
As noted in several studies, critical, stressful decision-making causes many normal
communication systems or methodologies to fail, and traditional information systems may not be
useful (Hale, 1997). However, the mere adoption of digital tools may not give the advantage to
communicators in times of crisis (Ki & Nekmat, 2014). Additionally, more companies are
adopting social media to deal with a crisis versus traditional print and broadcast outlets used in
the past (Graham et al., 2015; Ki & Nekmat, 2014).
Social media has altered how public relations communication occurs with various publics
(Allagui & Breslow, 2016). Today, social media engagement brings two-way communication
between the corporation, government, nonprofit, and various publics in a more interactive
environment (Ki & Nekmat, 2014) In addition, there is a belief that both public relations and
social media foster interaction among specific target audiences in new and effective ways
(Baruh, 2015). Today, much research focuses on the effectiveness of social media during a crisis,
from both a positive and negative fashion (Hale, 1997; Lachlan et al., 2016). Social media can
create or exacerbate a crisis as well as inform and neutralize potential negative reactions (Hudson
et al., 2016).
In a society influenced by technology, businesses have adopted social media to
communicate with stakeholders during a crisis. However, insufficient research makes it difficult
for organizations to handle crises appropriately when presented. Roshan et al. (2016) analyzed
how organizations have responded to crises on social media platforms in the past, information
important to determining best practices for public relations practitioners during a social media
crisis. Roshan et al. (2016) took a qualitative approach to explore the use of social media for
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crisis communication by examining 17 organizations based in Australia. After an analysis of
15,650 Facebook and Twitter posts, research suggested that the aforementioned organizations
lacked an awareness of the potential of social media for crisis communication when responding
to crises via social media. As a result, the paper served to provide a crisis manager with six crisis
response positions and an assortment of social media crisis messages for stakeholders.
Ethical Considerations in the Application of Social Media in Times of Crisis
In additional research, Toledano and Avidar (2016) sought to expand the public relations
body of knowledge in terms of the ethical and unethical use of social media by public relations
practitioners. The authors conducted a cross-national survey of public relations practitioners in
New Zealand and Israel. With responses from 52 practitioners in New Zealand and 47 in Israel,
the major objective of this study was to identify the current attitudes of public relations
practitioners toward ethics in societies with differing levels of democracy. To establish best
practices for public relations practitioners when handling social media crises, one must consider
the ethical implications of the use of social media platforms in various cultures, especially when
dealing with clients from unfamiliar cultural backgrounds. Toledano and Avidar (2016) reported
the findings of their online surveys, which implied that public relations ethics was linked to the
culture and social environment in which practitioners’ function. In addition, the research
identified practical ethical challenges concerning the use of social media by public relations
practitioners, including use pertaining to crisis communication.
Public Relations Practitioners’ Approaches to a Social Media-Generated Crisis
Today, much of what we learn, see, and hear comes from digital sources (Pang et al.,
2014). Whether it is a high-definition, evening newscast, or an online ad for Amazon, content is

55
king, and social media allows massive amounts of information to be written, distributed, and
read. Social media certainly has its detractors, but its impact on the communication landscape is
undeniable (Pang et al., 2014). Crisis communicators will be challenged by the pervasiveness of
social media and its constantly evolving status.
The use of technology (i.e., digital platforms and interactive technologies) received
abundant attention among social media researchers, and there is substantial evidence that more
user-friendly technologies will appear (Allagui & Breslow, 2016). While there is growing
empirical evidence that certain forms of digital delivery may be most effective, there is an
agreement that content, not technology is key to crisis communication effectiveness (Allagui &
Breslow, 2016; Sung & Hwang, 2014; Netten & van Someren, 2011).
The use of Twitter and Facebook for crisis communication is well documented in various
studies. Less information exists on the impact of sites such as YouTube, Instagram, and
Snapchat. Imagery is appropriate when exploring the video aspects of YouTube and SnapChat,
as well as other repositories for video content. Powerful video footage, shot by a citizen on a
street corner, can become tonight's big news story or add to an already simmering crisis (Lu, Lin,
Huang, Xiong, & Fang, 2017). Video, while hard to manipulate, has numerous software
packages that allow significant alteration to content. Photoshop is an ideal way to change video
footage or edit significant and contextual material.
Today crisis public relations practitioners are turning more to web-based responses for
external reputation management threats, but few studies have examined it as a tool for crisis
communication (Ki & Nekmat, 2014). However, some researchers disagreed and suggested there
is substantial research that proves how ideally social media efforts work to defuse a crisis
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(Maresh-Fuehrer & Smith, 2016). Several studies exist that explored how software programs
were now helping practitioners monitor and manage crisis communication (Maresh-Fuehrer &
Smith, 2016; Netten & van Someren, 2011). Still, while there were differences in the types of
software programs to use versus traditional monitoring (accomplished through Google alerts and
Facebook monitoring), there is a consistent agreement it is the message, and how quickly it is
said, that can be a determinant of how well crisis communication may occur (Comfort, 2007;
Jordan et al., 2016).
Further literature shows the effects of positive social media not only from a senior
communication-manager level but where boots meet the ground, such as a public information
officer or communication specialist (Husain et al., 2014). Practitioners should not ignore the
stratified nature of communication managers in an organization and their various roles. One area
for further exploration and notation is the examination of different types of crises and a review of
any specific differences in tactics among diverse businesses.
Government Use of Social Media and Reputation Management
Juxtaposed against private sector work is the growth of social media use by government
agencies. Initially hesitant to get involved in social media due to privacy concerns and general
legal hurdles, governments at all levels have found the advantages of using social media in
various educational and outreach efforts (Graham et al., 2015). Social media use by the
government in a crisis, particularly natural disasters and health-related emergencies, has grown
tremendously. There is, however, scant research to show how local governments are embracing
social media for educational and information purposes (Graham et al., 2015; Jordan et al., 2016).
Further research is needed to determine the extent to which social media can be beneficial to all
57
levels of government while protecting privacy rights and avoiding claims of propaganda and
lobbying (Lachlan et al., 2016).
While heavily concerned about avoiding improper use of social media, the government
has become a central user of digital content to educate and inform the public (Freberg, 2012).
Today, all governmental agencies, whether federal, state, or local, use social media and
information-packed websites. While caution tends to be exercised on releasing too much
information or even sensitive information, social media has the ability for the government to
bypass media gatekeepers and go directly to the public.
More news is released, and rumors contained, through social media than many forms of
communication. If a candidate wants to talk directly to his or her constituents, is it not best to go
directly to them? This tactic allows for direct, unfiltered communication and allows politicians to
use thought-out messaging and images to portray the content directly (Bratu, 2016).
A research area deserving of additional work is the government's role in monitoring
social media platforms for criminal investigations, terror threats, and general discontent. Exactly
where the government has drawn the line is unclear. However, Americans are torn about the
need for the government to monitor online social media activity. Citizens do not want too much
government monitoring that is akin to Big Brother and censorship (Graham et al., 2015).
However, the public understands the necessity of monitoring for child pornographers and threats
from ISIS. Still, where the government's role switches from information purveyor to hands-on,
engagement is constantly evolving.
All forms of government were initially hesitant to use social media. Out of necessity,
however, they have adapted to and adopted the use of the digital channel. There exists an
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opportunity for extensive, further research into government response strategies when handling a
social media-generated crisis (Bratu, 2016).
From the literature reviewed to date, there is general agreement on the quickly rising
dominance of social media during times of crisis (Netten & van Someren, 2011; Sung & Hwang,
2014; Wang, 2016). Just how well social media can help prevent or curtail a crisis is unknown.
There is general agreement that Facebook currently dominates social media engagement, but
Facebook has little research to show its actual effectiveness to convince or persuade intended
audiences (Netten & van Someren, 2011). The use of social media by private sector companies is
growing to augment traditional media relations during crises.
Practitioners’ Social Media Preferences When Handling Image Repair
Little research exists to date that explored preferred social media tools in a particular
crisis (Jordan et al., 2016; Ki & Nekmat, 2014). However, some research highlights the use of a
specific type of communication (such as Twitter) during the early phases of a crisis (Lachlan et
al., 2016). It is noted that in some instances, such as media relations during a crisis, there are
preferred options for reporters covering the incident such as Facebook and Twitter (Yoo & Kim,
2013).
Today, much of the crisis manager's approach is to use all available technologies in a
crisis without assessing the effectiveness of particular tools. Greater preciseness deploying social
media communiqué will depend on varying factors such as timeliness, appropriateness, and
believability (Lacoste, 2016; Sung & Hwang, 2014).
Preferred social media platforms for crisis response is an area that merits further research.
While recognizing there will be a constant evolution of social media (What eventually replaces
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Facebook?), several studies explored preferential pathways for social media use during a crisis
(Ki & Nekmat, 2014). While Facebook is the current leader in crisis management response, there
are a plethora of social media choices such as Twitter, LinkedIn, and YouTube (Baruh, 2015; Ki
& Nekmat, 2014; Lachlan et al., 2016).
Much like social media itself, there exists an opportunity to systematically explore
tactical approaches to social media communication during a crisis. There is no how-to book on
the use of various digital platforms for a crisis communicator (Lu et al., 2017). Instead, it is
mostly a sporadic approach with little measurable results due to the variability in social media
platforms and the inability to test for public reaction in a statistically significant way. However,
some research has started exploring how social media engagement works as an evaluative
technique or barometer (Jiang et al., 2016).
Among the most common of corporate crises, the product recall presents unique
opportunities to examine how a company’s brand equity and its image are either enhanced or
diminished by a specific type of crisis. Therefore, it is appropriate to look at product recalls, such
as automobiles, and see the role that social media plays in either exacerbating a crisis or helping
communicate to both consumers and shareholders (Hsu & Lawrence, 2016).
Does corporate America monitor and respond to crises created by social media? In many
cases, it does (Lacoste, 2016). According to several research studies, corporations are plowing
tremendous resources into the social media landscape to monitor potential problems but also
provide direct, unfiltered content to a curious public. Corporations are using social media to
promote positive marketing messages and information content (Ki & Nekmat, 2014).
Nevertheless, the real value in social media may be when a company confronts a substantial
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reputation management crisis such as Chipotle and food-borne illness, for example, and how it
engages the consumer and press (Allagui & Breslow, 2016; Hudson et al., 2016).
The public accuses corporate America of burying negative information (airbag recalls)
and suppressing transparency (not releasing a chief executive officer’s salary or corporate
earnings) (Hudson et al., 2016). There are instances when a proactive approach via social media
suppressed or derailed a negative publicity crisis (Allagui & Breslow, 2016). Further research
could clarify opportunities for social media to build corporate social responsibility stature and
better transparency (Maresh-Fuehrer & Smith, 2016).
In the area of products and social media, it is germane to examine the use of social media
and efforts to motivate consumers to comply with instructions. This method is particularly
important in natural disasters (tornadoes, floods, and hurricanes). The challenges that await crisis
communication managers in effective social media management, and the use of social media to
work as an information-sharing tool, then a motivational tool, should be further explored and
merits additional discussion in the literature review (Freberg, 2012).
Recognizing the quickly changing face of social media and using these tools for crisis
avoidance, suppression, or defensive reaction is something public relations practitioners find
difficult at best. There remain severe gaps in actual tactical approaches to crisis management
using social media. An area of divergent opinion is whether it is the medium or the message that
matters (Ki & Nekmat, 2014). Further research examining the cumulative impact of both social
media delivery vehicles and content effectiveness will be required to suggest recommended
pathways of response (Comfort, 2007; Lacoste, 2016; Maresh-Fuehrer & Smith, 2016).
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Social Media and Its Ability to Foster, Create or Exacerbate a Crisis
The use of social media to create a crisis remains an area for further research (Husain et
al., 2014), as when crisis incidents start with a social media posting or communiqué. The
inability to differentiate among legitimate social media posts and those of anonymous sources,
hidden by the complexities and scope of the Internet, is troubling. While numerous online
sources may have unity in messaging, it does not necessarily mean the information is correct and
accurate (Bratu, 2016). Further studies may shed light on just how important the use of certain
verbiage or selected messages work best in a rapidly changing crisis (Husain et al., 2014).
One area of inclusion in this review, based upon additional research, is how crises
originate online and what preferred methodologies tend to be most effective for the crisis
communicator (Pang et al., 2014). A need also exists to seek additional sources on the
parameters that define the use of social media in terms of consumer engagement (Jiang et al.,
2016). Specifically missing from the published research is how senior communication managers
measure social media engagement during crises and techniques for a more reliable measurement
of social media use by a company during a crisis (Baruh, 2015).
The purpose of a study by Neill and Schauster (2015) identified key skills and
competencies needed for a successful career in the quickly changing new media environment.
The applicability of this study is that it explored the transition from traditional media activities to
a database and analytical model. In the 2015 study, Neill and Schauster recruited participants
using snowball sampling. The participants were public relations and advertising professionals
with at least four years of working experience in an agency. The sample size was 29 executives,
13 in public relations, 10 in advertising, and six interviewees were in other agency disciplines. It
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was a qualitative study based upon professionals interviewed using an interview guide. In-depth
interviews were appropriate to glean attitudes, behaviors, and motivations. Data were reviewed
using a three-step, qualitative data analysis that included data reduction, display, and verification.
While public relations practitioners and advertising managers need the core skills within the
communication spectrum (writing and strategic direction), other skills such as math and data
analysis are needed now to handle emerging social media (Neill & Schauster, 2015). Business
skills for communicators are an area of deficiency among recent graduates. However,
interviewees still are required to understand the big picture, strategy, and measurement, not just
tactical solutions. The study showed deeper insights into the current demands and expectations,
and there were specific needs in technology, math, and data analysis required in today's
communication profession.
An article by Navarro et al. (2017) compared public relations professionals' perspectives
against those of the general public in Spain concerning the content that organizations should
offer and what activities they should carry out in the context of social media. This empirical
research combined data from the European Communication Monitor with the results of a
representative online survey based on an extended and recoded subsample of the Ketchum
Leadership Communication Monitor. A total of 5,205 respondents began the questionnaire, and
2,881 completed it. Results showed a gap in the perceptions and expectations of these two
groups in both Spain and across Europe to open a discussion about whether communication
professionals were effectively managing the tools at hand to create bonds and foster engagement
with stakeholders.
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Husain et al. (2014) aimed to provide organizations with insight into managing crisis
communication in our current technology-driven world. For this preliminary study, the authors
conducted eight interviews of public relations professionals regarding the 2014 Malaysia
Airlines MH 370 crisis. From these interviews, the researchers surmised that social media, in this
case, accelerated the need for crisis communication. This study also proposed strategies for
organizations to utilize when preparing to manage the social media element of a crisis. While the
findings of this study contributed to establishing best practices for public relations practitioners
when handling a social media crisis, the results of this study were based on responses from only
eight public relations professionals, a number not representative of the vast public relations field.
Strategies for Responding to Social Media-Generated Crises and Reputation Management
The purpose of this qualitative study was to examine if image repair theory, as described
by Benoit (1995), is effective for managing clients’ social media-generated crises. The study
explored if age, gender, or experience impacts a practitioner's tactical and strategic response to a
social media-generated crisis. There is a need for public relations practitioners to properly
understand and attempt to manage the constant barrage of negative stories and unsubstantiated
claims arising from social media (Jiang et al., 2016). The onslaught of social media activity has
challenged public relations practitioners since much of the web-based content is unverified,
pervasive, and instantaneous to a worldwide audience. By understanding how public relations
practitioners respond to a social media-generated crisis, there was an opportunity to explore best
practices and offer practitioners suggested pathways and better channels to handle crises.
Public relations professionals struggle to understand and respond to the deluge of
damaging content and unverified sources (Schwarz, 2012) directed at clients. Is a public relations
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professional’s age related to efficacy in handling social media-generated crises? For example,
would an older public relations professional, who has more traditional experience in crisis
management and less experience with social media-generated crises, be as positive, comfortable,
and aggressive in social media responses as a younger practitioner? This research proposed a
qualitative approach to understand the viewpoints of professionals better. Specifically, do age,
gender, and experience matter when confronting a social media-generated crisis. This study
assessed and interpreted the test subjects' attitudinal and tactical approaches when crises develop,
as well as their approach and deployment of social media proactive and reactive responses. It
will be prudent to explore variation in the response level by practitioners (timing and type of
response) when confronting a social media-generated crisis.
Today, much research focuses on the effectiveness of social media during a crisis, from
both a positive and negative fashion (Hale, 1997; Lachlan et al., 2016). Social media can create
or exacerbate a crisis as well as inform and neutralize potential negative reactions (Hudson et al.,
2016). Common characteristics emerged from the literature review and subsequent research
articles on the subject of crisis communication and social media use and social media's use in
augmenting or restoring a company's reputation after a crisis. Social media both creates crises
and exacerbates or expands a crisis or, in some instances, helps end a crisis. Since it is a new
media, social media methodologies for handling a crisis are considered to be in an evolutionary
stage (Bratu, 2016). While research on social media and crisis management is growing, much of
the work involves the use of new media in natural disaster settings such as hurricanes, floods,
and terrorism (Graham et al., 2015). There may be specific methodologies to employ during a
65
crisis that maximize social media effectiveness in a fast-moving, high-risk situation compared to
social media in a non-crisis situation (Ki & Nekmat, 2014).
Crises are inevitable for any company, and a company's image rests on how well the
crisis is handled from a communications point of view. Few studies have experimentally tested
the impact that common types of company responses can have on consumers’ perceptions when
a negative complaint has been made online (Nazione & Perrault, 2019). This research sought to
expand the strategies for crisis management by IRT using best practice research within the
context of social-mediated crisis communication. An online experiment examined the effect of a
company's response to an online complaint (i.e., professional apology, personal apology, deleting
the comment, ignoring the comment, and control group) on participants' perceptions of the
company (i.e., perceptions of caring and attitude).
All companies, at some point, face complaints, and companies' concerns are rising as
social media (Nazione & Perrault, 2019) accounts now allow complaints to be posted publicly,
magnifying the potential effect of the complaints. Because of this inevitability, a vast literature
exists exploring how complaints should be responded to by companies (Kim et al., 2009).
However, despite the vastness of the recommendations that exist, experimental examinations of
recommendations on social media are rare (Cheng & Cameron, 2017). Experimental research on
this topic is crucial, given that these online complaints can balloon to a crisis (Pfeffer, Zorbach,
& Carley, 2014).
The Nazione and Perrault study (2019) was unique as it focused on following IRT
principles (Benoit, 1997) and merged these concepts with current social media best practice
recommendations. The study intended to expand and then empirically test IRT for direct and
66
indirect (mediation) effects. Building on Benoit's previous research, the 2019 study by Nazione
and Perrault delved into perceptions of company attitude that shows empathy, caring, and IRT's
aim of attitude change. Image restoration strategies attempt to persuade interested publics and
stakeholders to change their attitudes in a positive manner toward the organization, which
committed the transgression (Nazione & Perrault, 2019).
Consumer complaints regarding a company's perceived transgressions can be made via
numerous channels, including face-to-face (Kim et al., 2009), email (Strauss & Hill, 2001), and
now via social media (Nazione & Perrault, 2019). Social mediated crisis communication is
different because it speeds up the process and allows more opportunities for audience feedback
in an interactive manner (Schultz et al., 2011). The speed at which a crisis occurs may vary and
the issue of rapid response is one reason Benoit’s theory (1995) may not still be applicable.
A comprehensive review of crisis communication research involving social media
between 2002 and 2014 located 69 articles (Cheng & Cameron, 2017). About one-quarter of
these studies used IRT as a guiding framework, making it the most frequently used theory
(Nazione & Perrault, 2019). Despite a sizeable number of studies dedicated to social media use
in crises, the majority of studies uncovered in Cheng and Cameron's (2017) review of the
literature were content analyses (58%). Only a small proportion (13%) could be classified as
experiments. While content analysis is important, there is a need for additional research on the
medium used for communication and outcomes as well (Nazione & Perrault, 2019). There is
currently scant research available about how traditional public relations response strategies, such
as IRT, work in the digital environment.

67
Further Research to Examine IRT in a Social Media-Generated Crisis
The research problem presented is to assess how public relations practitioners can
preserve and protect a client’s reputation during a crisis generated or augmented through social
media. Do responses to crises used over the past three decades (such as IRT) hold merit when
responding to social media-generated crises? It is that an initial qualitative analysis will work
well in this setting and provide important trends and summaries to assist researchers in exploring
strategic and tactical approaches to handling social media crises (Luo et al., 2015). Upon
embarking on a set of pre-determined questions for qualitative interviews or focus groups, it may
become apparent that some questions or focus areas are not relevant or that the interviewee has
difficulty understanding the question at hand (or even the whole line of questioning). In addition,
it may be entirely possible that the interviews uncover an entire set of questions or concerns not
previously identified in the initial research design development (Rosaline, 2008). Based on this
literature review, there was clear evidence to support and justify the current research problem of
a public relations manager's role in protecting a client's reputation during a social media-
generated crisis.
Summary
When examining whether or not public relations practitioners are struggling with social
media challenges and the disastrous outcomes, all one needs to do is look to the headlines in
newspapers, newscasts on television, and the vast amount of online chatter and negativity (Jelen-
Sanchez, 2017). There are enormous challenges when it comes to the ability to control something
uncontrollable. However, public relations professionals are developing strategies to confront the
onslaught of out-of-the-blue communication crises and attack the root of the problem
68
(Vardeman-Winter & Place, 2015). Although assembling a compendium of suggested strategies
(ones that work the best) used by working professionals is needed, many challenges are
presented.
A thorough review of the literature shows an abundance of studies related to crises as
well as handling crises. The literature and science to date show gaps in responsiveness to a crisis
generated by social media and how public relations managers and staff deal with these crises.
Therefore, a research project directed toward a better understanding of the public relations
manager's role in protecting a client’s reputation online is needed. This research will explore if
IRT is still an applicable framework for crisis communication response. As noted by the
extensive literature review, the research problem is now justified.

69
Chapter 3: Research Method
Social media phenomenon is pushing public relations professionals to new and unknown
horizons (Pang, 2014). This research effort proposed an initial qualitative approach to assess the
implications and results of social media-generated crises on public relations practitioners. The
study examined if traditional public relations strategies and theory, developed historically in the
profession in a non-digital environment, work effectively in a digital, social media setting. While
the authors of popularized articles and research journals suggest some best public relations/social
media practices, there is little evidence to support proposed tactical responses to social media-
generated content, activity, or crisis (Jelen-Sanchez, 2017). A qualitative study directed at the
working professional, who is also a member of the profession’s key association, the Public
Relations Society of America (PRSA), was needed.
For purpose of this study, a stratified sample of public relations professionals based upon
age, gender and experience cohorts was completed. Members of the Indiana chapter of the PRSA
were invited to participate. Target sample size was 30 members. Recruitment occurred from
members of PRSA, and it was anticipated that up to 100 individuals would be identified to arrive
at the needed 30 individuals. The number was increased by one when 31 qualified professionals
responded positively to the invitation to participate.
In the following pages, qualitative research focusing on the impact of social media among
public relations professionals and specifically, social media-generated crises viewed through the
lens of traditional response strategies in a non-digital environment was explored. Additionally,
the research proposed followed Benoit's (1995) response continuum from denial in times of crisis
to acceptance of responsibility and admission of fault to an outward-facing public. As a further

70
avenue to examine was do age, gender, and experience affect the types of responses to external
publics in times of corporate or organization crisis. After discussing the justification of using a
case study design, further exploration and the discounting of other research methodologies were
examined. In addition to the justification for a qualitative case study effort, research questions
were highlighted. Additionally, measurement, study procedures, and data collection were
discussed. Finally, limitations, delimitations, and ethical considerations were discussed.
The purpose of this case study was to examine if image repair theory, as described by
Benoit (1995), is effective for managing clients’ social media-generated crises in 2020 in the
United States. Image repair theory has assisted reputation management among public relations
practitioners for client reputation repair (Coombs, 2016). Benoit’s (1995) original work involved
a continuum of responses based upon five image repair strategies. From an academic
perspective, Wang (2016) suggested that further research should be pursued to close the gap on
crisis communication, because of needed development in theoretical and methodological efforts.
Hence, there was a lack of research to offer guidance and solutions in crisis situations for public
relations practitioners.
Additionally, further research was needed to understand the perceptions of a cross-section
of public relations practitioners when examining social media-generated crises, and much of the
research has left out public relations senior management (Luo et al., 2015). According to Etter et
al. (2019), when it comes to understanding and managing a social media-generated crisis,
practice may be far ahead of academia. This may be in part due to practitioners dealing with the
onslaught of new technologies and modes of communication. However, there were few studies
71
examining how public relations practitioners use social media and implement discrete strategies
for social media-generated crises (Etter et al., 2019).
The purpose of this qualitative study was to examine effective strategies and tactics for
managing social media-generated crises. Additionally, the study explored if age, gender, or
experience impact a practitioner’s tactical and strategic response to a social media-generated
crisis. There is a need for public relations practitioners to properly understand and attempt to
manage the never-ending barrage of negative stories and unsubstantiated claims arising from
social media (Jiang et al., 2016). Public relations practitioners have been challenged by the
proliferation of social media activity since much of the web-based content is unverified,
pervasive, and instantaneous to a worldwide audience. By understanding how public relations
practices, and offer practitioners suggested pathways and channels to handle a crisis situation
better.
The study explored if age, gender, or experience impact a practitioner’s tactical and
strategic response for a client’s reputation during a social media-generated crisis. There was a
need for public relations practitioners to properly understand and attempt to manage the on-going
barrage of negative stories and unsubstantiated claims arising from social media (Jiang et al.,
2016). Public relations practitioners have been challenged by the onslaught of social media
activity since much of the web-based content is unverified, pervasive, and instantaneous to a
worldwide audience (Jiang et al., 2016) By further understanding how public relations
practices, and offer practitioners suggested pathways and channels to handle a crisis situation
72
better. The central question addressed: Are traditional image repair strategies appropriate in
today's social media world where crises arise, and responses are generated?
In the digital environment now, where Facebook posts and Twitter feeds can fuel panic,
and even bring chaos, it is important for public relations practitioners to carefully choose a
response strategy that is effective, efficient, and comprehensive. The decision-making process in
today’s light-speed environment puts the public relations professional in a position of providing
immediate responses that help restore, repair, or enhance an organization’s image.
Research Methodology and Design
An initial qualitative analysis worked well in this setting and provided important trends
and summaries to assist researchers in exploring strategic and tactical approaches to handling
social media crises (Luo et al., 2015). Upon embarking on a set of pre-determined questions for
qualitative interviews or focus groups, it might become apparent that some questions or focus
areas were not relevant or that the interviewee had difficulty understanding the question at hand
(or even the whole line of questioning). In addition, it might be possible that the interviews
uncover a whole set of questions or concerns not previously identified in the initial research
design development (Rosaline, 2008).
Qualitative research is an essential part of any effort to engage working practitioners
defined as holding a valid membership in PRSA and producing daily deliverables. A variety of
qualitative design options were available to the researcher; however, great care needed to be
taken when choosing the appropriate research design and collection method. While some designs
are ideal for a particular application, some design types do not work well in certain situations
(Baxter & Jack, 2008; Creswell, 1994).

73
Qualitative research is a set of procedures for collecting, analyzing, and interpreting data
that cannot be meaningfully quantified. It is exploratory in nature. Regardless of where it is used
in a research study, its goal is discovery rather than validation. Its purpose is to provide rich
insights, clarifications, and ideas. "Qualitative research addresses the nature of structure,
attitudes, and motivations, rather than their frequency and distribution. The underlying goal is to
explore, in-depth, the feelings and beliefs people hold, and to learn how those feelings shape
overt behavior” (Goldman & McDonald, 1987).
A case study was appropriate because it offered many advantages for assessing and
probing to gain a better understanding and clarity of the subject matter. How a choice is made,
the range of subjects to be covered, revealing potentially unpopular or controversial views, and
defining process details were optimally extracted in a one-on-one interview. The interaction
between the interviewer and interviewee provided more in-depth insights instead of broad,
duplicated data such as with a quantitative methodology. Instead of simply repeating comments
made by others, interviewees reacted to and built upon the concepts throughout the interview.
The type of criterion explored in this research lends itself to a case study/IDI format. A case
study allowed for the interview to be modified quickly during an interview, thus enhancing the
flexibility of the research process. Readers of the research find the qualitative responses easy to
understand. Concurrently, communication of results is facilitated with the help of videotaped
excerpts, pictures, and images from activities done in the interview. A variety of topics can be
investigated using a wide range of participants. Research objectives can be kept confidential due
to the tightly controlled environment and the ability to get interviewees to sign nondisclosure
agreements.
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As part of the initial development of a qualitative study, several other methodologies
were examined but were discounted for various reasons. As demonstrated in this chapter,
qualitative research of a limited sample size was appropriate given the unknown nature of
response strategies involving crisis communication. Therefore, at this initial stage, without the
benefit of previous studies centered on crisis communication utilizing the Benoit response
continuum, this study was an open-ended exploration that might lead to future qualitative and
quantitative studies.
After examining both qualitative and quantitative methodologies, a quantitative research
effort was determined not appropriate for this study. In a quantitative study, a deductive
approach is used in which the researcher identifies a theory that relates to the topic being studied,
develops hypotheses based on this theory, and then tests those hypotheses with data that either
confirm the hypotheses or not. Assembling quantitative research generally follows a logical,
linear structure. The researcher for this study opted not to use quantitative methodology because
the data necessary to formulate research hypotheses are to be extracted as a direct result of this
paper's qualitative research process. Qualitative research is exploratory in nature and typically
follows an inductive approach to advance and build theory. With induction, the researcher began
with specific observations about an area or question of interest. These observations led to the
identification of patterns upon which some tentative hypotheses were formulated that were
developed into a theory. The questions were open-ended, did not require a priori hypotheses, and
were characterized by "how" and "why" rather than "what" questions (Creswell, 1994). Writing
this qualitative paper was not as structured as a quantitative study would be due to the
exploratory and often nonlinear path that this study aimed to follow.
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There were several limitations taken into consideration with a case study format.
Researchers can be likely to place greater faith in the results from the interviews than warranted.
If the interviews are not carefully moderated by a skilled professional, numerous opportunities
for biases are introduced by improper interpretations. Due to the qualitative nature of the data, it
is difficult to summarize and interpret the results, and easy to perceive and interpret comments
from interviewees selectively. This often leaves a more indelible impression than simply reading
quantitative summaries. This study examined qualitative design pathways to understand further
the root cause of the unanticipated social media-generated crisis and offered an initial assessment
of best practices currently used by working professionals that might work in a variety of crisis
situations involving social media (Hoy, 2010). These response strategies can be viewed in a
comparative fashion to the traditional response continuum found in image repair theory (IRT)
(Benoit, 1997; Coombs 2016).
Phenomenology attempts to understand the world through the lens of others and explores
people’s subjective experiences and the meaning they attribute to them. Such studies can also
expose false assumptions about the experience (Hale, Treharne, & Kitas, 2007; Starks &
Trinidad, 2007; Hanson, Drumheller, Mallard, McKee, & Schlegel, 2011; Creswell, 1998/2013).
Interpretations of an event are often varied and may further change with social interactions.
The disadvantages of qualitative work are represented by several key points. First, it is
indeed a small sample size. While representation is important, this initial foray is limited in
scope. Second, subjective, qualitative responses are helpful, but a later quantitative study of a
broader group of selectees may be beneficial. Several pathways may be chosen. Table 1
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Qualitative Research Designs (Appendix) details the types of qualitative research design and
various forms of data collection.
Proposed findings were represented by the development of themes and commonalities
among the interviewees. While important to have conclusions, observations, and theories, it was
equally important to examine any wide disparity among results, not only to look at outliers
critically but also to ensure that comments are treated equally at the time of initial grouping and
thematic development.
Population and Sample
According to the Bureau of Labor Statistics of the United States government, in 2018,
there were 270,000 individuals classified as people who have a job in the public relations
profession with an average salary of $62,000. This study looked at only a fraction of the
population, and the sample size was 30 full-time practitioners who came from a variety of
backgrounds within the public relations profession. Specific job categories were not used to
aggregate or differentiate among interviewees. Out of a population of more 402 public relations
practitioners in Indiana who were members of the PRSA, a recruitment list of 100 professionals
was used with the ultimate goal of 30 qualified interviews based on age, gender, and experience
stratification.
Conducting 30 executive interviews of stratified interviewees in a qualitative effort may
set the stage for potential and further quantitative research, as sample sizes in the qualitative
work were not comprehensive in nature (Agee & Gimbel, 2009). As part of the proposed
methodology, NVivo (Version 12; QSR International, 2020), qualitative analysis software, was
used. In this process, interviews were transcribed into text, and data securely stored on both a
77
cloud and a drive. Also, NVivo was encrypted for an additional layer of security to meet privacy
standards.
Rather, quantitative research allowed general themes to be assembled to serve as the
basis for a broader, more comprehensive statistical effort or even a future mixed-methodology
design. Questions and hypotheses for research should be clear and direct. In the study proposed,
the practitioners had experience in traditional crisis management strategies and interacted in a
social media environment involving crises.
Conducting qualified targeted interviews of 31 public relations practitioners (based upon
the selection criteria) resulted in a variety of outcomes and responses that were combined into a
thematic trends analysis. Here, the opportunity to nuance and dig deeply into the emotional
responses of interviewees (frustration, confusion, clarity) allowed researchers to develop key
themes and higher-level takeaways. Through a detailed executive questionnaire, the intent of the
interview was to uncover key themes, trends, and strategic and tactical approaches to the fast-
rising phenomenon of social media-generated crises.
The target audience was
1. People who are working public relations practitioners.
2. Current members of the Public Relations Society of America in Indiana.
3. United States-based professionals.
4. People who work in either the private or nonprofit sector—not within government or
academia full time.
5. Gender-neutral.
6. People who hold a minimum of a B.S. or B.A.

78
7. People who may hold a managerial position.
8. People who have been involved in at least one social media-generated crisis in the past
two to four years to be relevant and current in social media.
9. People whom are not students, part-time practitioners, nor government public affairs
personnel.
10. People who are Young Adult (18-29 years), Thirties (30-39 years), Mid-Life (40-64
years), Aged (65+ years), as outlined in Mid-life in the United States Survey were all
included (Drewelies, Agrigoroaei, Lachman, & Gerstorf, 2018).
Materials or Instrumentation
A variety of qualitative design options were available to the researcher; however, great
care needed to be taken when choosing the appropriate research design and collection method.
While some designs were ideal for a particular application, some design types do not work well
in certain situations (Baxter & Jack, 2008; Creswell, 1994).
Conducting qualified targeted interviews of 31 public relations practitioners (based upon
selection criteria) resulted in a variety of outcomes and responses that were combined into a
thematic trends analysis. It was recommended that 31 was the ideal size for a qualitative sample
to reach saturation of information and avoid diminishing returns (Creswell, 1998/2013). Here,
the opportunity to dig deeply into the nuanced emotional responses of interviewees (e.g.,
frustration, confusion, and clarity) allowed researchers to develop key themes and higher-level
takeaways.
Initially, it was advisable to hold executive interviews and possibly focus groups to
determine the level of concern or frustration among practitioners dealing with social media
79
during a public relations problem, and how they attempt to deal with the onslaught of
instantaneous crises derived from social media (Baxter & Jack, 2008). Prior to finalization of the
discussion guide, a draft guide was used with a limited population of six individuals to test for
appropriateness and usability of the interview questions.
Qualitative methods bring together exploration, inductive reasoning, and personal
experience that highlight problems in a person’s life or work (Mertens, 2015). Here, there was a
method of inquiry and a product of inquiry (Mertens, 2015). Case studies were an excellent way
to answer questions concerning how and why (Baxter & Jack, 2008). Certainly, in the case of
handling public relations nightmares generated by social media, it was extremely beneficial to
understand the context in which a decision is made (Rosaline, 2008).
This study used semi-structured interviews with public relations practitioners (n=31) to
identify the perceived barriers and facilitators to providing current and future strategies for
successfully addressing crises generated by and through social media. Intensive open-ended
individual interviews deeply explored the respondents’ point of view, feelings, and perspectives.
Participants were identified and selected through PRSA membership. Recruitment
through a random selection of interviewees, based upon age, gender and experience cohorts,
continued until data saturation, indicated by no new themes arising from the
data. Interviews were conducted with a cloud-based video conferencing service to accommodate
geographical barriers and facilitate diversity. Furthermore, given the difficulty with face-to-face
meetings in the 2020 pandemic, it was prudent to conduct interviews through online sources.
The qualitative data was analyzed using an analysis with themes anticipated to relate to: relevant
barriers to providing crisis management through social media; the impact of different barriers on
80
crisis management; changes in the ability to address social media crises over time; and strategies
to facilitate the provision of tools to address crises generated or exacerbated by social media.
The findings informed strategies to improve the implementation of future strategies.
Central to the study was a comparison of IRT and responses generated to the crisis being handled
by current public relations practitioners. These findings will be disseminated in peer-reviewed
publications and national and international conferences.
Through a detailed executive questionnaire, the intent of the interview was to uncover
key themes and trends, as well as strategic and tactical approaches to the fast-rising phenomenon
of social media, generated crises. As previously stated, there were several advantages of using
executive interviews to complete this phase of the research. First, this broad initial assessment
allowed the researcher to develop key themes and trends within the context of PRSA executives.
Second, the approach allowed for adaptability and adjustment during the interview phase.
The disadvantages of qualitative work were represented by several key points. First, it
was indeed a small sample size. While representation is important, this initial foray was limited
in scope. Second, subjective, qualitative responses were helpful, but a later quantitative study of
a broader group of selectees may be beneficial.
Following this approach, the aim of the proposed research methodology was to grasp the
essence of the experience of public relations professionals in today’s social media climate using
descriptions provided through interview responses. It was expected that we would be able to
extract the assumptions and preferred tactics from these descriptions. Interpretation of the
descriptions allowed researchers to relate the experiences and organize them in a relevant context
to develop a decision support matrix or evidence-based tactical strategy. Schütz’s (1962) concept
81
of first- and second-order constructs was the employed application of this process. Schütz
distinguished first-order constructs as the participants’ common-sense interpretations in their
own words and second-order constructs was the researchers’ interpretations based on first-order
constructs.
Study Procedures
Through a detailed executive interview via the cloud-based videoconferencing service
Zoom (Version 5.1, Zoom Video Communications, Inc., 2020.), the intent was to uncover key
themes and trends, as well as strategic and tactical approaches to the fast-rising phenomenon of
social media-generated crises based upon the use (or non-use) of traditional response strategies
as found in Benoit's IRT. Out of a population of more 402 public relations practitioners in
Indiana who were members of the PRSA, a recruitment list of 100 professionals was used with
the ultimate goal of 30 qualified interviews based on age, gender, and experience stratification.
The following list demonstrates possible key themes arising from the qualitative effort.
involves crises?
RQ3. How are crisis managers choosing response channels (Facebook over
Twitter, for example) when handling a crisis created by social media?
RQ4. How applicable are Benoit’s continuum of response strategies from denial
to mortification in today’s social media crises environment?

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RQ5. Do age, gender, or experience levels influence the manner and
generated crisis?
As previously expressed, qualitative research was a necessary part of any effort engaging
working practitioners, defined as holding a valid membership in PRSA. This avoided strictly
academic practitioners’ responses, as this study was geared toward practical applications of
recommendations (Baxter & Jack, 2008).
Data Collection and Analysis
The data collection and analysis was a manual process as opposed to a computer-driven
process. However, computer-assisted data collection, specifically NVivo, can be beneficial
(Davis & Meyer, 2009). When discussing the nuances and subtleties of public relations strategies
and tactics involving social media, it was imperative to record and code the information carefully
and thoroughly. Divergent viewpoints and minor (but important) differences in strategic
approaches were noted (Leech & Onwuegbuzie, 2011).
The process, while computer-assisted, involved a thoughtful and deliberative analysis of
the verbatim transcripts from the executive interviews. Under a simplified process offered up by
Creswell (1998/2013), the author modified the Stevick-Colaizzi-Keen methodology and
suggested a detailed and thorough process. Interestingly, the first step in data analysis is to
understand and vet the researchers' understanding of the phenomena so that biases and pre-
determined positions are known, to help avoid the introduction of pre-conceived notions and
keep them out of the deliberative process.

83
Qualitative methods bring together exploration, inductive reasoning, and personal
experience that highlight problems in a person’s life or work (Mertens, 2015). This paper follows
a phenomenological design. Here, there was a method of inquiry and a product of inquiry
(Mertens, 2015). A thematic methodology analyzed data and suggested emergent themes to be
either tested in a quantitative fashion or in developing a theory (Creswell, 1998/2013).
The common approach, and one familiar to this author, was the analysis of qualitative
interview data through exact and detailed transcription (McLafferty & Farley, 2006). Verbatim
quotations were compiled into a structure in which thematic material was grouped into common
themes. A phenomenological analysis of the data was conducted resulting from the executive
interviews (Moustakas, 1994). This allowed for highly specified methods of analysis and fit
nicely into this research (Creswell, 1998/2013).
The process, while computer-assisted, involved a thoughtful and deliberative analysis of
the verbatim transcripts from the executive interviews. Under a simplified process offered up by
Creswell (1998/2013), the author modified the Stevick-Colaizzi-Keen methodology and
suggested a detailed and thorough process. The first step in data analysis was to understand and
vet the researchers' understanding of the phenomena so that biases and pre-determined positions
are known to help avoid the introduction of pre-conceived notions and keep them out of the
deliberative process.
Through a detailed executive questionnaire, the intent of the interview was to uncover
key themes and trends, as well as strategic and tactical approaches to the fast-rising phenomenon
of social media-generated crises. Importantly, the study examined age as a factor in participants'
attitudes and responses to social media crises. The disadvantages of qualitative work were
84
represented by several key points. First, it was indeed a small sample size. While representation
is important, this initial foray was limited in scope. Second, subjective, qualitative responses
were helpful, but a later quantitative study of a broader group of selectees may be beneficial.
There were a number of pathways that might be chosen. In this research, a case study design was
applied due to its adaptability to the problem.
Assumptions
As previously stated, there were several advantages of using executive interviews to
complete this phase of the research. This broad initial assessment allowed the researcher to
develop key themes and trends within the context of PRSA executives. In the following table 2
about the phenomenon are presented.
Table 1:
Key Assumptions
Assumptions Number of Identified Theme

Respondents
Overarching frustration with TBD Unpredictable
social media Loss of control
Lack of effective tactical TBD Fast-moving/morphing
responses
Untrustworthiness of internet TBD No validity of some sources
Frustration over the needed TBD Timing is everything
speed of response Need for speed
Continued on Page 85
85
Assumptions Number of Identified Theme

Respondents
Growing concern over TBD
Stakeholder/publics impact
opposition community online
A new source of online rogue TBD Quickly emerging new
websites, negatives posts, and technologies and communities
Facebook
Limitations
The disadvantages of qualitative work are represented by several key points. First, it was
indeed a small sample size (31). While representation is important, this initial foray was limited
in scope. Second, subjective, qualitative responses are helpful, but a later quantitative study of a
broader group of selectees may be beneficial. There are a number of pathways that may be
chosen. In this research, it was proposed to apply a case study design due to its adaptability to the
problem.
Delimitations
The research design was conducive to further examination of the social media
phenomena. Furthermore, this study explored the limitations of public relations practitioners
when viewed through the lens of traditional IRT. The research was limited to 31 individuals with
appropriate selection criteria. The privacy of the interviewees was extremely important because
responses (specifically involving crisis response) might be controversial or contain proprietary
information.
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Ethical Assurance
The proposed study involved human subjects randomly selected and screened for
suitability, experience handling a social media-generated crisis, gender, age, and length of time
in the profession. This study design required approval by the IRB prior to interviews and data
collection. Permission was obtained from the IRB on (September 04, 2020), CITI certification
obtained (24-Jul-2019), valid through (23, Jul-2021, 29266168). Written and verbal consent was
obtained from all participants.
The role of the researcher was to handle recruitment of individuals meeting the selection
criteria and conduct a qualitative inquiry into the approach of practitioners handling a social
media crisis. Additionally, the researcher was a practicing public relations professional that
handles significant social media crises for clients. The first step in data analysis was to
understand and vet the researchers' understanding of the phenomena so that biases and pre-
determined positions were known, to help avoid the introduction of pre-conceived notions and
keep them out of the deliberative process. Data was securely stored on servers located at the
researcher's main office. Confidentiality was achieved by removing all name identifiers when
compiling results. The researcher avoided biases based upon the researcher's own experience
when handling a crisis. The research and interview questions were not biased nor led the
interviewee to the researcher's conclusions or built-in bias.
Summary
Public relations practitioners were confronting new challenges presented by social media.
While many studies discussed and offered guidance to public relations professionals in a social
media-generated crisis, little research existed that delineated if traditional public relations
87
response strategies were appropriate and effective for today's digital environment. This
qualitative effort was an initial foray into a comparative analysis of traditional public relations
responses and the quickly morphing social media environment. The study design was interviews
directed toward working professionals of differing experience levels, different age cohorts, and
gender comparisons. Research questions designed to solicit narrative responses to draw out
current strategies and tactics of public relations people in the throes of crisis communication and
management. There were drawbacks to the proposed study, such as a limited sample size (31).
However, a qualitative study, at this early stage of analysis was preferred over quantitative
methods. It is possible that future studies would be of a quantitative nature with a larger sample
size and administered through a questionnaire.
When examining if public relations practitioners are struggling with social media
challenges involving a crisis, all one needs to do is look to the headlines in newspapers,
newscasts on television, and the vast amount of online chatter and negativity. There was a need
for public relations practitioners to assess properly and manage the constant barrage of negative
stories and unsubstantiated claims arising from social media (Jiang et al., 2016). While it was
demonstrated that social media may make a profound impact on company image and action, little
research had explored if IRT’s response continuum from denial to acceptance of responsibility,
was still a valid theory in today’s digital and social media setting.
88
Chapter 4: Findings
The purpose of this qualitative study was to examine if image repair theory (IRT), as
described by Benoit (1995), is useful for managing clients' social media-generated crises in 2020
in the United States. The study explored if age, gender, or experience impact a practitioner's
tactical and strategic response to a social media-generated crisis. There was a need for public
relations practitioners to properly understand and attempt to manage the unending barrage of
negative stories and unsubstantiated claims arising from social media (Jiang, Luo, & Kulemeka,
2016). The onslaught of social media activity challenged public relations practitioners since
much of the web-based content is unverified, pervasive, and instantaneous to a worldwide
audience. Better understanding how public relations practitioners have responded to a social
media-generated crisis in their organizations or on behalf of clients provided an opportunity to
explore best practices and offer pathways and channels to handle a crisis better.
While crisis communication strategies have evolved over the years, Benoit's IRT has
been adopted and adapted by practitioners. This study examined how public relations
practitioners' responses during a social media-generated crisis fit into categories developed by
Benoit. The categories were further advanced in literature by Coombs when social media had
progressed at light-speed, but communications theory had not (Cheng, 2018).
Despite some critiques of its universal application, IRT serves as the foundation of much
crisis communication research and led to reformulations since it was first proposed (Marsen,
89
In this study, respondents indicated external factors, such as audience analysis and social
media platform selection, were critical factors in strategy design and implementation. This
conclusion supports Marsen's work posits that situational communication theory presents a more
holistic view of the crisis due to the importance of external perception and attribution (Marsen
2020).
While Benoit's work has been exhaustive and succinct, other theorists point to the fact
that crises involve many stakeholders with highly divergent perspectives and interests. Crisis
communication research may cater to the multiplicity of voices, or multivocality, present. In a
research effort by Kim, Avery, and Lariscy (2009), quantitative content analysis evaluated crisis
response strategy analyzed in more than 18 years of research, published in crisis communication
literature in public relations. Analysis of 51 articles in 11 different journals used two dominant
theories in public relations crisis communication literature, Benoit's IRT and Coombs' situational
crisis communication theory. The lack of diversity in the cases, and gaps between theory and
practice, indicated pressing directions for future research.
This study did not consider other theories, such as Grunig and Grunig's excellence theory
(1998), because they did not fit IRT's exactness and applicability. Grunig and Grunig's (1998)
excellence study reveals a complicated but logically satisfying explanation of public relations'
value. To be effective, an organization must strive to solve the problems and satisfy both
stakeholders and management (Grunig & Grunig, 1998).
90
attribute responsibility for events. When applied to crisis management, stakeholders ascribe
responsibility internally (organization) or externally (environmental factors). This audience-
based theory attempted to identify the crisis factors that shape the crisis attributions stakeholders
make (Coombs, 2010; Wise, 2004).
Results in this study confirm Benoit’s Image Repair Theory (Benoit 1995) and its
usefulness in combating damage to an organization's reputation. Various responses, ranging from
denial to apology, may be appropriate in a crisis communication scenario. Many respondents
said they use different responses in different social media settings depending on the crisis
occurring. However, respondents did not favor or consistently use denial as described in Benoit's
IRT as a response on social media. A few respondents favored denial, but only when clear-cut
falsehoods emanated from social media publics and stakeholders.
Apology, another IRT attribute, was favored only when there was clear harm to an
organization’s reputation. Apology responses also required pre-vetting by the legal team at the
organization.
The interviews discovered the option of “doing nothing at all” in cases of social media
upheaval. This "no-response" option has been the subject of other research. Benoit's IRT
framework does not include it as a strategy, suggesting broadening response strategies to include
a “no-action" alternative in the continuum of responses.
An additional finding concerned the use of fact-based, neutral responses. When needed,
respondents suggested basing a proper response on clear facts presented in a neutral tone. Also
contradicting Benoit’s IRT response schema, no category for neutral, fact-based responses
appears in his early work.

91
One strategy that emerged from this study but was not in Benoit's early IRT framework
was reinforcing the organization's reputation through positive stories and social media posts.
This strategy is “bolstering” under Benoit’s reducing offensiveness category. Reducing
offensiveness suggests the communicator accepts some measure of responsibility but offers
external communication such as positive stories and information to "lessen the impact on their
reputation." This strategy is identified as (a) bolstering the image of the communicator to lessen
the impact of the harmful act; (b) minimization of the incident; (c) differentiation to contrast the
specific act with even greater transgressions; (d) transcendence, in which the specific act is
placed in a different light; (e) attacking the accuser; and (f) offering some form of compensation
for the perceived harm caused by the communicator's actions (Armfield et.al. 2019).
Furthermore, this study did not confirm that age, gender, or experience affected the
responses used by public relations practitioners. However, this limited sample size of 31
respondents among varied age groups, gender, and experience did not factor into decision
making for crisis response, primarily related to social media crises.
Many practitioners noted that the use of social media platforms did not result in effective
two-way communication on the various platforms in the digital space. Instead, most practitioners
saw social media platforms as useful for one-way communication to distribute information and
positive messages about the organization. This contradicts both researchers' and practitioners'
opinions that social media platforms are effective for two-way communication with stakeholders.
The idea that social media platforms contribute to better stakeholder involvement needs
additional study as most respondents said they use social media to share positive information
about their company or non-profit.

92
Trustworthiness of the Data
Public relations professionals struggle to understand and respond to an ever-increasing
deluge of damaging content and unverified sources (Schwarz, 2012). The study also examined
whether the public relations professional's age is related to efficacy in handling social media-
generated crises. For example, would an older professional with more traditional experience in
crisis management and less experience with social media-generated crises, be as comfortable and
aggressive in social media responses as a younger practitioner? This paper proposed a qualitative
approach to ascertain the viewpoints of professionals. Specifically, do age, gender, and
experience matter when confronting social media-generated crises. The study assessed and
interpreted practitioners' attitudinal and tactical approaches when crises develop, and their
approach and deployment of social media proactive and reactive responses.
The following research questions guided the study.
RQ1. How do public relations professionals use traditional public relations strategies,
such as IRT, in the fast-paced and unpredictable social media setting when it involves crises?
RQ2. What is traditional crisis communication strategies employed by practitioners when
dealing with a social media-generated crisis?
RQ3. How are crisis managers choosing response channels (Facebook over Twitter, for
example) when handling a crisis created by social media?
RQ4. How applicable are Benoit's continuum of response strategies from denial to
mortification in today's social media crisis environment?
RQ5. How do age, gender, or experience levels influence the manner and methodologies
chosen by public relations practitioners when confronting a social media-generated crisis?

93
Results
NVivo12 by QSR International assisted with the qualitative analysis of the questions,
including transcribing and coding the interviews. The survey codes were then translated into
themes and tabulated based on their number of references and the number of participants who
shared them. NVivo12 produced the hierarchy of themes based on the frequency of participants'
references of the themes (n=31). The study tagged the most frequently referenced themes as the
core themes and identified those with fewer references participants' other themes. The researcher
incorporated the main points of Benoit's image repair theory (1995) into the thematic analysis.
All participants were working public relations practitioners aged 18+ (not in government
or academia full time) in Indiana, with a minimum of a B.S. or B.A. All participants had personal
experience in at least one social media-generated crisis in the past two to four years. Table 2
contains the breakdown of the participants’ PRSA membership, gender, age, education, and
sector.
Table 2:
Breakdown of Participants' Demographics

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involves crises?
Thematic analysis of the interviews grouped responses into two categories with several
themes addressing the first research question. Most public relations practitioners interviewed use
traditional public relations strategies (n=29) and newer, non-traditional strategies when facing
social media-generated crises (n=31). Table 3 contains the breakdown of findings in response to
the first research question.
Table 3:
Breakdown of Findings in Response to RQ1

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Thematic Category A: Traditional PR Strategies
The first thematic category covers the traditional public relations strategies and tactics
used in addressing social media-generated crises. Four core themes emerged: 65% of participants
97
(20 of 31) emphasized the importance of having a plan including social media training and an
escalation path for higher impact crises, 48% of participants (15 of 31) cited the importance of
showing empathy and accuracy over speed, and 42% (13 of 31) mentioned the value of
communicating internally first. One other theme also emerged among 5 participants: concern
over the opposition community (16%)
Figure 1:
Traditional Public Relations Strategies
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Core Theme 1: Have a Plan. Traditional public relations practice strongly encouraged
developing crisis plans and contingency plans with previously developed messaging and
responses. A total of 20 of 31 respondents suggested a social media crisis plan is advisable and
helpful. Traditional public relations practice requires preparedness for a crisis, including
planning, media training, and developing messaging for a fast-moving crisis. Participant 11
emphasized this need by stating, “I think having a plan in place before you face that in making
sure that everybody in your organization knows that plan and understands.” Because social
98
media is immediate and pervasive, an external public may use a social media platform to engage
in reputation-damaging attacks at a company without regard to the accuracy and validity of the
statements or argument. Many participants (n=16) reported providing training to stakeholders
specifically about how to address social media-generated crises. Participant 18 stated:
We have a crisis communications playbook where we have a binder full of every
scenario that we have incurred already and what we anticipate. We have predisposed
media statements, responses for tweets, responses for press conferences.
A total of 16 participants also cited escalating social media-generated crises internally to senior
leadership if the risk of reputation damage is high.
Core Theme 2: Show Empathy. Of the 31 participants, 15 stressed the importance of
showing empathy in crisis response. Sincere, emotive responses can assure internal and external
publics that the company is at least acknowledging that something happened. Participant 8 said,
"I think empathy is imperative, is paramount. You need to build some public sentiment. You
must make sure that the public knows you are not taking this for granted.” However, responses in
social media channels may be viewed as defensive or incite additional comments and criticism.
Participant 26 stated, “You need to acknowledge that and express sympathy, which is not the
same thing as accepting or acknowledging responsibility. It is one of the trickiest and dangerous
areas in crisis.”
Core Theme 3: Accuracy Over Speed is a crucial strategy in a traditional setting, and
15 of 31 respondents said that social media responses must also be factual and accurate
regardless of urgency. Participant 17 said, “It is one of the more critical jobs now more than ever
to have a penchant for accuracy. Just do not be afraid to double-check and triple-check. Don't be
99
too quick about it.” Participant 2 added, “As much as you need immediacy, you need accuracy.
There is nothing worse than putting out a message and having to backtrack." Participant 3 said,
"When you respond quickly, people want to share your response. It could be in a negative way,
not the positive way, and you create flames for the fire or feed the fire.”
Core Theme 4: Internal First. Traditional public relations strategies have emphasized
the importance of a concentric circles model (Roper, 1945) whereby the primary audience is
contacted/informed first in times of a crisis. In many instances, internal publics (employees,
board members, vendors) are told first to avoid rumor spread and ensure internal stakeholders
have the facts first. Thirteen of 31 participants cited that for social media-generated crises as
well. External information pathways such as Facebook were seen as critical, but only for
information sharing purposes, and not as effective two-way dialogue with the public. Participant
19 shared:
The employees and volunteers or a very active board, other people are going to
want to find out something before they see it in the media. Those people also can be
posting to social media. If they are not informed correctly, they can be coming to the
defense of an organization or they fueling the fire.
Other Theme: Concern Over Opposition Community. Historically concern about the
opposition community has been common among PR practitioners. However, the depth and
breadth of fast-rising social media crises suggest new, more complex challenges for
professionals. Only 5 of 31 participants mentioned this concern. Speaking of opposition groups,
Participant 7 shared, “They understand social media and how to look for the hot buttons. There
are hot button groups that you want to stay ahead of.”
100
Thematic Category B: Non-Traditional PR Efforts
The second thematic category covers efforts that are beyond the traditional PR strategies.
Five core themes emerged: 90% of participants (28 of 31) shared the need for speed, 85% of
participants (26 of 31) mentioned the importance of understanding the influence and reach of a
social media crisis, 77% (24 of 31) talked about the challenge of loss of control and
unpredictability, 71% (22 of 31) discussed the need for 24/7 monitoring and 61% (19 of 31)
mentioned the power of video to escalate and manage a social media crisis. Three other themes
also emerged: the challenge in the proliferation of social media channels and technology (29%),
the lack of validity of some sources (26%), and the fear of permanence of social media (16%).
Figure 2:
Non-Traditional Public Relations Efforts
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Core Theme 1: Need for Speed. While accuracy is paramount, 28 respondents indicated
the heightened need to respond quickly to a crisis when it occurs in the social media realm.
Participant 11 explained, “I always personally want to respond as quickly as possible, because I

101
don't want to give the impression that we are not taking somebody's comment or concern
seriously. I like to keep it two minutes if possible.” Participant 14 said:
Our first statement is we are aware of the situation and we are looking into it, and
that helps. The last thing we want to do is be quiet. Even if we don't have anything to say,
we want to respond.
Participant 15 shared:
We go out to events, emergency scenes, and I see lots of people with their cell
phones on. In many cases, they are live streaming. So we do have to push our operations
people and our legal people to move statements out quickly because you can lose control
of a message very quickly on social media.
Core Theme 2: Understand Influence & Reach. Twenty-six respondents recognized
the importance of understanding the influence and reach of social media when a crisis occurs.
They agreed that social media might exacerbate a crisis or threat to reputation management.
Participant 19 said that they are “often trying to get a rapid handle on how many people are
engaging in social; you can have hundreds of posts, but is it only 10 active people?” The size of
the following often drives the response strategy. Participant 27 shared:
You will look at someone and see how many followers, what's their influence, are
they just kind of venting a little bit and then it's done? It's not that we ignore it; we know
what's happening, but we won't respond to it.
Core Theme 3: Loss of Control/Unpredictable. Most respondents (24 of 31) agreed
that social media presents unpredictable situations that cannot be controlled or managed. Unlike
traditional public relations, those situations may pose challenges to control the situation quickly
102
to quell the crisis. Participant 11 shared, “We did have one incident a couple of years ago that we
could not control because somebody started posting things about us, but didn't tag us in the
original post. Because of that, we couldn't directly respond to them." Participant 13 said, “It's
almost a Wild West of communication sometimes. Traditionally, we do not want to limit
people's right or ability to chime in, because that seems like we're censoring the conversation or
controlling the conversation.”
Core Theme 4: 24-Hour Monitoring. Twenty-two participants found this important
compared to traditional monitoring of newscasts and morning papers in the historic news cycle.
Many respondents reported using software tools to support their monitoring efforts and had
significant staff time engaged in monitoring. Participant 3 said, “We use a couple of different
services for monitoring. Some are better than others. For us, we feel it still takes the human eye
to determine whether it is positive, negative, neutral.” Participant 31 shared, “Someone should
always be monitoring the social platforms, even on nights and weekends.” Participant 7
mentioned, “Information gets out. You have to be ahead of it. So we are 24/7, and my team is a
bunch of old news people. So they get that. We are always watching, always looking, always
following and responding.”
Core Theme 5: Power of Video. Practitioners widely acknowledged video as something
with growing importance in managing and responding to a crisis but agreed public relations
professionals underutilize it. Participant 26 stated, “Video is very good in a crisis because
coming back to the CEO or corporate spokesperson, people want to see and hear from someone."
Participant 3 said, "Video is trusted more than a statement because you can see someone's
empathy and promise on camera that you can't see in a written document.” Some respondents
103
indicated that it might take too long to develop an appropriate video for distribution on social
media channels to be effective. Participant 24 said:
We have used video. I don't think we're doing it enough. I feel what we're doing is
antiquated. So I want to be more robust and have more video with a little bit of language
versus a whole bunch of writing or this gloriously beautiful video that you're going to
look at one time that you spent five thousand dollars to waste money.
Other Theme 1: Proliferation of Channels/Tech. The proliferation of new channels in
social media, including adding new platforms that appeal to specific demographics, is a
challenge mentioned by 9 participants. Participant 3 stated:
The fragmentation continues and that will keep changing every week as new
channels come about. I think it's finding the channels that reach the audience you're
talking about, and that might be some in social media and some in other ways.
Participant 8 shared, “I just want to make sure that if it's the platform we're going to use, it really
is the right platform for crisis management.”
Other Theme 2: Lack of Validity of Some Sources Eight people found unsubstantiated
reports or invalid sources to be more likely in the expanded world of social media versus
traditional media sources that are limited in scope. Participant 13 said, “A con [of social media]
is you do not know all the time who these people are and what their background is like."
Participant 3 said that this distrust impacted the ability to handle social media crises: "The last
couple of years have created a mistrust of information in social media, which makes it harder for
companies to publish accurate, truthful information or be understood or believed.”

104
Other Theme 3: Fear of Permanence of Social Media. Fear of permanence of social
media was less of a concern (shared by only 5 participants) when compared to the accelerated
news cycle and plethora of unending social media reports and stories requiring a need for speed.
Participant 12 shared, “It’s permanent. If you pause before you hit send or post, then you should
probably stop.” Participant 16 added, “I remind everybody the Internet is forever and that no
matter what you put out there, even if it was deleted, it's out there forever.”
The thematic analysis of the interviews grouped responses into two thematic categories
with several themes addressing the first research question. Most public relations practitioners
interviewed use traditional public relations strategies (n=29) and newer, non-traditional strategies
when facing social media-generated crises (n=20). Table 4 contains the breakdown of findings in
response to the second research question.
Table 4:
Findings in Response to RQ2

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Thematic Category A: Traditional Communication Tactics Used in Social Media Crisis
The first thematic category covered the traditional communications tactics used in
addressing social media-generated crises. Four core themes emerged: partnering with leadership,
legal, and others, in advance to craft pre-approved messages, establishing strong relationships
with traditional media, relationships with traditional media, and press releases and press
conferences, and one other theme, the importance of telling a compelling story.
106
Figure 3:
Traditional Communication Tactics
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Core Theme 1: Partnering with Leadership, Legal and Other Teams was the most
frequently mentioned communication tactic. Participants shared that messages ideally are
approved in advance of a crisis. If a new, unanticipated crisis emerges, participants quickly bring
in those individuals to strategize and approve responses before communicating externally.
Participant 13 shared, “Sometimes you have to be very careful and working directly with
attorneys before you issue a statement.” Participant 14 stated, “When something does flare-up, I
can call them (subject matter experts) urgently to sit down all at once and go through what the
truth is, what we can say.”
Core Theme 2: Establishing Strong Relationships with Traditional Media. About
half mentioned the importance of establishing strong relationships with traditional media (48%
107
of participants, 15 of 31). Because of the mutual trust, these relationships helped them manage
the crisis, and buy time to formulate a response. Participant 28 said:
If you have a media request, it's important to acknowledge the request, but you
don't have to give your statement then. You can write back and say, “we received your
comment, your inquiry, and we're working to get a response.” That is enough of a
response that she knows you are working on it. Then your team can take a breath and
come up with the best approach.
Core Theme 3: The Value of Press Releases and Press Conferences. Many
participants cited the value of traditional communication methods such as press releases and
conferences (45%, 14 of 31). Participant 1 stated, “Press conferences, those press releases, the
statements you can release, those are good. I think those are the first step.” Participant 29 shared
an example where a press conference was effective: “We had a very well attended press
conference that got a lot of attention and ended up really moving the dial on the whole thing.”
Participant 3 shared that press releases can help share their story on social media: “So many
news organizations pick up press releases because they have to feed their digital machine and
keep their content fresh.”
Other Theme: Telling a Story. Some participants talked about the importance of
sharing a compelling story to manage a crisis (19%, 6 of 31). Participant 3 summarized this
sentiment:
You have to create interest, and you have to deliver a succinct and emotional
story that people will understand. That's true in social media, video and newspaper. The
108
fundamentals of our business of communication hold true regardless of what the channel
is, which is a good thing for people.
Thematic Category B: Modified Traditional Crisis Communications Tactics in Social Media
Crisis
The second thematic category comprises communication tactics that are different or
modified from traditional methods for handling a social media crisis. Two core themes emerged:
going around traditional media and utilizing social media as an opportunity to reach audiences
directly (45%, 20 of 31) and seeing the traditional media being driven by social media and
reacting to online activity (32%, 10 of 31).
Figure 4:
Modified Traditional Communications Strategies
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Core Theme 1: Opportunity to Reach Audiences Directly. Almost half of participants
(45%, 14 of 31) mentioned that they utilize social media to get their message out without
relying on traditional media channels. Participant 1 stated, “Social media has become the beast
it has because it connects people over oceans, over states, and it can humanize an organization if
used correctly.” Participant 12 commented, “You lead with social media because of the
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immediate access. I can put out a statement on Facebook, Twitter from Mayor X, and it's out
there, whereas with traditional media, you are at someone else's mercy.” Participant 17 also
emphasized the ability to take control: “Social media gives you a chance to say it yourself and
take out that middleman. So it works well.”
Core Theme 2: Traditional Media Driven by Social Media. About a third of
participants mentioned that they see traditional media following and responding to developments
they see on social media (32%, 10 of 31). Participant 14 stated, “Now the media saw the social
media because they follow us. So then we were getting all the media calls locally and nationally
asking us about what we were doing (based on what we shared on social media).”
RQ3. How are crisis managers choosing response channels (Facebook over Twitter,
for example) when handling a crisis created by social media?
Thematic Category A: Audience Determined Channel.
The first thematic category represents participants’ comments that social media channel
selection and response strategies depend on the target audience the organization would like to
reach. A total of 11 participants (35%) specifically emphasized that the social media platforms
utilized will vary depending on the crisis. Participant 19 stated, "(It is important to) understand
the platform they are working on because that makes a big difference. Understanding the
audiences of who is using what." Participant 26 shared:
Social media is a tactic, not a strategy. It is a communications vehicle. So in terms
of interacting with stakeholders and managing a crisis, well, it partly depends on is the
crisis across multiple social media channels or not? It probably will be about how you
interact with stakeholders, depends largely on where those stakeholders are and where
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they're engaging with social media. People try to boil the ocean. They try to do
everything. And that's very, very hard unless you have a huge team. You do have to
prioritize.
Participant 29 added:
We use all of those platforms, of course, and it's almost by topic. It would depend
where (a crisis) was getting the most traction already. If it's something that I'm not being
proactive about, something I'm being reactive about, obviously I'm going to react where
the kerfuffle is happening. I think social media platforms do have different personalities.
Figure 5:
Social Media Channel Use
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Thematic Category B: Social Media Channel Use.
The second thematic category covers the specific social media channels chosen by
participants to respond and manage a social media-generated crisis. Four core platforms were
most prevalent: Facebook (27 of 31), Twitter (25 of 31), Instagram (15 of 31) and LinkedIn (10
of 31). Other platforms were less used among participants: TikTok (6 of 31), YouTube (4 of 31)
and Nextdoor (2 of 31).
Core Theme 1: Facebook. In exploring the quickly evolving social media platforms, 27
respondents relied heavily on Facebook to share mostly positive news. They were reluctant to get
into an online dialogue with detractors or critics. Participant 17 shared, “Facebook, again, is the
big behemoth that is kind of an all-powerful platform for information we want to get out.”
Participant 11 stated:
Facebook is our primary tool. We do use Twitter and Instagram, but I wouldn't
say we have a very robust presence on those forums. I had seen some research that in
health care, Facebook is still very much the dominant social media tool.
Participant 8 said, “The beauty of it is that you could utilize Facebook to issue a more broad
statement. It could be the overarching strategy or the overarching message.” Facebook is viewed
as a social media channel to reach a broad range of ages. Participant 31 shared:
I think the older demographic is more active on Facebook. They're sharing more
things. They're “liking” more things. But the younger demographic are just not as vocal.
So they're still looking at things. They're just not as engaged an audience on Facebook.
Core Theme 2: Twitter. A total of 25 participants mentioned Twitter, indicating that it is
used for quick, informational messages and noted that reporters monitored Twitter regularly for
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news or information on a company. Participant 1 stated, “Twitter is a little more informational
newsy.” Participant 11 mentioned, “Twitter was a little more important, especially when
communicating in a crisis. Twitter was kind of our go to communication tool as far as plans for
any kind of a major incident mainly because that's where the media is.” Participant 14 added,
“Twitter feeds are mostly business. Everybody has been using it for politics and news.” If
negative information appears that offers up a news opportunity on Twitter, reporters may seize
upon the data. They may contact the company in question about the issue surfacing on the digital
platform. Participant 18 added, “I would say most of our crisis issues arise from Twitter just
because it's often used for reviews and commentary.” Participant 26 stated:
So many journalists today are on Twitter and want to interact with sources via
Twitter. So you will find that a lot of crisis communication happens on Twitter as well as
other platforms. Obviously things come up all the time.
Core Theme 3: Instagram. About half of participants reported using Instagram,
primarily for the ability to share images (15 of 31). Participant 14 stated, “We have fabulous
photography. So we were toying with Instagram. We put our stories out on Instagram. But again,
the engagement is not as much as it is with Facebook.” Instagram also tends to skew to a
younger audience. Participant 1 stated, “Instagram is a little more youthful. It talks a lot about
the fun and the experiences and those Instagram-able moments.” Participant 17 mentioned,
“We're trying to use Instagram for events that are geared toward young professionals.”
Core Theme 4: LinkedIn. Less often mentioned was the use of LinkedIn as a helpful
tool in thwarting negative online mentions (10 of 31). LinkedIn appears to be focused on the
business community and does not have the coverage depth of the large social media players like
113
Facebook or Twitter. Participant 16 said, "LinkedIn has a reputation of being good if you are
trying to be a thought leader, push content." Participant 18 mentioned, "We really promote the
different companies and organizations that we work with and that help boost our business."
Other Theme 1: TikTok. Few had experience with TikTok (6 of 31), and those who did
now use the platform infrequently due to security concerns. Participant 14 said:
We experimented with a TikTok channel because we thought it would be fun for
kids do. We had some educational videos, and then we had the whole cyber security issue
with it, so we just took down our TikTok page. Our security had to take it down.
Other Theme 2: YouTube. The use of video options like YouTube was not common
among public relations practitioners (4 of 31). Participant 20 shared:
We have a YouTube channel and share videos, and primarily used Facebook as
more of a warehouse. To be honest, every time we get a video, we put it up there, and
then we use other means to share the YouTube link to drive them back to our channel.
Some participants stated that video was an underused resource in their work at reputation
enhancement or repair (see Power of Video in RQ1).
Other Theme 3: Nextdoor. Few participants mentioned this social media channel (2 of
31). The channel has potential value due to the ability to hyper-target a specific neighborhood.
However, there is a barrier to organizations using Nextdoor more frequently. Participant 15
stated:
We do monitor the best we can the Nextdoor platform. But that's very difficult
because Nextdoor is broken down literally by neighborhood. You have to be a member in

114
that neighborhood. So we depend on our employees to alert us to issues that they see on
Nextdoor.
RQ4. How applicable are Benoit’s continuum of response strategies from denial to
mortification in today’s social media crises environment?
In a 1994 study, Benoit and Hanczor, examined image restoration theories in relationship
to sports, specifically the Tonya Harding crisis in skating. In the study (Benoit and Hanczor
1994) describe the various types of responses possible included within Benoit’s image repair
theory. In remarking about the opportunity to reduce the offensiveness of an act by providing
positive attributes of the accused, the researchers discussed how providing positive
characteristics of the speaker's image might offset negative perceptions (Benoit & Hanczor
1994).
However, when asked about offsetting bad press or reputation damage with their clients,
only seven of 31 respondents in this study suggested that was a potential strategy. Tactics include
positive placement of non-controversial stories aimed at improving image. While this strategy
holds some approval among practitioners, the overriding idea presented by 30 respondents was
not to engage further online with critics, but try to take the conversation offline. Of the 5
categories in Benoit's continuum, only corrective action was mentioned by more than half of
respondents (17 of 31). Table 5 provides the breakdown of responses to the fourth research
question.
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Table 5:
Breakdown of Results Addressing RQ4

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Figure 6:
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Thematic Category A: Benoit’s Continuum.
The first thematic category comprises the 5 response strategies outlined in Benoit's image
restoration theory work (Benoit 1995). Corrective Action was the only response strategy
mentioned by more than half of participants (55%). Other themes included Reducing
Offensiveness (42%) and Mortification (42%) followed by Evasion of Responsibility (32%) and
finally Denial (26%).
Core Theme 1: Corrective Action. A plurality of participants reported taking corrective
action in response to a social media-generated crisis (17 of 31). Participant 18 shared:
Our philosophy is always to be customer service oriented when we respond. So
we want to make sure that the customer feels heard. We want to answer their concern,
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and we want to make sure that it's not just done in a direct message to them behind the
behind the screen. We want to make sure that others are aware that we are aware of what
happened. That we are acting to correct it, and we are listening. We may not be able to
solve it, but at least we're going to take action, whatever that action maybe.
Participant 30 said:
The other big campaign that we worked on that we wanted to make sure the
public knew is how things had changed and how things were better and new policies that
had been put in place to ensure that nothing like this ever happened again. These are the
positive changes we put in place. This is how it's different. This is how you can trust what
we're doing. These are the all the positive moves that we've made to be the best we can
be.
Other Theme 1: Reducing Offensiveness. Just 13 of 31 participants shared examples of
reducing the offensiveness of the crisis by promoting positive traits and minimizing the act.
Participant 10 stated, “I think we're able to kind of take a little bit more of a reserved approach
and kind of very fact-based, optimistic, reminding people it's our mission, reminding people that
we do work with a difficult population.” Participant 15 shared an example of minimizing the
issue:
We only operate for the benefit of our customers and the community. We don't
have stockholders. We only exist for our customers. We are subject to the public open
records law. So when there's an emergency or a problem, we don't try to deny it. We try
to explain what the issue is and why it's occurring. We try to reassure our customers.
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Other Theme 2: Mortification. A total of 13 of 31 participants did share occasions
when they have accepted fault and expressed apologies for the situation. Participant 1 stated:
You should not be afraid to admit you're wrong. No one expects an organization
to be perfect. You know, imperfect people run it, and we're all willing to give grace to
people. Admitting that an organization screwed up, I think humanizes it. It's not a god.
Participant 13 added:
If there is death or a major injury as there was in the BP case, where there's
billions of gallons of oil spilled damaging natural wildlife for decades to come, you have
to acknowledge all of that first. If there is a situation where there is obvious culpability
and it's not even that much of a thin line or a gray area, then I'm all for apologizing.
Participant 15 stressed the importance of legal involvement when apologies are given:
We have taken responsibility when those events occur. Now we are very careful
about it. We have to make sure we were at fault. Once it's clear we are, then we do take
responsibility. So we have to be very careful in our statements on social media, and in
many cases, legal has to review initial statements before they go out.
Other Theme 3: Evasion of Responsibility. Less than a third of participants reported
using evasion of responsibility in their crisis responses (10 of 31). Participant 27 stated:
It definitely was not an apology because we were doing everything that we were
supposed to do. We had followed all the criteria everyone had set out that we had to do.
In our messaging, what we talked about is all the things that we did do correctly. So there
was no apology. But we talked about caring about our members.

119
Participant 3 shared:
I would reiterate your quality controls and the processes you use every day
because you cannot control what every single location will do and every employee. There
is just no promise there for that. You have to go back to your fundamental core values
and quality and service and repeat that in every way.
Other Theme 4: Denial. Of the response strategies in Benoit’s continuum, denial was
the least frequently mentioned by participants in this research (8 of 31). Participant 13 said:
Once we got the fact, the stories and the timelines, it was pretty clear that with the
individual and her peer group, there were holes in what they were saying. We don't do
this often, but we questioned the integrity of the newspaper and the integrity of the
reporter.
In some cases, denial is used in the initial response to incorrect claims, but ultimately the
goal is to take the conversation offline. Participant 17 said, “When we are faced with something
online that is not correct, we will correct it, but we will not get into a war online about it.”
120
Figure 7:
Other Image Repair Approaches

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Thematic Category B: Other Image Repair Approaches.
The second thematic category covers other image repair strategies reported by
participants that did not fall directly into the Benoit Image Repair Theory framework. The two
most prevalent core themes included being very transparent and fact-based (100%), and taking
the social media crisis conversation offline (97%). Another core theme that emerged was not
responding to some social media issues depending on the reach and severity (52%). Three other
themes were mentioned: expressing regret without apology (39%), allowing other stakeholders to
defend or validate their brand/organization (35%), and promoting positive stories to drown out
the negative (23%).

121
The second thematic category covers other image repair strategies reported by
participants that did not fall directly into the Benoit Image Repair Theory framework. The two
most prevalent core themes included being very transparent and fact-based (100%), and taking
the social media crisis conversation offline (97%). Another core theme that emerged was not
responding to some social media issues depending on the reach and severity (52%). Three other
themes were mentioned: expressing regret without apology (39%), allowing other stakeholders to
defend or validate their brand/organization (35%), and promoting positive stories to drown out
the negative (23%).
Core Theme 1: Transparency, Fact-Based. All participants shared at least one example
where they responded to a social media crisis by being very transparent and sharing factual
information in their responses (31 of 31). Participants reported that they often acknowledge the
situation right away as a response to give them time to research the issue and understand the
concerns. Responses tended to be factual, without emotion, and to be updated as more details
become available. Participant 11 stated, “We tried very hard to be as transparent as possible and
to not hide from anything like that, but to address it as directly as possible.” Participant 12 shared
their philosophy in responding as: “be as honest as you can, as fast as you can.” Participant 14
added:
We wanted to try to put as much truth out there to just stop people from posting.
Our first statement in this case as we're aware of the situation and we're looking into it.
So we at least said we're here, we're looking into it and that helps. So the last thing we
want to do is be quiet. Even if we don't have anything to say, we want to respond.

122
Participant 25 stated, “I think that no matter what you do, transparency is the guiding principle
and also knowing what you know and trying to be as objective as possible.”
Core Theme 2: Take Offline. Almost all participants reported striving to take a social
media crisis offline as soon as possible to minimize the reach and escalation online (30 of 31).
This included primarily proactive personal outreach to the individual creating the social media
crisis, as well as secondarily stopping engagement online if the individual does not want to
engage offline. Participant 1 said, "Let's contact the individual who's been hurt and hear his story
before we release the statement. Maybe we can get things to change in that conversation.”
Participant 4 added, “It’s best to have a quick planned response so it can be taken offline
immediately, like: ‘Please call this number and we will get back to you’ or ‘Thank you for letting
us know. We will look into it and have somebody call you.'" Participant 31 said, "Especially
when dealing with reviews and complaints, having people contact you directly because you do
not want them to expand on their complaint on social either." Participant 24 shared, "Directly
contact that person who is escalating and say, ‘Can we take this to an offline conversation?’ And
then I would prefer phone versus writing.”
Core Theme 3: No Response. More than half of participants responded that for some
social media issues, they choose not to respond at all (16 of 31). The fast pace of social media
sometimes pushes crises out of the 'headlines' as quickly as they arise, and there's no need to
address every issue, particularly if the reach is limited. Participant 11 said, "The advice was to let
it play out, do not get involved. Doing some research, we found that the story was not exactly
accurate.” Participant 14 shared an example:

123
So we look into it. It turns out a grandmother posted it. She had 10 followers and
a closed Facebook group. So no one was going to see it and we could not have done
anything with it. Actually knowing that helps the people internally (decide not to
respond).
Participant 20 stated:
Well, if the crisis is about the profession and not necessarily our company, we are
very selective in responding. When they are inquiring as to everyone, we tend to be very
reserved and found great success in not responding.
Other Theme 1: Express Regret, Without Apology. Some participants reported taking
a stance of expressing regret for the situation without a direct apology or acceptance of blame
(12 of 31). Participant 11 stated:
Most of the times we usually avoid any kind of language that implies that we're
apologizing because you don't want that to be misconstrued as an admission of guilt.
What we try to do is acknowledge somebody's concern and want to hear more. And so we
take it seriously, and we say we're concerned about the experience you had, or this is
troubling to hear what you're telling us.
Participant 1 shared an example “In a statement, there was no apology. There was no
acknowledgement that any wrongdoing had occurred. It was purely we regret that this situation
has caused pain.” Participant 26 mentioned, “You need to acknowledge (the situation) and
express sympathy, which is not the same thing as accepting or acknowledging responsibility. So
this is one of the trickier and more dangerous areas in crisis management.”
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Other Theme 2: Allow Others to Defend / Validate. About a third of participants
mentioned allowing other supporters of the organization to defend the brand/organization in
social media vs. the brand itself (11 of 31). Participant 12 shared, “Social media can buy you
time and social media can also, if used properly, mobilize your allies. To say, hey, they got it
right.” Participant 2 stated:
There is something to be said about balancing getting the message out, because
when somebody else picks it up, it validates what you're saying, that somebody else
believes it and it's giving that credibility. So that's why I actually choose not to post or
drive traffic to our blog a lot of the times, but instead use one of our industry partners.
But that means I have to wait.
Participant 7 said:
When we see our fans taking over for us, we let it ride because they're doing a
good job and sticking up for us and they're trying to set the story straight. So if their
information is correct, we'll let that conversation flow.
Other Theme 3: Promote Positive Stories. Some practitioners interviewed mentioned
trying to promote positive stories online and in their social media feed to drown out the crisis
story (7 of 31). Participant 10 stated, “Our challenge is putting enough time, resources and
energy into positive PR so that when the negative comes because it will and it keeps coming,
we're able to kind of manage it.” Participant 14 added, “There have been posts that are stupid or
ignorant, and we will load things on top of it so it goes lower in the feed.”
125
generated crisis?
To address this question, we created cross-tabulations to slice the thematic analysis for
RQ1, RQ2, RQ3, and RQ4 by age, gender, and industry sector. Given the nature of qualitative
research, there are limited, statistically significant differences across demographic segments that
were meaningful beyond the margin of error. Table 6 shows the results by demographic segment.
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Table 6:
Breakdown of Results Addressing RQ5

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We noted two significant differences across demographic segments. Participants who
work in PR agencies are less likely to mention 24-hour monitoring than those who work in non-
profits or corporations (33% vs. 83% and 89%, respectively). Younger participants (<45 years
old) are more likely to report using the traditional crisis communication tactics of press releases
and conferences in social media crises (69% vs. 29%) than older participants (45 years old or
older). Responses of other themes across the research questions were not materially different
across gender, age and Summary industry sector segments.
Evaluation of the Findings
Thematic analysis of the data resulted in several core themes addressing the five research
questions of the study. In this section, the findings will be evaluated relative to the literature
reported earlier. The evaluation also will be discussed in order of the research questions and the
corresponding themes uncovered from the analysis.
The extent to which the study results augment or contradict existing theories and
contribute to the existing literature is critically important. Overall, while Benoit’s response
categories are found in both existing research and results of this study, there are additional
aspects of handling a social media-generated crisis not covered in current research. The study
does confirm that the use of denial, apology, and reducing offensiveness are strategies deployed
by public relations practitioners. However, the “no response,” strategy and taking a social media
discussion offline with stakeholders is significant to future studies.
recommendations and diverse theories among the public relations community for dealing with
negative online comments have been slightly different. Overall, Thomas, et al. (2012)
131
recommended seven different reactions to negative online comments that a company may enact
in order to be viewed positively. Companies may delay a response, ignore the comment, respond,
partner with an outside source that can act as a brand ambassador, take legal action, or delete the
post. Each option comes with strengths and weaknesses and is best used on a case-by-case basis.
Some literature suggested that a crisis is defined by high consequences, low probability,
and short decision time (Hale, 1997). Additional research supported the short decision-time
scenario and placed emphasis on an organization's survival that may be highly dependent on the
speed of response (Ki & Nekmat, 2014). Crisis communication focused on responding
The opportunity to examine how public relations practitioners are coping with the
meteoric rise in social media and social media-generated crises was being studied by scholars,
but the level of academic examination was in its infancy (Jahng & Hong, 2017). Image repair
theory (IRT) had grown substantially from its beginning with the developer of the concept
William Benoit (1995a, 1995b; Benoit & Brinson, 1996; Benoit & Hanczor, 1994). Benoit’s
early theory was developed with a variety of co-authors (e.g., Benoit & McHale, 1999); Benoit
& Nill, 1998a, 1998b; Blaney & Benoit, 2001), and IRT was often used by other scholars beyond
its original family (Anderson, 2000; Coombs & Schmidt, 2000; Cowden & Sellnow, 2002;
Thomsen & Rawson, 2000). Communication scholars and public relations practitioners
integrated Benoit’s material with their own approach to crisis communication (Alvarez, 2000;
132
Coombs, 2004; Ihlen, 2002; Jerome, Moffitt & Knudsen, 2007). Critiques of IRT also had been
shared (Blaney & Benoit, 2001).
Despite some critiques of its universality, IRT serves as the foundation of much crisis
communication research. It has led to diverse reformulations since it was first proposed (Marsen,
Crises are inevitable for any company, and the fate of a company's image rests on how
well they respond. Few studies have experimentally tested the impact that common types of
company responses can have on consumers' perceptions when a negative complaint has been
made online. Marsen's (2020) research sought to expand the strategies put forth for crisis
management by IRT using best practice research within the context of social-mediated crisis
communication.
Some literature suggests that a crisis is defined by high consequences, low probability,
and short decision time (Hale, 1997). Additional research supports the short decision-time
scenario and places emphasis on an organization's survival that may be highly dependent on the
speed of response (Ki & Nekmat, 2014). Crisis communication focuses on responding
Drawing from IRT and situational crisis communication theory, a study by Ferguson,
Wallace, and Chandler (2018) advanced crisis communication theory through an analysis of 800
public relations professionals' perceptions of 15 image repair strategies. A national sample of
United States public relations professionals evaluated communication strategies for their
effectiveness and preference for use in three crisis scenarios (accidents, product safety, and
133
illegal activity). Compensation, corrective action, and mortification were the most highly ranked
crisis response strategies, regardless of attribution of organizational responsibility or culpability,
across three types of accidental and preventable crises (Ferguson et al., 2018). According to the
authors, this hierarchical consistency suggested that using communication strategies for
maintaining and strengthening an organization's relationships with its publics might be the best
protection for sustaining and repairing a positive reputation long-term.
The study attempted to discover and distinguish if differences exist among public
relations practitioners’ approach to handling a social media-generated crisis, versus accepted,
traditional crisis communication response strategies, such as IRT. Other theorists point to the fact
that crises involve a multitude of stakeholders with highly divergent perspectives and interests.
Crisis communication research may cater to the multiplicity of voices, or multivocality, present.
In a research effort by Kim et al. (2009), quantitative content analysis evaluated crisis response
strategy analyzed in more than 18 years of research, published in crisis communication literature
in public relations. Analysis of 51 articles published in 11 different journals using two dominant
theories in public relations crisis communication literature, Benoit’s IRT and Coombs’
situational crisis communication theory indicate a lack of diversity in cases analyzed by scholars,
gaps between theory and practice, and pressing directions for future research in crisis
communication.
Other theories examined, such as Grunig and Grunig's excellence theory (1998), were not
further considered due to the exactness and applicability of IRT. Grunig and Grunig's (1998)
excellence study reveals a more complicated but logically more satisfying explanation of the
value of public relations. For an organization to be effective, it must behave in ways that solve
134
the problems and satisfy the goals of stakeholders as well as that of management (Grunig &
Grunig, 1998).
make attributions of responsibility for events. When applied to crisis management, stakeholders
ascribe responsibility internally (organization) or externally (environmental factors). This theory
was audience-based and attempted to understand the factors in the crisis itself that shape the
crisis attributions stakeholders make (Coombs, 2010; Wise, 2004).
A study designed by Mohamed (2017) bridged the gap in research of empirical studies in
which public relations practitioners are using social media tools during the crisis. The purpose of
the study was to bring attention to the dynamics of using social media among public relations
practitioners during a crisis in countries with different economic, social, and political contexts. A
random sample of 160 public relations practitioners was selected from different public and
private organizations in the United Arab Emirates. The results indicated that public relations
practitioners are active and heavy social media users in their organizations during a crisis. The
study confirmed that the most commonly used communication strategies were compensation,
corrective action, and justification. Additionally, the study suggested that the organization's
website and Twitter were the most effective social media methodologies used during a crisis.
We tested Benoit's image repair theory's describing possible responses to a crisis in a
social media environment. While all of the response continuum (denial to mortification) of
Benoit's IRT was found within the interviews, some response tactics (such as taking the
135
conversation offline and fact-based, neutral responses) exist outside of IRT. Practitioners
identified being transparent as very important to achieve accountability and fill the need for
corporate social responsibility. Although limited in scope and sample size, respondents clearly
do not favor denial as a regular response strategy, nor do they want to engage in an online, social
media-generated dialogue with stakeholders. Apology (mortification) was an acceptable strategy
for 13 respondents, but only after extensive fact-finding and legal review. Acceptance of
responsibility was noted in those examples where there was a clear-cut need to do so, and only if
responsibility was clear. More than half of respondents mentioned corrective action (17 of 31),
but only if there was definitive proof offered that justified the action. Several respondents stated
it was essential to correct wrongs, and that a public statement may be necessary to show good
faith and responsiveness to stakeholders and the public, in general.
involves crises?
Thematic analysis of the data revealed that while most public relations professionals
utilize many traditional public relations strategies (94%), these approaches are not sufficient in
managing social media-generated crises. Traditional crisis managing strategies included having a
plan (65%), showing empathy (48%), accuracy over speed (48%), and internal first (42%), as
well as concern over the opposition community (16%). All participants (100%) mentioned
utilizing at least one non-traditional, emerging strategy or tactic in handling social media crises.
These newer strategies included the need for speed (90%), taking the time to understand the
influence and reach of a social media crisis (84%), loss of control/unpredictability (77%), 24-
136
hour monitoring (71%), and the power of video (61%). Additionally, some had concerns over the
proliferation of channels and technology (29%), such as YouTube, TikTok, and Nextdoor, which
lie outside those most mentioned, According to Coombs (2016), the abundance of ever-evolving
new platforms makes it difficult to access and assess a moving target. Other concerns mentioned
included the lack of validity of some sources (26%) and fear of the permanence of social media
posts (16%).
The thematic analysis of the data uncovered that most public relations practitioners
interviewed utilize traditional communications tactics (94%). The most common traditional
communications strategies utilized are partnering with leadership, legal and other in advance to
craft pre-approved messages (65%), establishing strong relationships with those in the traditional
media (48%), and press releases and press conferences (45%). One other theme also emerged,
the importance of telling a compelling story (19%). While traditional communication strategies
are used, many participants also reported using modified or newer communications strategies in
dealing with social media-generated crises (65%). These approaches were going around
traditional media and utilizing social media as an opportunity to reach audiences directly (65%)
and seeing the traditional media as driven by social media and reacting to online activity (45%).
for example) when handling a crisis created by social media?
The thematic analysis of the data revealed that many public relations practitioners believe
the audience determines the social media channel to use (35%), and different social media
137
channels are preferred for different audiences/situations (100%). Facebook was the most
common social media platform mentioned by 87% of participants, primarily for its broad reach
and easily shared links to more information. Twitter was the next most prevalent response (81%)
mentioned primarily for its fast-pace and access to news media. About half (48%) mentioned
Instagram, valued for its visual appeal and access to a younger audience. LinkedIn was shared by
about a third (32%) for its ability to reach a business-to-business audience. TikTok, YouTube
and Nextdoor also were mentioned 19%, 13% and 6% respectively), but not as a primary channel
for most.
RQ4. How do Benoit’s continuum of response strategies from denial to mortification
remain applicable in today’s social media crises environment?
Of the 5 categories in Benoit’s continuum, most participants do use at least one of these
response strategies for social media crises. However, only corrective action was mentioned by
more than half of participants (55%). The other 4 categories were less frequently mentioned:
Reducing Offensiveness and Mortification (42%) followed by Evasion of Responsibility (32%)
and lastly Denial (26%). All participants also reported using other response strategies to handle
social media crises that fell outside of Benoit’s framework. The two most prevalent core themes
included being very transparent and fact-based (100%), and taking the social media crisis
conversation offline (97%). Another core theme that emerged was not responding to some social
media issues depending on the reach and severity (52%). Some participants mentioned three
other themes: expressing regret without apology (39%), allowing other stakeholders to defend or
validate the brand/organization (35%), and promoting positive stories to drown out the negative
(23%).
138
generated crisis?
Age, gender, experience, and industry sector do not appear to influence the manner and
methodologies chosen by the public relations practitioners that participated in this research when
confronting a social media-generated crisis. The patterns of response to the first four research
questions are largely similar across demographic segments.
Summary
Chapter 4 of the study contained the findings from the thematic analysis of the one-on-
one in-depth interviews. The purpose of the qualitative study was to examine if image repair
theory, as described by Benoit (1995), is effective for managing social media-generated crises in
2020 in the United States. The analysis led to the generation of core themes and other themes to
address the five research questions. In the final chapter, the results are explained and discussed
based on the literature reported in the second chapter. Recommendations, implications, and
conclusions will be presented as well.

139
Chapter 5: Implications, Recommendations, and Conclusions
The practice of public relations saw dramatic changes in recent decades. Now, faced with
never-ending news cycles and social media platforms, public relations practitioners deal with
crises from online digital sources (Cheng, 2018). Many social media-generated crises are rooted
in anonymous sources, unsubstantiated claims, and fake news (Ki & Nekmat, 2014). All the
while, public relations professionals find value in confronting a crisis with traditional public
relations tactics. This study examined how traditional public relations image repair theory works
in a social media world.
The problem addressed by this study was if Benoit's (1995) image repair theory (IRT)
was still applicable and appropriate when dealing with social media-generated crises. While
some authors of popularized articles and research journals have suggested preferred public
relations/social media practices, there was little evidence to support proposed tactical responses
to social media-generated content, activity, or crisis (Jelen-Sanchez, 2017).
Benoit's work has been exhaustive and succinct, while other theorists point to the fact that
crises involve stakeholders with highly divergent perspectives and interests. Crisis
communication research may cater to the multiplicity of voices, or multivocality, present. In a
research effort by Kim, Avery, and Lariscy (2009), quantitative content analysis evaluated crisis
response strategy analyzed in more than 18 years of research published in crisis communication
literature in public relations.
The purpose of this qualitative study was to examine if image repair theory, as described
by Benoit (1995), was sufficient for managing social media-generated crises in 2020 in the
United States. The study explored if age, gender, or experience impacted a practitioner's tactical
140
and strategic response to those crises. Public relations practitioners need to properly understand
and attempt to manage the on-going barrage of negative stories and unsubstantiated claims
arising from social media.
Chapter 5 presents an overview of the study's problem and purpose, followed by the
qualitative methodology and design. The chapter offers results in order of the research questions,
implications of the study for the professional community, and the need for further research.
Implications
Public relations professionals addressing problems in a social media setting will find
value in the study. First, Benoit's 1995 study is applicable in today's social media environment as
participants identified and used most of the response categories (denial to mortification).
However, many of the strategies employed in image repair in an online, digital setting did not
suggest that denial and apology are preferred pathways in responding to the crisis. Instead,
respondents favored silence as an option (taking the conversation offline or ignoring the online
dialogue altogether).
Additionally, respondents selected the type of platform for the response (Facebook versus
Twitter, for example) based on audience analysis. Audience analysis has been a long-time
concept in public relations. While Benoit's work focuses on the output of messages from the
sender, practitioners should emphasize the relationship with the receiver and the receiver's
environment. Respondents mentioned LinkedIn as a helpful tool in thwarting negative online
mentions less frequently. LinkedIn appears to be focused on the business community and does
not have the coverage depth of social media players such as Facebook and Twitter.
141
While extensive literature points to the web-based platforms as effective in two-way
communication, this research suggests that most practitioners in this study saw social media as a
one-way communication device from sender to receiver. The interviews did not support an
implication that social media platforms will be an effective back-and-forth mechanism for
communicating in a crisis, except for the ability to share factual information in times of a crisis.
Finally, an implication of handling a social media-generated crisis depends heavily on immediate
responses in an abbreviated timeframe versus the more traditional response timeline of taking
time to craft well-thought-out responses to external publics.
The use of video options like Facebook, YouTube, and TikTok was not consistent among
respondents. Many thought that video was an underused resource in their work at reputation
enhancement or repair.
Findings in the Ferguson, Wallace, & Chandler study (2018) suggested that professionals
differ in their perceptions of response strategies in the types of crises with minimal-to-strong
attribution of responsibility and moderate-to-high reputational threat. However, and possibly
more important, these findings indicated that crisis communication leaders primarily choose
strategies not based on the differences between unique crises. Instead, they based the choice of
strategy on a comparison of the strategies to each other. Scenarios differed in the type of crisis
and level of accountability of the singular organization. It would be reasonable to expect
variation in strategy preference (Ferguson, Wallace, & Chandler 2018).
Findings of the Ferguson, Wallace & Chandler study (2018) hold important insight for
crisis communicators. According to their work, one cannot discount practitioner experience, the
origin of the crisis, nor the prior history of the issue or stakeholders. Their findings indicate that
142
some strategies for image repair may be applicable across a range of crises. According to the
authors, positively perceived strategies include corrective action, compensation, mortification,
and bolstering.
Benoit found that one option for restoring a tarnished image is to deny performing the
wrongful act (Benoit & Hanczor, 1994). Whether the accused denies that the offensive act
occurred or denies that he or she performed it, either option should absolve the speaker of
culpability if the audience accepts it (Benoit and Hanczor 1994). That suggests one possibility
for responding to the attack is to deny the offensive act (Benoit & Hanczor 1994). In this study,
respondents did not promote deniability often or at all. When asked about using denial, only
eight respondents out of 31 said they used this response strategy on occasion. While the crisis
was occurring and social media posts were suggesting company fault, denial was more
appropriate. For example, a utility public relations practitioner said that providing fact-based
information on the source of a gas-based explosion and denying some accusations during the
explosion helped reduce fear and anger.
This study's sample size of 31 Indiana public relations practitioners limited the evaluation
of results. Additionally, the 30-minute interview limited the opportunity to explore nuances and
deeply held beliefs about the practice of crisis public relations. A more thorough, quantitative
study using a national database and a survey instrument may allow researchers to identify more
trends and variable pathways chosen by practitioners in responding to a social media-generated
crisis. The small sample size also did not provide an in-depth examination of whether age,
gender, or experience made a significant difference in the types of responses or the
methodologies chosen by varying experience levels or age and gender.

143
This study sought answers to how reputation management works in a social media setting
compared to traditional methods and response strategies. The study also examined if age, gender,
or experience impacted the types and tone of responses in a social media-generated crisis.
The limited sample size noted few statistically significant differences in how age, gender,
or experience impact practitioners' responses in crises in this limited sample size. Responses
varied on interpretations of the audiences receiving the messages rather than the demographic
make-up. Additionally, the study explored how one image repair strategy, Benoit's theory of
communicators' responses in a crisis, applied to today's social media environment. Further
research with a more in-depth examination of how strategies are developed and deployed in a
social media crisis should be helpful. The need exists for a more extensive sample and
quantitative analysis of a survey of public relations practitioners in the United States. Research to
compare additional image repair strategies with Benoit's response continuum and seek
clarification on message selection and tone/tenor of the responses within a social media setting is
another opportunity. Furthermore, it would be valuable to test various messaging types that apply
Benoit's IRT response analysis (denial to mortification) to specific publics. Researchers would be
able to investigate how responses were received and interpreted.
involves crises? Thematic analysis of the interviews grouped responses into two categories with
several themes addressing the first research question. Almost all public relations practitioners
interviewed use traditional public relations strategies (n=31) and new non-traditional strategies
when facing social media-generated crises (n=30).

144
The first thematic category covers traditional public relations strategies and tactics used
in addressing social media-generated crises. Four core themes emerged: 65% of participants (20
of 31) emphasized the importance of having a plan including social media training and an
escalation path for higher impact crises; 48% (15 of 31) cited the importance of showing
empathy and accuracy over speed, and 42% (13 of 31) mentioned the value of communicating
internally before externally. One other theme emerged among five participants: concern over the
opposition community (16%).
Of the 31 participants, 15 stressed showing empathy in crisis response. Sincere emotive
responses offered when appropriate can assure internal and external publics that a company
acknowledges, at a minimum, that something happened.
That response tactics in traditional public relations practice, as well as in a social media-
generated crisis, require factual and accurate information is a crucial strategy, and 15 of 31
respondents said that is important regardless of urgency.
Traditional public relations strategies have emphasized the importance of a concentric
circles model (Roper, 1945) whereby the most critical audience is contacted/informed first in
times of a crisis. In many instances, informing internal publics (employees, board members,
vendors) first to avoid rumor spread and ensure internal stakeholders have the facts, as cited by
13 of 31 participants for social media-generated crises. External information pathways, such as
Facebook, were critical, but only for information sharing purposes and not as effective two-way
dialogue with the public.
Concern over opposition communities was a prevalent concern among public relations
practitioners historically. However, the depth and breadth of fast-rising social media crises
145
presented new and more significant challenges for professionals. Only five of 31 participants
mentioned that theme.
The second thematic category covers efforts that are beyond the traditional PR strategies.
Five core themes emerged: among 90% of participants (28 of 31) shared the need for speed, 84%
of participants (26 of 31) the importance of understanding the influence and reach of a social
media crisis, 77% of participants (24 of 31) cited the challenge of loss of control and
unpredictability, 71% (22 of 31) cited the need for 24/7 monitoring, and 61% (19 of 31)
mentioned the power of video to escalate and manage a social media crisis. Three other themes
also emerged among participants: the challenge in the proliferation of social media channels and
technology (29%), the lack of validity of some sources (26%), and the fear of permanence of
social media (16%).
While accuracy is paramount, 28 respondents indicated the heightened need to respond
quickly to a crisis when it occurs in the social media realm.
Twenty-six respondents recognized the importance of understanding the influence and
reach of social media when a crisis occurs. They agreed that social media might exacerbate a
crisis or threat to reputation management. Twenty-four respondents agreed that social media
presents unpredictable occurrences.
The ability to conduct 24-hour monitoring of social media was essential compared to the
traditional monitoring of newscasts and morning papers in the historical primary news cycle.
Many respondents reported using software tools to support their monitoring efforts and had
significant staff time monitoring social media sites. Traditional public relations may pose
challenges to control the situation with immediate action to quell the crisis.
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Practitioners widely acknowledged that video had increasing importance in managing
and responding to social media crises but noted that public relations professionals underutilize
video.
The proliferation of new channels in social media, including adding new platforms that
appeal to specific demographics, was a challenge mentioned by 9 participants.
Eight respondents found unsubstantiated reports or invalid sources to be more likely in
the expanded world of social media versus traditional media sources.
Fear of permanence of social media was less of a concern (shared by only five
participants) than the accelerated news cycle and plethora of social media reports and stories
requiring a need for speed.
RQ2. What are traditional crisis communication strategies employed by
practitioners when dealing with a social media-generated crisis? Most public relations
practitioners interviewed utilize traditional communications tactics (29 of 31, 94%). The most
common is partnering with leadership, legal, and others in advance to craft pre-approved
messages (20 of 31), establishing strong relationships with those in the traditional media (15 of
31), and the use of press releases and press conferences (14 of 31).
Many participants also reported using modified or more contemporary communications
strategies in dealing with social media-generated crises (20 of 31, 65%). These approaches were
circumventing traditional media and utilizing social media as an opportunity to reach audiences
directly (20 of 31). They also indicated they see the traditional media-driven by social media and
reacting to online activity (32%, 10 of 31).

147
for example) when handling a crisis created by social media? Many public relations
practitioners believe the audience determines the social media channel to use (11 of 31), and they
prefer choosing social media channels depending on audiences/situations (31 of 31). The most
common social media platform was Facebook, mentioned (27 of 31), chosen primarily for its
broad reach and ability to share links to more information more easily. Twitter was the second
most prevalent response (25 of 31), primarily mentioned for its fast-pace and access to news
media. About half (15 of 31) mentioned Instagram and valued it for its visual appeal and access
to a younger audience. About a third (10 of 31) named LinkedIn for its business-to-business
audience.
RQ4. How applicable are Benoit's continuum of response strategies from denial to
mortification in today's social media crisis environment? Most participants use at least one of
the five categories in Benoit's continuum for social media crises. However, more than half of
respondents (17 of 31) mentioned only corrective action. They mentioned the other four
categories less frequently: reducing offensiveness and mortification (13 of 31), evasion of
responsibility (10 of 31), and denial (8 of 31). All participants reported using other response
strategies that fell outside of Benoit's framework to handle social media crises. The two most
prevalent core themes were being very transparent and fact-based (31 of 31) and taking the social
media crisis conversation offline (30 of 31). Respondents (17 of 31) also mentioned another core
theme: not responding to every social media issue depending on the negative external source.
RQ 5. How do age, gender, or experience levels influence the manner and

148
generated crisis? Age, gender, experience, and industry sector did not appear to influence the
manner and methodologies chosen by the public relations practitioners that participated in this
research when confronting a social media-generated crisis. The patterns of response to the first
four research questions are similar across demographic segments.
Recommendations for Further Research
This qualitative study was limited in scope and reach because of its limited sampling of
31 individuals in Indiana. The study sought answers to how reputation management works in a
social media setting compared to traditional methods and response strategies. Additionally, the
study examined if age, gender, or experience impacted the types and tone of responses presented
during a social media-generated crisis. Among the limited sample size, the study found no
statistically significant differences in how age, gender, or experience impact public relations
practitioners' responses in times of a crisis. Interpretations of the audiences receiving the
messages determined responses, not the demographic make-up of the sample. The study also
explored how one image repair strategy, Benoit's theory of communicators' responses in a crisis,
applied to today's social media environment.
This researcher suggests further research with a more in-depth examination of how
strategies are developed and deployed in a social media crisis. A need exists for a more extensive
study and quantitative analysis of a survey of public relations practitioners in the United States.
Additionally, research comparing additional image repair strategies with Benoit's
response continuum and seeking clarification on message selection and tone/tenor of the
response(s) would be valuable. It could also be advantageous to test messaging types that apply
149
to several of Benoit's IRT response analyses (denial to mortification) with specific publics,
allowing researchers to investigate how the responses were received and interpreted.
Recommendations for Practice
Today’s public relations practitioners discover an ever-expanding social media presence.
In the formative years of social media, few platforms responded to or monitored online
conversations in social media, making the job easier. As this study suggests, today's social
media environment presents unique challenges to the practitioner. A multitude of anonymous
sources and posts, fake news, the multiplicity of platforms, and the 24/7 news cycle have become
the field of play for public relations practitioners.
This study found critical implications to the practice. First, accuracy and speed in
responding to a social media-generated crisis are critical factors in a response strategy. Second,
study respondents did not prefer responses to negative social media posts. Instead, practitioners
preferred making no response or taking the conversations offline. Additionally, respondents did
not prefer using apology in response schemas unless there were clear, overriding concerns that
the information posted by social media audience members was wrong, was inflammatory, or
were false claims.
In the following pages, the extent to which the study results augment or contradict
existing theories and contribute to the existing literature is described. Overall, while Benoit’s
response categories are found in both existing research and results of this study, there are
additional aspects of handling a social media-generated crisis not covered in current research.
The study does confirm that the use of denial, apology and reducing offensiveness are strategies
150
deployed by public relations practitioners. However, the “no response” strategy and taking a
social media discussion offline with stakeholders is significant to future studies.
In this study, results confirm Benoit's Image Repair Theory (Benoit, 1995) and its
usefulness in combating damage to an organization's reputation. The types of responses
appropriate in a crisis communication scenario vary. These responses range from denial to
apology. Many respondents suggested they use different responses depending upon social media
settings. However, respondents did not favor or consistently use denial from Benoit's IRT as a
commonplace response on social media. Only select respondents favored denial and only when
clear-cut falsehoods emanated from social media publics and stakeholders.
Another attribute of IRT, apology, was favored only when there was clear harm to an
organization's reputation. Additionally, apology responses required vetting by the legal team at
the organization.
Respondents said "doing nothing at all" in social media upheaval was a valid option. The
no response option has been the subject of previous research, and Benoit's IRT framework does
not include the strategy. Broadening response strategies to include a 'no-action" alternative is a
possible addition to Benoit's continuum.
An additional finding concerned the use of fact-based, neutral responses. Respondents
suggested that a proper response based on clear facts presented in a neutral tone was sometimes
appropriate. Contradicting Benoit's IRT response schema, there appears no category for neutral,
fact-based responses in his early work.

151
One strategy that emerged from this study, not overtly found in Benoit's early IRT
framework, was reinforcing the reputation through positive stories and social media posts.
Benoit's reducing offensiveness category calls this strategy bolstering.
Reducing offensiveness suggests the communicator accepts some measure of
responsibility but offers external communication such as positive stories and information to
"lessen the impact on their reputation." This bolstering strategy (a) strengthens the image of the
communicator to lessen the impact of the harmful action; (b) minimizes the incident; (c)
differentiates to contrast the specific act with more serious transgressions; (d) transcends the
specific act by placing it in a different light; (e) attacks the accuser; and (f) offers some form of
compensation for the perceived harm caused by the communicator's actions (Armfield et al.
2019).
The study, however, did not validate that the practitioner's age, gender, and experience
impact the response strategy. This limited sample size of 31 interviewees with varied
demographic profiles demonstrated these characteristics were not significant in decision-making.
Instead, factors such as audience analysis and the size/scope of the crisis guided response
strategies.
Another outcome of this research was that social media platforms did not, in the opinion
of many practitioners, result in effective two-way communication on the various platforms in the
digital space. Most practitioners saw the social media platforms as useful for one-way
communication to distribute information and positive messages about the organization. This
discovery contradicts researchers and practitioners that social media platforms are a conduit for
effective two-way communication with stakeholders. The suggestion that social media platforms
152
contribute to better stakeholder involvement needs further exploration as most respondents used
social media to share positive information on a company or non-profit.
recommendations among the public relations community for dealing with negative online
comments have been slightly different. Overall, Thomas, Peters, Howell, and Robbins (2012)
recommended seven reactions to negative online comments that a company might enact in order
to be viewed positively. Companies may delay a response, ignore the comment, respond, partner
with an outside source that can act as a brand ambassador, take legal action, or delete the post.
Each option comes with strengths and weaknesses and is best used on a case-by-case basis.
Scholars were studying the opportunity to examine how public relations practitioners are
coping with the meteoric rise in social media and social media-generated crises, but the level of
academic examination was in its infancy (Jahng & Hong, 2017).
Image repair theory had grown substantially from its beginning with the developer of the
concept, William Benoit (1995a, 1995b; Benoit & Brinson, 1996; Benoit & Hanczor, 1994).
Benoit’s early theory was developed with a variety of co-authors (e.g., Benoit & McHale, 1999;
Benoit & Nill, 1998a, 1998b; Blaney & Benoit, 2001), and IRT often was used by other scholars
beyond its original family (Anderson, 2000; Coombs & Schmidt, 2000; Cowden & Sellnow,
2002; Thomsen & Rawson, 2000). Communication scholars and public relations practitioners
integrated Benoit’s material with their own approach to crisis communication (Alvarez, 2000;
153
Coombs, 2004; Ihlen, 2002; Jerome, Moffit & Knudsen, 2007). Critics of IRT also were shared
(Blaney & Benoit, 2001).
Conclusions
This qualitative study of Indiana public relations practitioners handling crisis
communication sheds light on the practicality of responding to online, digital crises, many times
created by the social media platform use itself. While traditional response strategies, as described
by Benoit, are used by almost all the respondents (90%), a majority of interviewees mentioned
only corrective action. Respondents were hesitant to issue apologies or denials in a social media
setting. Hence, respondents preferred only fact-based, neutral responses.
The use of specific platforms in information sharing (one-way communication from the
sender to the receiver) demonstrated that Facebook and Twitter were the preferred options to
communicators. Finally, while it originally was thought that age, gender, and experience might
be determinants in the type of messages given and tactics employed, there was little meaningful
difference found in these criteria in confronting a social media-generated crisis.

154
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Appendix I: Qualitative Research Designs
Type of design Characteristics Data collection methods
Ethnographic Focuses on the entire cultural group Fieldwork/wide range of sources
Research (Creswell, 1998/2013) (Mertens, 2015)
The researcher describes and Multiple in-depth, in-person
interprets values/beliefs interviews
Draws from anthropology and Possible focus groups within
sociology Initial questionnaire and follow-
Sustained engagement in a particular up selected interviews
site (Mertens, 2015)
Researcher must develop
interpersonal ties but remain neutral
Case Study Investigative approach complete Data collection of historical data,
description of phenomena, events, contextual, other cases
programs, or issues Individual interviews
May involve any number of units Focus groups (homogenous
such as individual, group, or even an participants?)
event Data collection through
Involves issue study with one or more observation (Castellan, 2010)
cases bounded in a setting or context
(Creswell, 1994)
178
Multiple sources of information
Data collection includes history,
contexts, and physical setting
Phenomenological Research emphasizes the individual’s Studies several individuals
subjective experience, perceptions through in-depth interviews and
meaning (Mertens, 2015) analysis (Creswell, 1994)
Lived experience Multiple one-on-one interviews
Includes several individuals or more with the same individual
Look for clusters of meaning Observations through personal
Requires broader understanding of interaction, journals, and written
philosophical assumptions (Baxter & responses
Jack, 2008) Significant statements or quotes
to elaborate on phenomena
experience
Grounded Theory Develop/discover a theory (general Possible zigzag interview
explanation) process to gather in-field
Historically, derived from sociology information, returning again to
(Strauss & Corbin, 1998) interviews

179
Grounded in data from Theoretical sampling allows for
participants/data coding is important data collection and constant
Creativity required to help establish comparisons
deeper insight and understanding Multiple in-depth interviews of
Product of inquiry/method of inquiry the same individuals as data is
more fleshed out
May include other forms of data
such as direct observations,
documents, and audiovisual
materials (Castellan, 2010;
Creswell, 1994)
180
Appendix II: IRB Approval Letter, September 04, 2020

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181
Appendix III: Interview Discussion Guide
DISCUSSION GUIDE
PhD Dissertation – Qualitative Research

Research Questions (Objectives)
RQ1. How do public relations professionals use traditional public relations strategies, such as
IRT, in the fast-paced and unpredictable social media setting when it involves crises?
RQ2. What traditional crisis communication strategies are employed by practitioners when
dealing with a social media-generated crisis?
RQ3. How are crisis managers choosing response channels (Facebook over Twitter, for
example) when handling a crisis created by social media?
RQ4. How applicable are Benoit’s continuum of response strategies from denial to
mortification remain applicable in today’s social media crises environment?
RQ5. Do age, gender, or experience levels influence the manner and methodologies chosen by
public relations practitioners when confronting a social media-generated crisis?
Discussion Guide
Introduction
• Purpose – to learn about your perceptions and experiences with social media-generated
crises
• Process – recording (may we have your permission?), taking notes, confidential (name
won’t be shared with your comments in research report), exploratory, no right or wrong
answers
• Any questions before we get started?
• To begin, would you tell us a little about yourself, your background and current role?
Experience with crisis management
• What has been your experience with crisis management in your public relations career?
• How do you typically handle crisis situations your organization or clients have faced?
182
o Talk me through the typical way you address a public relations crisis. What are
some of the communication strategies and tactics you use to mitigate the impact
of a crisis? Why?
o How did you respond (timeliness, type of response – negative/quick/etc.)?
o Probe if needed: denial, evading responsibility, reducing offensiveness, corrective
action, mortification, etc.
o What response channels do you typically use? Why?
• Can you share an example of a time you feel you handled a PR crisis exceptionally well?
What made it successful?
Experience with social media
• What role does social media play in your job today? What is the social media
communications strategy for your organization/clients? Why?
• What characteristics or attributes come to mind when you think about social media?
o Probe if needed: Overarching frustration with social media, Lack of effective
tactical responses, Untrustworthiness of internet, Frustration over the needed
speed of response, Growing concern over opposition community online, A new
source of online rogue websites, negatives posts, and Facebook
• What are some of the biggest challenges in effectively managing public relations and
communications via social media?
Experience with social media-generated crisis
• Now we’d like to talk more about social media-generated crises. By social media-
generated crisis, it is defined as a crisis generated initially or solely through social media
channels with potential for reputation damage.
• As a member of your organization representing your company or representing clients
what is your experience in handling a social media generated crises?
• What are some of the communication strategies you used to address the social media-
generated crisis you experienced?
o How did you apply Benoit’s theory discussed earlier, if at all?
• What response channels did you choose? Why?
• How effective do you feel these strategies were in addressing the crisis?
o Which strategies were the most effective? Why?
o Which strategies were the least effective? Why?
• What were some of the challenges you faced in handling a social media-generated crisis?
o How important was speed in responding to a social media generated crisis? How
rapid is the response necessary during a social media-generated crisis?
• How does this approach of handling a social media generated crisis compare to how you
typically handle other types of crises?
• What would you differently, if anything, the next time you face a social media-generated
crisis?
183
Wrap Up & Thank You
• What advice would you give to someone facing a social media-generated crisis?
• Anything else you think I should hear as part of this process?
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Protecting A Client's Reputation: Image Repair Theory and Its Suitability To A Social Media-Generated Crisis

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Protecting a Client’s Reputation: Image Repair Theory and Its Suitability to a

Social Media-Generated Crisis

Submitted to Northcentral University

in Partial Fulfillment of the

Requirements for the Degree of

DOCTOR OF BUSINESS ADMINISTRATION

JAMES BRYAN PARHAM

JAMES BRYAN PARHAM

Approved by the Doctoral Committee:

DBA,MBA 05/21/2021 | 18:02:57 MST

Ph.D., MBA 05/24/2021 | 17:57:50 MST

Committee Member: Samer

05/22/2021 | 04:43:45 MST

response to a social media-generated crisis, and if IRT remains applicable as a theoretical

methodologies chosen by practitioners? Through detailed executive interviews of 31 pre-

five research questions.

life in so many good ways.

degree in the school where her mom and I graduated.

George H. W. Bush administration and complete my Masters in Public Affairs at American

Our daily runs made work and school go so much easier.

Paul Markham, chairman of my dissertation committee, was a very patient and

across the finish line.

how much these individuals wanted to help the profession.

Finally, let me thank America. As I wrote my dissertation, we were rocked by the

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Table 1: Key Assumptions 84

Table 2: Breakdown of Participants' Demographics 93

Table 3: Breakdown of Findings in Response to RQ1 95

Table 4: Breakdown of Findings in Response to RQ2 104

Table 5: Breakdown of Results Addressing RQ4 115

Table 6: Breakdown of Results Addressing RQ5 127

Figure 1: Traditional Public Relations Strategies 97

Figure 2: Non-Traditional Public Relations Efforts 100

Figure 3: Traditional Communications Tactics 106

Figure 4: Modified Traditional Communications Tactics 108

Figure 5: Social Media Channel Use 110

Figure 6: Benoit's Continuum 116

Figure 7: Other Image Repair Approaches 120

communication management on crisis communication increasingly presents the opportunity to

severely damage a company’s reputation (Jahng & Hong, 2017).

Balaraman, 2019). A fast-evolving communication medium, social media challenged traditional

acceptance” (Cutlip & Center, 1958, p. 5).

Social media revolutionized many facets of communication. In comparison to traditional

As a result, public relations practitioners involved in crisis communication turned more to

Further research is needed to understand the perceptions of a cross-section of public

generated crises (Etter et al., 2019).

gaining interest among researchers.

decision-making to drive response strategies when a social media-generated crisis occurs?

crisis communication purposes” (Hosseinali-Mirza et al., 2015, p. 17). It will be advantageous to

determine the communication “channels companies employ to deliver post-crisis messages to

of individuals within organizations. (p. 1653)

communication in traditional media settings (Arokiasamy et al., 2019).

pervasiveness, are changing how evaluations of the quality, competence, or character of

Statement of the Problem

social media-generated content, activity, or crisis (Jelen-Sanchez, 2017).

crisis communication because of needed development in theoretical and methodological efforts.

solutions in crisis situations.

Purpose of the Study

web-based content is unverified, pervasive, and instantaneous to a worldwide audience. By

further understanding how public relations practitioners respond to a social media-generated

suggested pathways and channels to better handle a crisis situation.

experience with social media-generated crises, be as positive, comfortable, and aggressive in

and deployment of social media proactive and reactive responses.

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