COMPOSITION AND DIVERSITY OF EPIPHYTES SPECIES ALONG THE

RIPARIAN AREA OF ARABUNOG RIVER, BARUGO, LEYTE

Undergraduate Thesis

VISAYAS STATE UNIVERSITY-ALANGALANG

Alangalang, Leyte

RONALD CAAYA BATICA

Second Semester

S.Y 2021-2022
 CHAPTER I

INTRODUCTION

Nature and Background of the Study

Epiphytes are plants that grow on other plants for structural support and anchorage, and

not for water or nutrient supplies (i.e. non-parasitic) (Laube & Zotz 2006). Approximately 84

vascular plant families have evolved an epiphytic strategy and at least 876 genera have one

epiphytic species (Gentry & Dodson 1987; Kress 1989). The number of epiphytes is estimated to

be c. 29,000 species (Gentry & Dodson 1987). Epiphytes are considered an important component

of global plant diversity and represent c. 10% of the world’s vascular plant species (Gentry &

Dodson 1987; Nieder et al. 2001). Epiphytes refer to plants that have true roots but grow on

other plants or objects upon which they depend for mechanical support but not for nutrients,

thus, they are not parasitic. They derive their nutrients and moisture from air, precipitation,

debris and photosynthesis (Benzing, 2008). They are also called aerophytes or air plants. When

epiphytes grow on other plants, such supporting plants are called phorophytes. The name

epiphyte is coined from the Greek word epi (meaning 'upon') and phyton (meaning 'plant').

Araceae, Bromeliaceae, Orchidaceae and several fern families have a substantial number

of epiphytes (Fernandez Monteiro et al. 2009). Epiphytes can be broadly classified as

holoepiphytes (spending their entire life cycle in the canopy) and hemiepiphytes (spending some

stage of their life rooted in terrestrial soil). Some epiphytes start life in the canopy and send roots

to the ground (primary hemiepiphytes), whereas others start on the ground, grow to the canopy

and lose terrestrial connections (secondary hemiepiphytes) (Benzing 2004; Lowman & Rinker

2004). Epiphytes are ecologically important, playing a significant role in forest ecosystem
processes and interactions, and contribute to species richness (Cummings et al. 2006; Burns &

Zotz 2010). Epiphytes are considered to be indicators of ecosystem diversity, health and

productivity (Jovan & McCune 2006; Bartels & Chen 2012). They provide nutrients for other

flora and fauna, and are also very sensitive to shifts in microclimate (Gradstein 2008). Epiphytes

play an important role in tropical ecosystem functioning (Madison 1977), by producing relatively

high amounts of organic matter on host trees and fixing atmospheric nitrogen (Nadkarni 1984).

Epiphytes are also considered an integral part of some urban ecosystems and constitute an

important structural and functional component (Ellis & Coppins 2007). Epiphytic plants provide

water, food (nectar, fruits), habitat and nesting materials for invertebrates and birds (Affeld 2008;

Alvarenga et al. 2010). Díaz et al. (2012).

Epiphytes contribute to species richness and play a substantial role in the processes and

inter‐ actions that make a forest function (Cummings et al. 2006). They constitute a large

proportion of photosynthetically active material (Hofstede et al. 2001), and significantly

influence important processes, particularly mineral and hydrological cycles (Benzing 1998).

Besides that, epiphytes play key roles in forest dynamic processes and they are a major

contributor to local, regional and global plant diversity (Batke 2012).

Epiphytic plants play functional roles in forest communities; they influence carbon

uptake and biomass production and nutrient cycling as well as provide shelter, nesting materials

and food for especially aboreal animals (Ellwood et al., 2002; Bartels and Chen, 2012). Despite

their role, this group of plants is understudied compared to their terrestrial counterparts.

According to Zotz (2013), there are over 27,614 species of vascular epiphytes worldwide, which

is about 9% of all vascular plant species. Many others have not been identified or catalogued.
This situation has been attributed to limited accessibility as well as difficulty in sampling and

identification (Kreft et al., 2004; Burns and Zotz, 2010; Zhao et al., 2015).

In other countries, one of the most studied groups of canopy dwellers are epiphytes. With

their versatile adaptations to a life above ground level and their vast abundance, epiphytes

contribute profoundly to the forest diversity and ecosystem processes. But due to the problem

accessing the forest canopy and lacking studies on epiphytes some part places of the Philippines,

probably because of their habitation and the methods being used (Flores-Palacios, Garcia-

Franco, 2001). This study will contribute the current knowledge regarding epiphytes species in

the Philippines as epiphytes plays an important factor in the ecosystem (Hietz, 1999) the study

will highlight the role of epiphytes as an ecological indicator and may help to assess the current

condition of epiphyte species in the tropical forest of the Philippines. The study will also serve as

a basis on the future research regarding epiphytes species in the Philippines.

Objectives of the study

Generally, the study aim to assess the epiphytes species found along the riparian

area of Arabunog River, Barugo, Leyte. Specifically it aims;

1. to identify the epiphytes species composition in the riparian area of Arabunog

River,

2. to determine the diversity abundance, richness, dominance and evenness of

epiphytes species found in the riparian area of Arabunog River,

3. to determine the significance differences of epiphyte species found along the

riparian areas of Arabunog, River, and

4. to describe species similarity based on the height zones of host trees.

Scope and Limitation of the Study

The study only focus on determining the composition and diversity of epiphytes species

along the riparian area of Arabunog river, Barugo, Leyte and limited only on the species found in

the specific height zones of a host trees.

Time and Place of the Study

Collection of the study will be conducted from the month of April to May 2022. The

study is also conducted along the riparian area of Arabunog River, Barugo, Leyte.
Definition of Terms

Epiphytes Species- Epiphytes are ecologically important, playing a significant role in forest

ecosystem processes and interactions, and contribute to species richness (Cummings et al. 2006;

Burns & Zotz 2010). They grow on other plants for structural support and anchorage, and not for

water or nutrient supplies (i.e. non-parasitic) (Laube & Zotz 2006) and contribute to species

richness and play a substantial role in the processes and inter ‐ actions that make a forest function

(Cummings et al. 2006).

Phorophytes - epiphytes grow on other plants, such supporting plants are called phorophytes.

Hemiepiphytes – Hemiepiphytes climb up their hosts after germination on the ground. Later

they shoe diebacks of their older stems and in the final stage sever all connection to the soil

(Kress 1986).

Holoepiphytes – Germinate on their host trees and grow on them throughout their whole life

cycle without any connection to the ground (Benzing, 2016).

Canopy - canopy is loosely defined for forests, but it usually refers to the upper layer of a forest

(the leaves and branches).

Trunk – Above the base of the trunk to the first bifurcation. It is the wide central part of a tree,

from which branches grow.

Riparian Area – Riparian area defined as “thin strips and patches of vegetation that surround

streams”, they are unique areas incorporating a wide mosaic of different land forms, wildlife,

environmental condition and vegetation (Cummins et al. 1991).

 CHAPTER II

REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE

Biodiversity of Epiphytes Species

The highest epiphyte diversity occurs in the tropics, especially in perhumid midelevation

mountain forests (Engwald, 2001). Epiphyte species high up in the rainforest they were found to

grow only in the canopy region. This is associated with the complexity and variability of

microhabitats available in the region. Within the tropics, the diversity center of epiphytes is

clearly located in the Neotropical region while Africa is considered as being comparably poor in

epiphytes and tropical Asia takes an intermediate position (Colwell, and J. E. Watkins Jr.,

2006). Epiphytes have important ecological values and contribution to forest biodiversity such as

increasing species diversity, primary productivity, biomass, litter fall, and water retention, and

they also provide substrate for nitrogen fixing bacteria. Vascular epiphytes also provide essential

habitat and food for canopy dwelling fauna and serve as indicators of change in microclimate as

well as global climatic change. In addition, epiphytes increase the surface area of phorophytes

for interception of water and nutrients during precipitation events. Thus, epiphytes can expand

both the nutrient storage and absorption capacity of tropical and subtropical forest ecosystems

(Hsu, F.-W. Horng, and C.-M. Kuo, 2002).

Epiphytes are part of the canopy community and can be of major importance for nutrient

cycling of forests and are important for creating niche habitats for several animal species.

Different morphological and physiological adaptations were necessary to conquer the epiphytic

habit, many related to water economy. Epiphytes can be classified according to their dependence

on the supportive tree; growth habit; water economy mechanisms, amongst others; and usually,
the wetter the forest, the larger the number of epiphytes. Altitude also influences their abundance

and richness. Other factors are also very important in explaining their diversity and the size of

the supporting tree and the texture of the bark have a role to play. Epiphytes, among other

canopy life forms are especially vulnerable to extinction because endemism is relatively frequent

and the rate of deforestation scarily high (Benzing, 1990).

The diversity and distribution of vascular epiphytes are determined by many factors. The

biophysical environment of phorophytes (such as host size, bark texture, and vertical

stratification) and elevation above sea level, disturbance, and climatic factors are among the

major factors [2]. Large trunks have more surface area to be colonized by epiphytes compared to

small trees [8]. Rough bark texture of the phorophytes is similarly more convenient for vascular

epiphyte species establishment compared to smooth ones [9]. Vertical distribution of epiphyte

indicated that diversity increases from the base of the host plants through trunk to the crown

(Gentry and C. Dodson, 1987).

Diversity patterns of epiphytes

Epiphytes differ in a number of ways from their terrestrial relatives. Having no direct

contact with the ground, epiphytes rely on regular moisture inputs from fog and rainfall. As a

consequence, water and fog supply have potentially the greatest influence on epiphyte

distribution (Zotz and Hietz 2001; Benzing 2004; Cardelús et al. 2006; Romanski et al. 2011;

Zhang et al. 2015). As a response to this limitation of moisture, many vascular epiphytes exhibit

physiological and morphological characteristics which help them cope with drought. For

instance, some vascular species have Crassulacean Acid Metabolism (CAM) photosynthetic

pathways, which help reduce water loss through nocturnal uptake of CO2 (Winter 1985). Others

have specialised morphologies that assist with water retention, such as thickened or succulent
leaves, rhizomes or specialised water storage tissue (Hietz and Briones 1998; Benzing 2004;

Higgins 2004; Reyes-García et al. 2008; Zhang et al. 2015). Epiphytic bryophytes respond to

drought in a different way. They are poikilohydric, which enables them to become dormant when

there are low levels of moisture (Proctor 1990; Bates 1998; Sillett and Antoine 2004).

Bryophytes also have a range of growth forms, which can assist in water storage by storing water

in the capillary spaces between the leaves (ver Leerdam et al. 1990; Bates 1998; Hedenäs 2001;

Frahm 2003; Sillett and Antoine 2004; Sporn et al. 2010).

Epiphytes also distinctly differ from terrestrial plants due to their biotic interaction with

the host tree. The size, branching patterns, bark-roughness and pH of the host can influence the

abundance and species richness of epiphytes (Benzing 1990; Hietz 1999; Frahm 2003; Wyse and

Burns 2011). While strict host specificity is rare, some trees are better hosts for epiphytes than

others (Benzing 11 1990; Laube and Zotz 2006; Wallace 1981; Wyse and Burns 2011). Rough-

barked trees are often preferred hosts, as furrowed bark can enhance moisture holding properties

and is an easy substrate for attachment (Frahm 2003; Wyse and Burns 2011). Host trees with

smooth or shedding bark or trees with allelopathic chemicals often make poor hosts (Hietz 1999;

Kellar et al. 2006). The size of the host tree is important, with large host trees having higher

diversity due to a larger surface area and also an increase in the time for colonization as the tree

gets older and larger (Benzing 1990; Burns and Dawson 2005; Male and Roberts 2005; Woods et

al. 2015; Zhao et al. 2015). The leaf size and architecture of a host tree can affect diversity

patterns of epiphytes by influencing light levels and wind movement (Cardelús 2007).

Conservation of Epiphytes

Epiphytes comprise 10% of the world’s total vascular flora and in some humid tropical

forest may be the most species-reach life form. Growing o trees, their fate is tied to that of their
hosts and they are threatened by the loss of tropical forest (Hietz, 1999) due to the high

deforestation rates in the tropics cause by human activities result to species loss and gradual

destruction of genetic diversity are generally acknowledge (UNEP, 1995). Because epiphytes

depend on their host plant, generally trees, any activities or conservation to a vegetation without

trees will obviously result to complete loss of epiphytes in the affected area. Among plants,

vascular epiphytes, plants that grow on trees or shrubs without directly harming them, are the life

form most restricted to and typical of humid tropical forests. Comprising about 30 000 species or

10% of the earth's total vascular flora (ref. 9), most are limited to tropical and subtropical forests,

where they may be the most diverse life form in very humid formations (Hietz, 1999).

Factors that can affect to Epiphytes Vegetation

Pollution

The effect of pollution on natural plant communities in the tropics has received little if

any attention, but, as dramatically demonstrated by the smog covering large areas of South-east

Asia in 1997, should no longer be ignored. Many non-vascular epiphytes are known to be highly

sensitive to atmospheric pollution and lichens have long been used as indicators of air quality.

Deriving most of their nutrients directly or indirectly from the atmosphere and without the

buffering capacity the soil provides for ground-rooted plants, vascular epiphytes are also likely to

suffer from atmospheric pollution. Epiphytic species of Tillandsia are sensitive to lead pollution

and have been suggested as bio-indicators for air quality assessment (Hietz, 1999).

Over exploitation

Resource extraction, due to human activities like gathering for foods and other species,

where it is also called over harvesting. Over harvesting refers to the availability of species where
to the point there is no diminishing returns. Continued over exploitation of resources can lead to

degradation and destruction of natural resources. The continued depletion of the world’s forest is

a threat to the basic survival of epiphytes species because they rely on trees and all epiphytes

residing tree will die.

Climate Change

Many species and whole vegetation types may not be able to migrate fast enough

following their suitable climate. With mobile diaspores and shorter generations than trees,

epiphytes may be better adapted to migrate with shifting climate zones than many tropical trees.

On the other hand, most climate models predict increasing seasonality of precipitation in areas

now covered by rainforests, which would reduce the per-humid area with the highest diversity of

epiphytes (Hietz, 1999).

Adaptation of epiphytes

Epiphytes are one of nature’s most adaptive plants plus one of the amazing adaptations of

epiphytes is their ability to attach to vertical surfaces and capture their water and much of their

nutrient needs from sources other than soil. They may be found on branches, trunks, and other

structures. While epiphytes may live on other plants, they are not parasites. Some epiphytes were

reproduce through the pups and the other is from seeds or vegetation action. Seed can take years

to develop recognizable plants, while cutting on epiphytic cacti looks the best way, there is also

the easiest epiphyte plant propagation through the pups but no all truths produce these. Spreading

epiphytic plants.
 There are many types of epiphytes species include many species of orchids, tillandsias,

and other members of the pineapple family (Bromeliaceae). Mosses, ferns, and liverworts are

also common epiphytes and are found in both tropical and temperate regions. They are also most

common houseplants but they also come upon epiphytic cacti, Thillandsia and other species.

Each has a different techniques of reproduction. Knowing how to propagate epiphytic plants will

help to increase your collection and sustain any favorite specimen.

Epiphytes are well adapted to suit their requirements. There is a shortage of water and

nutrients at the canopy of the forest, to overcome these, epiphytes are well adapted to capture the

nutrients and water present in the air, from the debris of trees and rain. Adaptations of epiphytes

help them grow in the area where the ground is populated by many plants. Epiphytes are

amazing adaptors (Zotz and Hietz, 2001). They are main examples of how adaptation leads to

survival in environment where plants are frequently competing for the resources (Barthlott et

al,.2001). Epiphytes vary in a number of ways from their terrestrial relatives (Cardelus et al.,

2006). Having no direct contact with the ground, epiphytes rely on consistent, moisture inputs

from fog and rainfall (Romnanski et al.,2011).as a consequence, water and fog supply have

potentially the greatest influence on epiphytes distribution. Epiphytes is also distinctly differ

from terrestrial plants due to their biotic interaction with host tree (Benzing 1990).

Uses of Epiphytes species

Epiphytes are the most beautiful vascular plants and contain interesting phytochemicals

and possess exciting pharmacological activities. An analysis of the literature revealed 185

epiphytes that are used in traditional medicine, in which phytochemical studies identified a total

of 842 secondary metabolites. Only 71 epiphytic medicinal plants were studied for their

pharmacological activities and showed promising pharmacological activities, including anti-

inflammatory, antimicrobial, and anticancer. Several species were not investigated for their

activities and are worthy of exploration, including epiphytes from the Araceae (P.

fragantissimum), Aralliaceae (S. caudata, S. elliptica, S. elliptifoliola, S. oxyphylla, S. simulans),

and Asclepidaceae (Asclopidae sp., D. acuminate, D. benghalensis, D. imbricate, D. major, D.

nummularia, D. platyphylla, D. purpurea, Toxocarpus sp) families, in which no phytochemical

and pharmacological studies had been reported. These species have been used by Indigenous

populations to treat both degenerative and nondegenerate diseases (Banerji, 1991)

Epiphyte species make good houseplants due to their minimal water and soil

requirements. Epiphytes provide a rich and diverse habitat for other organisms including

animals, fungi, bacteria, and myxomycetes (Proctor 1990). Epiphytes have been a source of food

and medicine for thousands of years. Since they grow in a unique ecological environment, they

produce interesting secondary metabolites that often show exciting biological activities. There

are notable reviews on non-vascular epiphytes, bryophyta, regarding their phytochemical and

pharmacological activities (Wang X et al., 1980).

In the early 20th century, laboratory-based research on epiphytes studied the plant’s

production of alkaloids, cyanogenetic, and organic sulfur compounds, with the plants producing

limited quantities of these compounds. Research on epiphytes that have been used in infectious

disease therapy include in wound healing, dysentery, and skin infections (Sarkar A.K et al.,

1990).

Benneth (1992) stated that among the useful non-domesticated cucurbit species is

Melothria pendula Linnaeus, which bears edible fruits. The Shuar burn oil-rich F evil – lea

coedifolia Linnaeus seeds as a substitutes for candles. Domestic animals eat the seeds of this

species. The Shuar also make a medicine to treat internal parasites from them. Useful orchids
include Vanilla sp., whose fruits are used to flavor sugarcane alcohol, to make rings, and as a

perfume (Broseghini & Frucci, 1986).

Epiphytes as biological indicator

Epiphytes and orchids are well suited to be indicators of the health and biodiversity of the

rainforest, not only because they are an important source of nutrients for other flora and fauna,

but because they are very sensitive to shifts in microclimate and they have slow growth. The

performance, survival and distribution of epiphytes is dependent on stand density, microclimate,

distance from seed source, tree and species, type and history of disturbance, population dynamics

of epiphytes and trees, and epiphyte physiology (Hietz, 1999).

Epiphytes are specialized plants that display a diverse variety of adaptations favoring

canopy suspension without soil access (Foster 2001). Due to their habitat above the forest floor

epiphytes intercept important fluxes of light, water and nutrients and play important roles in the

cloud forest ecosystem (Benzing 1998, Foster 2001). Despite these differences, water supply is

undoubtedly the most important determinant of vascular and nonvascular epiphyte distribution

(Benzing 1998, Foster 2001). Shifts in patterns of annual and seasonal rainfall make arboreal

flora exceptionally vulnerable to displacement and extirpation due to global climate change.

Plant distributions generally track climate because temperature and moisture influence metabolic

rates (Benzing 1998). Due to strict dependence on the atmosphere for required moisture and

nutrients, arboreal flora is thus exceptionally sensitive to air Epiphytes as a Bioindicator in the

Hawaiian Islands, G12AC00003 quality and climate, and by extension unusually useful for

monitoring phenomena related to global change (Lugo and Scatena 1992).

Forest canopies

The forest canopy has been called “the last biotic frontier” (Erwin, 1988). It presents a habitat

conducive to the evolution of literally thousands—perhaps millions—of species of plants,

microorganisms, insects, birds, and mammals that are rarely or never encountered on the forest

floor. Although forest canopies have been among the most poorly understood regions of our

planet, their mysteries are being explored by increasing numbers of biologists. Canopy

communities are now believed to be important in maintaining the diversity, resiliency, and

functioning of the forests they inhabit.

The forest canopy is a structurally complex and ecologically important subsystem of the forest. It

is defined as “the aggregate of all crowns in a stand of vegetation, which is the combination of

all foliage, twigs, fine branches, epiphytes as well as the interstices (air) in a forest” (Parker,

1995). The forest canopy is the primary site of gas exchange between the atmosphere and

vegetation and fosters many ecosystem processes that are crucial to the maintenance and

diversity of the forest as a whole (Lowman and Nadkarni, 1995).

 CHAPTER III

MATERIALS AND METHODS

Description of the Study Area

The municipal center of Barugo is situated at approximately 11° 19' North, 124° 44' East,

in the island of Leyte. Elevation at these coordinates is estimated at 6.1 meters or 20.0 feet above

mean sea level. The municipality has a land area of 84.62 square kilometers or 32.67 square

miles which constitutes 1.34% of Leyte's total area (PhilAtlasOnlineworld). It is approximately

3.7 km away from the town proper (Map data, 20220).

Describe Arabunog River

 Figure 1. Map showing the study area in Arabunog River, Barugo, Leyte (Source: Google

Earth
Study sites

Three (3) riparian sites will be determined in this study. These sites will be a

representative of the upper, middle, and lower stretches of Arabunog River.

Sampling Layout and Sample Collection

A reconnaissance survey will be employed for identifying the specific sampling points in

each site. In each sampling site, three (3) 10x10 meter plots will be laid on each riparian, having

a total of six (6) plots per site. Each plot on each riparian will have an interval of 100 m.

Ground-based inventories using binocular will be conducted following the ground-based

observation protocol of Flores-Franco, 2001. Three height zones will be surveyed in each host

tree adopted from the zonation system using Johansson (1974).

Trees that will found within the 10x10 m quadrant with the presence of epiphytes species

will be examined. All epiphytes species found within the selected horst trees will be counted and

recorded. One sample per species will be collected, for the species that are found in the canopy

that cannot be reach will be collected using an improvised 4-5 meter stick. Also, for the species

that could not be reach at all will be photo documented with the help of binocular for a clearer

view and will be collected by finding the same species that is accessible on the other areas.

Sample species will be collected and pressed using the herbarium presser.

Data Analysis

Paleontological Statistics (PAST) will be used for computing the diversity, richness,

dominance, and evenness epiphytes of epiphytes species in the three (3) sampling sites. Analysis

of variance (ANOVA) will be used to determine the differences in terms of diversity in indices
across all sites. A similarity analysis will be employed to test the similarity of epiphytes species

on the different height zones of host trees.

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