EXPERIMENT NO: 1

AREA COMPUTATION

AIM

To determine the area of given built up space and a small parcel of land.

INSTRUMENTS USED

Measuring tape, distance measuring instrument

PRINCIPLE
Built up area of a building is the area including the carpet are including outer walls and
balcony.

PROCEDURE
1. Measure the length and breadth of each of the sides of the building and land using
measuring tape and electronic distance measuring instrument.
2. Note down the values.
3. Plot a rough plan as per the noted values.
4. Then calculate the area manually by dividing the plan into basic figures.

RESULT

The built up area of the given structure is: sq-ft

The area of the given plot is: sq-ft

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 EXPERIMENT NO: 2 (A)

EXPERIMENTS BASED ON VERNIER CALLIPER AND

SCREW GAUGE

AIM

To measure

1. the diameter of a steel rod using vernier calliper,

2. thickness of flat bar using screw gauge.

INSTRUMENTS USED

Vernier calliper and screw gauge

DESCRIPTION OF MEASURING DEVICES

1. VERNIER CALLIPER
A Vernier Calliper has two scales–one main scale and a Vernier scale, which slides along the
main scale. The main scale and Vernier scale are divided into small divisions though of
different magnitudes.

Fig. 1 Vernier calliper

The main scale is graduated in cm and mm. It has two fixed jaws, A and C, projected at right
angles to the scale. The sliding Vernier scale has jaws (B, D) projecting at right angles to it
and also the main scale and a metallic strip (N). The zero of main scale and Vernier scale
coincide when the jaws are made to touch each other. The jaws and metallic strip are

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designed to measure the distance/ diameter of objects. Knob P is used to slide the vernier scale on
the main scale. Screw S is used to fix the vernier scale at a desired position.

PRINCIPLE

The difference in the magnitude of one main scale division (M.S.D.) and one vernier scale
division (V.S.D.) is called the least count of the instrument, as it is the smallest distance that
can be measured using the instrument.

n V.S.D. = (n – 1) M.S.D

Least count of vernier callipers / Vernier Constant(VC)

the magnitude of the smallest division on the main scale 1𝑀𝑆𝐷

= =
the total number of small divisions on the vernier scale 𝑁

Zero error and its correction

When the jaws A and B touch each other, the zero of the Vernier should coincide with the
zero of the main scale.This is known as no zero error condition. If it is not so, the instrument
is said to possess zero error (e). Zero error may be positive or negative, depending upon
whether the zero of vernier scale lies to the right or to the left of the zero of the main scale.
This is shown by the Fig.1.2 and fig.1.3. In this situation, a correction is required to the
observed readings.

Positive zero error

Fig. 1.2 shows an example of positive zero error. From the figure, one can see that when both
jaws are touching each other, zero of the vernier scale is shifted to the right of zero of the
main scale (This might have happened due to manufacturing defect or due to rough
handling). This situation makes it obvious that while taking measurements, the reading taken
will be more than the actual reading. Hence, a correction needs to be applied which is
proportional to the right shift of zero of vernier scale. In ideal case, zero of vernier scale
should coincide with zero of main scale.

In fig. 2.2 the 5th vernier division is coinciding with a main scale reading.

∴ Zero Error = + 5 × Least Count

∴ True Reading = Observed reading – (+ Zero error)

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Fig 1.1 No zero error Fig. 1.2 Positive zero error Fig. 1.3 Negative zero error

Negative zero error

Fig. 1.3 shows an example of negative zero error. From this figure, one can see that when
both the jaws are touching each other, zero of the vernier scale is shifted to the left of zero of
the main scale. This situation makes it obvious that while taking measurements, the reading
taken will be less than the actual reading. Hence, a correction needs to be applied which is
proportional to the left shift of zero of vernier scale.

In Fig. 2.3 the 5th vernier scale division is coinciding with a main scale reading.

∴ Zero Error = – 5 × Least Count

∴ True Reading = Observed Reading – (– Zero error)

PROCEDURE

1. Keep the jaws of Vernier Callipers closed. Observe the zero mark of the main scale. It
must perfectly coincide with that of the vernier scale. If this is not so, account for the
zero error for all observations to be made while using the instrument.
2. Gently loosen the screw to release the movable jaw. Slide it enough to hold the steel
rod (without any undue pressure) in between the lower jaws AB. The jaws should be
perfectly perpendicular to the diameter of the body. Now, gently tighten the screw so
as to clamp the instrument in this position to the body.
3. Carefully note the position of the zero mark of the vernier scale against the main
scale. Usually, it will not perfectly coincide with any of the small divisions on the
main scale. Record the main scale division just to the left of the zero mark of the
vernier scale(M).
4. Start looking for exact coincidence of a vernier scale division with that of a main
scale division in the vernier window from left end (zero) to the right. Note its number
(N)

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 5. Multiply 'N' by least count of the instrument and add the product to the main scale
reading noted in step 3. Ensure that the product is converted into proper units (usually
cm) for addition to be valid.
6. Repeat steps to obtain the diameter of the body at different positions on its curved
surface. Take three sets of reading in each case.

OBSERVATIONS AND CALCULATIONS

1𝑀𝑆𝐷
Least count/ Vernier scale Constant (VC) = =
𝑁

Table 2.1: Measuring the diameter of a steel rod

S.No: Main Scale reading, M Number of Vernier scale Measured

(cm/mm) coinciding vernier reading, V = N × diameter, M + V
division, N VC (cm/mm) (cm/mm)

Zero error, e = ± ... cm

Mean observed diameter = ... cm

Corrected diameter = Mean observed diameter – Zero Error

2. SCREW GAUGE

Screw Gauge is an instrument of higher precision than a Vernier Callipers. Fig. 2. shows a
screw gauge. It has a screw ’S’ which advances forward or backward as one rotates the head
C through rachet R. There is a linear scale ‘LS’ attached to limb D of the U frame. The
smallest division on the linear scale is 1 mm (in one type of screw gauge). There is a circular
scale CS on the head, which can be rotated. There are 100 divisions on the circular scale.
When the end B of the screw touches the surface A of the stud ST, the zero marks on the
main scale and the circular scale
should coincide with each
other.

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 Fig. 2 screw gauge

PRINCIPLE

The linear distance moved by the screw is directly proportional to the rotation given to it. The
linear distance moved by the screw when it is rotated by one division of the circular scale, is
the least distance that can be measured accurately by the instrument. It is called the least
count of the instrument.

Distance moved by the screw

Pitch of the screw = No.of full rotations given

pitch
Least Count= No.of divisions on circular scale

ZERO ERROR

When the end of the screw and the surface of the stud are in contact with each other, the
linear scale and the circular scale reading should be zero. In case this is not so, the screw
gauge is said to have an error called zero error.

When the reading on the circular scale across the linear scale is more than zero (or positive),
the instrument has Positive zero error as shown in Fig. E 2.1. When the reading of the circular
scale across the linear scale is less than zero (or negative), the instrument is said to have
negative zero error as shown in Fig. E 2.2.

Fig 2.1 positive zero error fig. 2.2 negative zero error

PROCEDURE

1. Take the screw gauge and make sure that the rachet R on the head of the screw
functions properly.
2. Rotate the screw through, say, ten complete rotations and observe the distance
through which it has receded. This distance is the reading on the linear scale marked
by the edge of the circular scale. Then, find the pitch of the screw

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 3. Insert the given bar between the screw and the stud of the screw gauge. Move the
screw forward by rotating the rachet till the bar is gently gripped between the screw
and the stud as shown. Stop rotating the rachet the moment you hear a click sound.
4. Take the readings on the linear scale(M) and the circular scale(n).
OBSERVATIONS AND CALCULATIONS
Distance moved by the screw
Pitch of the screw = =
No.of full rotations given

pitch
Least Count= =
No.of divisions on circular scale

S. Linear scale reading M (mm) Circular scale reading (n) Thickness t = M + n × L.C.
No. (mm)

Zero error of screw gauge = ... ± mm

Mean thickness of the given sheet = ... mm

Mean corrected thickness of the given sheet = observed mean thickness – (zero error with
sign)

= ... mm

RESULT
The diameter of the given steel rod =

The thickness of the given bar =

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 EXPERIMENT NO: 2 (B)

AIM

Transfer the level from one point to another using a water level.

APPARATUS

Transparent tube of 5-10 m length, colouring agent,

PRINCIPLE

Water has a property, which always remains at the same level. This principle is used in level
tube. A transparent water-filled plastic long tube is taken. When we hold two ends of tube at
any distance water level at both ends, shows equal height.

Figure-1

During construction, level tube is used, to equal all sides of the walls or points on two poles
(Figure-1) at same height. The level tube along with scale can also be used to find out height
difference between two spot.

PROCEDURE

1. 5 to 10 m of transparent plastic tubing with about 0.5-1 cm diameter. (If you plan to
level items that are a far distance from each other, you may opt for a longer tube.)
2. Hold the ends of the tubing and fill it with water. Keep the ends at the same height,
filling the tube until the water sits 2 to 3 inches (5.1 to 7.6 cm) below the attached end
of the tube
3. Check that there are no air bubbles in the water once you have filled the tube, as this can
throw off the level.

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4. Put 1-2 drops of any colouring agent in the water to make it easier to see. This will
make it easier to spot the level of the water in the tube
5. Use your thumbs (figure -2) or a cap on the ends to prevent the water from spilling. You
can then move the water level to another spot so you can use it.

Figure -3
6. Bring the water level to the items you want to measure. The water level is often used to
determine the level spot on 2 items that are at a distance from each other, such as posts
or stakes in the ground, walls etc.
7. You can also use the water level, where you need to find two level areas on different
items that are close to one another.
8. If you are levelling items that are more than an arm's distance away from each other,
you may need someone to hold the free end of the tube and move it for you.
9. Hold one end of the level against first point (point to be transferred or point of a known
elevation) such that the water in the tube coincides with the point. Make sure the open
ends of tube faces upward and the tube is free from knots.
10. To transfer the level of point one to another place, hold the other end of the tube at the
second point and note the level of water in the tube. (figure-4) While transferring keep
your thumb on the ends of the tube to prevent spilling.

Figure-4

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11. While transferring ensure that the water level in the tube is coinciding on the first point.
If it varies adjust the tube and bring the water level to coincide with the first point.
12. To transfer the point to a distance longer than the tube choose one or more intermediate
points (based on the requirement) between the first and point to which level is to be
transferred and transfer the level to the intermediate points and then to the final required
point.

RESULT

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 EXPERIMENT NO: 2(C)

SETTING OF A BUILDING-BY USING TAPE ONLY

AIM

To set out a building as per the given plan by using tape only

INSTRUMENTS USED

Tape, peg, string.

PRINCIPLE

Setting out is the establishment of the marks and lines to define the position and level of the
elements for the construction work so that works may proceed with reference to them. This
process may be contrasted with the purpose of surveying which is to determined by
measuring the position of existing features.

Setting out is the reverse of surveying. Surveying is a process of forming maps and plans of a
particular site or area, whereas setting out begins with a plan and ends with a particular plan
correctly positioned on site.

PROCEDURE

1. From the plan, the centre line should be found out and then the centre lines of the
room should be marked on the ground as shown in the plan.

2. The length of the longer side should be marked on the ground with the help of pegs
and string by taking the measurements using tape only.

3. Perpendiculars at each corner of the plan should be taken out by using 3:4:5 rule
(Pythagoras theorem). Each corner end has to be checked by using this method.

4. From fig 1 we can see that, each corner of the building is marked with pegs i.e. pegs
should be driven onto the ground.

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5. During excavation, the centre points a, b, c, d may be removed. Therefore the centre
lines should be extended and the centre points should be marked at minimum 2m
away from outer edge of excavation and are marked with pegs (Say point A1, A2, B1,
B2, C1, C2, and D1, D2).

6. From the plan detail, calculate the width of the excavation to be done and mark it by
thread with pegs at appropriate position.

SETTING OUT BY USING TAPE ONLY

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 LEVELLING - STUDY OF INSTRUMENTS

AIM

To study about the instruments used in leveling, its station adjustments and the terms used in leveling.
Levelling may be defined as the art of determining the relative heights or elevation of points or
objects on earth’s surface. It deals with the measurements in a vertical plane.

INSTRUMENTS USED

Level and leveling staff.

Types of Levels:

1. Dumpy level

2. Wye (Y) level

3. Tilting level

4. Reversible level etc.

Dumpy level

A dumpy level is a simple, compact and stable instrument. It consists of a telescope firmly secured in
two collars fixed by adjusting screws to the stage carried by the vertical spindle. The spindle revolves
in the socket of levelling head. It consists of two parallel plates held apart by three levelling screws.
The upper parallel plate is called tri brach. The lower plate is known as trivet stage .The telescope can
rotate along horizontal axis.

Dumpy level consist of

i) Objective lens

ii) Eye piece

iii) Diaphragm

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A level tube is attached on the top of the telescope and is used for levelling the instrument. Diaphragm
carries one vertical cross hair and one or three horizontal cross hairs.

DUMPY LEVEL

Levelling Staff

Levelling staff is a straight rectangular rod having graduations up to 4m. Each meter is sub
divided into 200 divisions; the thickness of the graduations being 5mm.The foot of the staff
represents zero reading. The purpose of the levelling staff is to determine the amount by which the
station is above or below the line of sight. The graduations are inverted so that when sighted
through the telescope they will appear erect.

Types of Levelling Staffs:

1. Self reading Staff

a. Solid staff
b. Folding Staff
c. Telescopic staff
2. Target Staff

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 (a) Solid staff (b) Folding staff (c) Telescopic staff

Different types of levelling staff

Temporary Adjustments / Station Adjustments a Level:

It consist of the following

processes i) Setting up of the
level

ii) Levelling up

iii) Elimination of parallax

i) Setting up of the level: -

First fix the instrument on the tripod whose legs are adjusted for approximate levelling. Next
the legs are adjusted to bring the telescope to eye level.

ii) Levelling up: -

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 Place the telescope parallel to a pair of foot screws and bring the bubble to the centre of its
run by turning these screws equally either both inwards or both outwards. Turn the telescope
through 900 so that the level tube is over third foot screw, and centre the bubble by turning this
screw only. Bring the telescope back to its original position without reversing the eye piece and
object glass ends. Again bring the bubble to the centre of its run, and repeat these
operations, until the bubble remains in the centre of its run in both positions, which are at the right
angles to each other. If the instrument is in adjustment, the bubble will traverse (remain central) for
all directions of the telescope.

iii) Elimination of parallax:-This involves two steps

a) Eliminating eye piece parallax- To avoid eye piece parallax focusing is done by turning the eye
piece either in or out until the cross hairs are distinctly visible.

b) Eliminating parallax in objective- To eliminate objective parallax the image is focused on to the
plane of the cross hairs in the diaphragm with the aid of focusing screws at the side of the
telescope.

Terms used in
levelling:

Level surface: - A level surface is any surface parallel to the mean spheroidal surface of the earth,
e.g. the surface of a still lake. Since the earth is an oblate spheroid, a level surface may be regarded as
a curved surface, every point on which is equidistant from the centre of the earth. It is normal to the
plumb line at all points.

Level line: - A level line is a line lying in a level surface. It is, there for normal to the plumb line at
all the points.

Horizontal plane: - A horizontal plane through a point is a plane tangential to the level surface at
that point. It is perpendicular to the plumb line.

Horizontal line: -A horizontal line is any line lying in the horizontal plane.

Vertical line: - A vertical line at any point is a line normal to the level surface through that point.

Vertical plane: - A vertical plane is a plane containing a vertical line.

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Datum surface: - A datum surface or line is any arbitrary assumed level surface or line from which
vertical distances are measured. In India the datum adopted for G. T.S. bench mark is the mean sea
level at Mumbai.

Elevation: - The elevation of a point is its vertical distance above or below the datum. It is also
known as reduced level (R. L.). The elevation is plus or minus according to whether the point is
above or below the datum.

Difference in elevation (H): - The difference in elevation between two points is the vertical distance
between the level surfaces passing though the two points.

Bench mark (B.M.): - A bench mark is a fixed reference point of known elevation

Line of collimation: -The line of collimation is the line joining the intersection of the cross hairs to

the optical centre of the object glass and its continuation. It is also called line of sight.

Backsight: - A back sight (B. S.), also termed as a back sight reading, is a staff reading

taken on a point of known elevation, as on a bench mark or a change point. It is also called a plus
sight. It is the first staff reading taken after the level is set up and levelled.

Foresight: - A fore sight (F. S.), also called foresight reading is a staff reading on a point whose
elevation is to be determined as on a change point. It is also termed as a minus sight. It is the last
staff reading denoting the shifting of the instrument.

Intermediate sight: - An intermediate sight is any other staff reading taken on a point of unknown
elevation from the same set up of the level. All sights taken between the backsight and the foresight
are intermediate sights.

Change point: - A change point (C. P.) is a point denoting the shifting of the level. It is a point on
which the fore and the backsights are taken. Any stable and well defined object such as a boundary
stone, curb stone, rail, etc, is used as a change point. It is also called a turning point.

Station: - A station is a point whose elevation is to be determined or a point which is to be

established at a given elevation. It may be noted that it is a point where the staff is held and not the
point where the level is set up.

Height of instrument: - The height of the instrument (H. I.) is the elevation of the plane of
collimation when the instrument is correctly leveled.

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 CALCULATIONS
Height of Instrument method

STATION B.S (m) I.S (m) F.S (m) H.I (m) R.L (m) REMARKS

Results:

The terms and instruments used in levelling and its working operation have been studied

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EXPERIMENT NO: 3

FIND THE LEVEL DIFFERENCE BETWEEN ANY TWO

POINTS

AIM

To obtain the level difference between the given stations

INSTRUMENTS USED

Dumpy Level and Leveling staff

PRINCIPLE

When he level is set up correctly the line of collimation will be horizontal and the telescope when
rotated about its vertical axis will revolve in a horizontal plane. With this position of the telescope,
when the stations are sighted, the staff readings at all the stations will give the vertical measurements
made upward or downward from this horizontal plane.

PROCEDURE

1. Note down the position of the given stations and the bench mark
2. Select the instrument position suitably such that the B.M and no. of stations are visible.
3. Place the instrument over its tripod and do the station adjustments.
4. Take a back sight (B.S) on the levelling staff held at the B.M and enter the value in the
field book.
5. Rotate the telescope and sight the levelling staff held at next station. Enter this reading as
intermediate sight (I.S).
6. Repeat the same process till the last station visible is reached. For this station the reading
taken will be the fore sight (F.S).
7. Shift the instrument to a new position and do the station adjustments.
8. Take the first reading (B.S) on the station whose fore sight was noted with the previous
setup.

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9. Now take the staff readings as explained in steps 5 and 6.
10. Repeat the processes till the reading at all the stations are noted.

CALCULATIONS
Height of Instrument method

STATION B.S (m) I.S (m) F.S (m) H.I (m) R.L (m) REMARKS

RESULT

The level difference between the given point =

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 EXPERIMENT NO: 4 (A)

CONSTRUCT A WALL OF HEIGHT 50CM, LENGTH 60CM

AND WALL THICKNESS 11/2 BRICK USING ENGLISH BOND

AIM

To construct a wall of height 50cm and wall thickness 11/2 brick using English bond, including the
corner portion, length of the side wall is 60cm

INSTRUMENTS USED

Trowel, shovel, plum bob, straight edge, tri-square, pan

PRINCIPLE

Brickwork is masonry produced by a bricklayer, using bricks and mortar. Typically, rows of bricks
called courses are laid on top of one another to build up a structure such as a brick wall.

PROCEDURE

1. First lay a foundation strip before building the wall

2. Fasten the string lines on pegs and stretch the string line across the foundation strip
3. Start by laying the first corner brick. Either lay the shorter end of the brick (header) or
length of the brick (stretcher) facing you.
4. Next, place the queen closer (a brick cut lengthwise) right next to the corner brick.
5. Leave a 1cm gap between the two bricks
6. The bricks should be arranged to a height of 50cm from the base.
7. The length of the side wall should be maintained to 60cm.
8. Finish dry laying the first course.
9. When you are sure of this first course, relay the brick
10. Check if the course is level with plump bob or spirit level.
11. For the second course of brickwork, lay the brickwork at the header end if your course
was a stretcher course, and vice versa
12. To complete the wall, alternate the header and stretcher courses

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 EXPERIMENT NO: 4(B)

TO FIND OUT THE NUMBER OF BRICKS TO CONSTRUCT

A WALL.

AIM

To find out find out the number of different types of building blocks to construct a50cm height and 60
cm length wall.

INSTRUMENT USED

Tape, brick, plum bob,

PROCEDURE

TO COMPUTE THE NUMBER OF BRICKS REQUIRED TO CONSTRUCT A WALL

1. Find out the length, height and thickness of the wall of the building to be constructed.
2. Determine the volume of the brickwork to be constructed.

(Actual size of a brick-19cm x 9cm x 9cm)

(Nominal size of a brick-20cm x 10cm x 10cm, nominal size denotes dimension of the brick after
taking into account the mortar thickness)

3. Calculate volume taken up by one brick using the dimensions above

4. Divide the total volume of brickwork by volume taken by a single brick to compute
the number of bricks required.

RESULTS

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 EXPERIMENT NO: 5

INTODUCTION TO PLUMBING AND SANITARY FITINGS

INTRODUCTION

Historically the ancient days of plumbing was started in Rome. The word comes from ancient roman
word “plumbum” which means lead. The man who works in plumbum is known as plumber. Since
lead is poisonous it is not used for plumbing nowadays. There are many examples of lead work in
British Museums.

In modern times plumber has therefore to be skillful in finding of those materials. Also now a day's
plastic materials are also used for pipe works. Wrought iron, cast iron, glass fittings, stone ware
fittings and sanitary fittings etc ..Also should be handled by plumbers with great care.

The external plumbing means roof work and internal plumbing means pipe works. External plumbing
means providing rain water piping system and preventing the water from entering the building. It also
involves collection and removal of waste water.

A plumber must also understand the principles of drainage system. If the building is to be constructed
for human habitation then plumbing work is essential and should be of good quality.

The pipes are specified by:

1. Material

2. Diameter

3. Wall thickness

4. Length

5. Surface treatment

6. Pressure it can withstand

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COLOUR CODE

A. class- yellow
B. class-blue
C. class- red

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LENGTH OF PIPES

PVC Pipe  5m G.I Pipe 6m

SWG Pipes  2 feet without socket

STUDY OF PIPE FITTINGS

Pipe fitting are used for or more section of pipe for the required length for changing the diameter
direction of flow of the line or for controlling the flow rate.

Coupling: It is used for joining same diameter of pipes in straight line.

Reducer Coupling: It is used for connecting branch pipes having lesser diameter at right angles with
main pipe.

Elbow: It is used to connect two pipe of same diameter at right angle. Reducing Elbow: It is use to
connect two pipes for changing direction of pipe line.

Flange: Pipe of large diameter are joined together means of cast iron flange using nut and bolt flanges
are joined together .A suitable packing material is inserted between the flange to prevent leakage
.Flanges joints are easy to separate.

Plug: It is used foe plugging or blocking the end of the pipe .It has a separate square thread and
external thread .P.V.C plug is known as end cap.

Union Join: This is also used to connect two pipes of the same diameter and in the direction. Two
pieces of pipes are screwed at both ends to bolts pipes are drawn together by means of a coupling nut
to packing is inserted between the ends to prevent leakage.

Nipple: It is a small piece of pipe having external threads at two ends .Short Nipples and Pipe nipples
are available .In a short nipple, at the middle like a nut to suit the spanner nipples and pipe nipples
there is a hexagonal portion

Water taps: Water taps are used to drawing water in pipe lines.

Different types of generally used:

1. Screw Down taps -it is used for general purpose.

2. Pillar Tap -they are generally used in wash basins.

3. Self-closing tap-it is used in schools and other public places

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Valves: Are generally used for regulating the flow of water. They are of two types:

1. Automatic Valve

2. No automatic valve

AUTOMATIC VALVE

Foot valve

It is fitted at the lower-end of the suction pipe in the centrifugal pump. The Valve is kept in position
by means of a dead weight .A strainer at the end of the valve prevent the entry of floating bodies.
When the pump is stopped the suction pipe acts over the valve and close it.

Ball valve:

It is used to control the over flow in a water tank.

Reflex valve

It is used to control the backflow in the pipeline.

Pressure relief valve:

It is used to control water hammer in a pipe line.

WATER HAMMERING

The water moves with a very high velocity in the pipe. When the valve is suddenly closed the internal
pressure shoots up since the kinetic energy of flowing water is transformed to reassure energy.

AIR RELIEF VALVE

It is used to relief air in the pipe line.

NON AUTOMATIC VALVE

1. GATE VALVE
2. SLUICE VALVE
3. BUTTERFLY VALVE
4. GLOBE VALVE.

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STUDY OF TOOLS

Pipe Wrench

It is commonly used for lightening and loosening of the pipe fittings and other cylindrical objects jaw.
It consists of a movable jaw and an adjustable on this jaw. The teeth are provided to prevent slipping
to hold the pipe in position.

Pipe Vice

The use of rectangular pipe vice is advisable over ordinary bench vice .The pipe vice is fitted on a
work bench. It holds the pipes in position during cutting threading and fitting of bends, coupling etc.

Bench Vice

It is use d for the holding the work and attached to the bench. One of the two jaws is stationary and is
fixed to the bench by bolts.

Pipe Die

A pipe die is used for cutting external threads of pipes one or two piece dies are used in the die stock.
A piece of dies are placed inside a die holder known as die stock for the purpose of threading.

Die Stock: A die is used for cutting external threads as pipes .It is a hand operated device , which may
be considered as a hardened steel net, having fluster cuts along its inside surface .Incase of two piece
die set a desired distance.

Die stock has four parts 1 .handle 2.stock 3.blush 4.guide.

Plumb Bob: is used to check the verticality of pipes.

Adjustable spanner: They are used for rotating nuts and bolts. Carrying a stock of various size of
spanner is not possible when portability is essential.

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Steel Rule: It is used for taking measurements up to 30 mm accuracy. One side is made in cm's and
other side in inches. Steel rules are actually of 150mm or 300mm. Least count of steel rule is 1/64 th of
an inch.

Hack Saw: It is used for materials by hand .It consist of a frame which holds a thin blade, firmly in
position hacksaw blades having teeth ranging from 5 to 15cm.

Cross Peen Hammer: In the case of cross peen hammer the peen is across the shaft or eye it is used
for bending hammering of the shoulders etc..

Flat File: The file has edge for about 2\3 of the length and then it tapers width and thickness .The face
are doubly cut and the edges are straight out.

Measuring Tape: It is usually made of steel. At the end of the tape a brass covering is provided. It is
wound in a metal case having suitable winding device.

Trowel: Trowel is used to smoothen the surface of the work piece or mould. It is may also may used
for repairing damaged moulds.

Double end Spanner: A banner is tool for turning nuts and bolts. Spanners are named according to
their application. The size of the spanner indicates the size of the bolt on which it can work.

Flat chisel: It has a straight curve on the face .It is used for chipping large surface and for general
cutting..

Scriber: A scriber is a marking tool and it is used for temporary marking.

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Punchy Punches are also marking tools. But they are used for permanent marking.

Blow lamp: It is used to produce fire for the purpose of heating the pipe and brazing joint.

Spirit level: It is use check horizontal level of a surface .It is also used for checking sanitary fitting.

FIGURES OF PIPE FITTINGS

Fig. 1 Union

Fig.2 Bib Tap Fig.3 Pillar Tap

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 Fig 4. Gate Valve

Fig.5 Foot valve

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Fig.6 Pipe Wrench Fig. 7 Pipe Vice

Fig. 8 Adjustable Spannel Fig.9 Hack Saw

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Fig. 10 Ball Peen Hammer Fig. 11 Double Ended Spanner

Fig.12 Die Set

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Fig. 13 Flat Chisel Fig. 14 Bench Vice

Fig .15 box Spanner Fig. 16 Type of Punches

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 Fig. 17 Trowel and Measuring tape

Fig. 18 Flat File

Fig. 19 Spirit Level

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 Fig. 20 Some important pipe fitting tools

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 Fig .21 Pipe Fittings

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 STUDY OF WATER SUPLY AND SANITARY FITTINGS

1. INTRODUCTION
A complete plumbing system consists of the (a) supply plumbing which carries the
water from the source to all the points of use and (b) the waste plumbing which carries the
waste water, after use, to a disposal area. Plumbing system is designed, installed, located and
maintained in a building for convenience, comfort, sanitation and health

2. SANITARY FITTINGS
Sanitary fittings are the appliances used in waste plumbing system to receive the
human excreta and Sullage waste of the hose.

2.1. Wash basin

Wash basins are waste fixtures used for ablutionary purposes. They are usually made
of fireclay, stoneware, glazed earthenware, vitreous china clay, pressed steel or plastic. They
are available in different shapes, colours and sizes. Wash basins may either be supported on
brackets or on pedestals. Normally, a wash basin is provided with one or two taps. It has oval
shaped bowls, with an overflow slot at the top. The waste pipe with a metallic strainer is
provided at the bottom of the bowl. For cleaning and holding water in the basin, some times a
rubber plug attached with a chain secured by a stay is used.

2.2 Urinals

These are soil fixtures required for schools, theaters, hospitals, offices and public
places. Urinals are usually of two types (1) bowl or basin type (2) slab or stall type. The bowl
type is generally used for private buildings and stall type is used for public buildings.

Bowl or basin type urinals: These type urinals are of one piece construction, each
urinals being provided with two fixing holes on each side for fixing on the wall. They are
made of glazed earthenware or vitreous china clay. They are usually flushed with symphonic
type of flushing cisterns, which act automatically at desired interval of time. At the bottom of

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the bowl shaped vessel an outlet horn is provided for connecting the urinals to the pipe
through a floor trap.

Stall or slab type urinal: They are cheaper and used in railway stations, municipal
toilets, cinema houses etc. the urinal consist of simple compartments made by raising side
walls and the in front is glazed. At bottom, a drain is made along the front wall in which the
urine flows and is finally connected to the soil pipe.

The usual centre to centre spacing of units is kept at about 60 cm in both type of
urinals.

2.3 Water closets

A water closet is water flushed plumbing fixture, designed to receive the human
excreta directly, and is connected to the soil pipe by means of trap.

Two types of water closets are in common use

1) The squatting or the Indian type

2) The pedestal or the European type

The squatting or the Indian type: This type of water closet is manufactured
integrally with squatting pan and trap. They are made of glazed earthenware or vitreous and
is available in white and in color. The selection of ‘P’ or ‘S’ type trap can be done on the
basis whether the outlet pipe has to go through rear wall or vertically trough the floor. The
top of ‘P’ or ‘S’ trap is connected to the anti-syphon or vent pipe. The pan is connected to the
flushing cistern by means of a flushing pipe. The flush pipes are connected to flushing
cisterns of required capacity.

If the Indian water closets are provided on the upper floors, it is necessary to provide
a minimum of 55 cm sunk slab to accommodate water closet and trap.

Indian water closets with integral foot treads are known as orissa pattern. Foot treads
of size 250mm X 125mm X 15 mm are available separately and can be fixed in cement
mortar.

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 European type water closets: European water closet consist of a pan with an integral
‘P’ or ‘S’ trap made of vitreous china or glazed earthenware available in white and colors.
They are provided with an inlet or supply horn for connecting to the supply pipe. This type
requires low space and is easier to install. Generally low level cisterns are fitted to European
water closets. This type of water closets is fixed to the floor using screws.

2.4 Manholes

For the operation and proper maintenance of sewage system various devices are
essential. These include manholes, drop manholes etc.

At every change of alignment, gradient or diameter of the sewer, manhole is

constructed for giving access to the sewer for inspection, cleaning, repairs and maintenance.
Manholes are masonry or R.C.C. chambers which are fitted with suitable covers at their top.

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 Fig. 22 Sanitary Fittings

3. THREADS

A raised, helical rib or ridge around the exterior of a cylindrically shaped object or the
interior of a hole is termed as threads. Threads are found on screws, nuts, and bolts.

In the year 1841 Joseph Whitworth implemented a type of thread known as Whitworth
thread. Later William seller of America implemented seller’s thread.

Use of a thread

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 1. As Fastener
2. To transmit the motion.
3. To make an Adjustment
4. To raise a Load
5. To resist a Load
6. To have a accurate setting
7. For quick setting
8. Easy to separate

A helical groove cur on the surface of a cylinder forms an external thread. The counter part
cut in a cylindrical tide gives an internal thread. The groove may be formed in a different
shape to have its on advantage (V, square , buttress etc..)

Types of “V” Thread

1.
BSW – first standardized thread, angle 55o
2. BSF – British standard fine thread, angle 55o used in auto mobile spare parts.
3. BSP – British standard pipe thread, angle 55o.
4. BA – British association, angle 47.5o used in small screws.
5. METRIC – angle 60o (International Thread).
6. ANT – (American National thread) Angle 60o, used English system.

DEFINITION AND TERMINOLOGY OF THREAD

1. Major Diameter – maximum diameter of thread.

2. Minor Diameter- inner diameter of thread.
3. Pitch – the distance measured parallel to the axis between two adjacent crest.
4. Flank – is the surface joining the root and crest.

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5. Crest – the top surface joining the flank of thread.
6. Root – the bottom surface joining the flanks of thread.
7. Angle – Angle included between the side of the thread.
8. Depth – vertical distance between crest and root.

Fig.23 Details of Threads

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 Fig. 24 Shower Fittings

4. DRAINAGE
All the arrangement of the buildings above and below ground level in soil and waste pipes.

It include drainage pipe, rain water pipe, vent pipe ventilation pipe.

INSPECTION CHAMBER

Usually fitted in house drainage. For inspection, cleaning maintenance etc..It is fitted in all
junctions, bents etc...

FLUSH TANK

1. Flat bottom
2. Bell type
3. Automatic type

Flat bottom and bell type are used in IWC and EWC. Automatic type is used ij urinals.
Working principle of a flush tank is symphonic in action.

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Manholes and Inspection Chamber

Manholes and inspection chamber are used for inspection, cleaning, and maintenance.
Manholes are masonry or RCC which are fitted with suitable cover. It is fitted in every
change of alignment, gradient or diameter of the sewer.

Fig.25 Manhole

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