UNIT 6

ENERGY

Electrochemistry has varied applications to daily living. It is the type of reaction

that produce energy in batteries used to run flashlights, ordinary toys, cellular phones,
laptop computers, mp3 players and a lot more. It is the same chemistry that is involved
in burning fuels for energy or in burning food in our body, and processes like
photosynthesis and respiration. Oxidation-reduction (redox) reaction explains the
relationship between chemistry and electricity, which is applied to meet many needs of
the society. The transfer of electrons from one chemical species to another is utilized to
produce energy in electric batteries.

An electrolytic cell depends on an external supply of current which drives the non
spontaneous oxidation reduction reactions. It operates on the principle, the positive ions
(cations) migrate through the negative electrode (cathode), while negative ions (anions)
migrate through the positive electrode (anode), hence Cu2+ (in the coin) is reduced to Cu
in the cathode and Cu is oxidized to Cu2+ in the anode. On the other hand, a
spontaneous reaction occurs in a galvanic/voltaic cell where the electrodes have opposite
charges compared to an electrolytic cell. The cathode has a positive charge while the
anode has a negative charge. In both electrochemical cells, oxidation occurs in the anode
while reduction occurs in the cathode.

OXIDATION AND REDUCTION

Oxidation number – used interchangeably with oxidation state
- are positive or negative numbers assigned to individual atoms in substances to
keep track of the number of valence electrons lost or gained

Assigning Oxidation numbers

 For ionic compounds, oxidation numbers are the same as the ionic charges
Na1+Cl1-
 For covalent compounds, oxidation numbers are the charges the atom would
have if the electrons of each bond belonged to the more electronegative atom
H+1O-2N+3O-2
Oxidation
- process whereby a substance in a chemical reaction loses one or more
electrons

Reduction
- process whereby a substance in a chemical reaction gains one or more
electrons

* oxidation and reduction always go together  electron transfer

 Oxidation-Reduction Reaction
- redox reaction
- any reaction involving the transfer of electrons between reactants

Oxidizing Agent
- causes oxidation by accepting electrons from the other reactant
- is itself reduced by the other reactant
- in a reaction, the substance that contains the atom that shows a decrease in
oxidation number (gained electrons)

Reducing Agent
- causes reduction by providing electrons for the other reactant to accept
- becomes oxidized itself
- in a reaction, the substance that contains the atom that shows an increase in
oxidation number (lost electrons)

GEROA & LEORA

 GEROA – When an atom gained electrons, it is reduced and acts as an oxidizing
agent
 LEORA – When an atom lost electrons, it is oxidized and acts as a reducing
agent

ex. Determine the oxidation numbers for each atom in the following reactions, and
identify the oxidizing and reducing agents.

1. 2SO2 + O2  2SO3
… reducing agent: SO2
oxidizing agent: O2

2. 2Fe2O3 + 3C  4Fe + 3CO2

3. S2O8-2 + 2I-  I2 + 2SO4-2

Balancing Redox Equations (Ion-Electron Method)

- use of half-reactions
1. Write the equation in net ionic form, then determine which substances are
oxidized and reduced by assigning an oxidation number to each atom or ion.
2. Write two skeletal partial equations:
o an oxidation half-reaction  includes the formula of the substance
containing the element oxidized along with the formulas of the
oxidation products
o a reduction half-reaction  includes the formula of the substance
containing the element reduced along with the formulas of the
reduction products
 excepet for H and O, the same elements must appear on both sides of the
given half-reaction
3. Balance each half-reaction with respect to the element oxidized or reduced with
appropriate coefficients.
4. Balance each half-reaction with respect to all other elements present except for
H and O.
5. Balance each half-reaction with respect to oxygen.
a. in acidic and neutral solutions, oxygen is balanced by adding H2O
molecules to the side of the equation that needs oxygen
b. in basic solutions, oxygen is balanced by adding 2 OH- ions to the side
that needs oxygen and one H2O molecule to the other side of the equation
6. Balance each half-reaction with respect to hydrogen.
a. in acidic solution, balance hydrogen by adding H+ ion to the side that
needs H
b. in basic solution, balance hydrogen by adding one H2O molecule to the
side that needs H and then one OH- to the other side
7. Balance each half-reaction with respect to charge by determining the total charge
on each side of the equation and then adding electrons to the side with the more
positive total charge such that the charges become equal.
8. Multiply each balanced half-reaction by the smallest whole number that will make
the total number of electrons lost equal to the total numbers of electrons gained.
9. Add the two half-reactions together to obtain the final balanced equation.
10. Cancel out any other species besides electrons common to both sides of the
equation.
11. Check to see that the equation coefficients are in the lowest possible ratio.
Reduce the ratio if needed.
Homework 6A:
Name: Date: Score:
Course, Yr & Sec:

1. Determine the oxidation numbers of:

a. Cl in KCl and KClO3
b. S in H2S, NaHSO3, Na2S4O6
c. C in C6H6, CO2 and HCHO
d. Mn in MnSO4, MnO2 and KMnO4

2. Which of the following is not a redox reaction?

a. 2Al + 3Br2 2AlBr3
b. S + O2  SO2
c. 2KOH + H2SO4  K2SO4 + H2O
d. 2KNO3  2KNO2 + O2
e. C6H12O6 + 6O2  6CO2 + 6H2O

3. Identify the oxidizing and reducing agents in the following reactions

a. Ca + Cl2  CaCl2
b. Zn + CuSO4  ZnSO4 + Cu
c. C + ZnO  CO + Zn
d. 3Ag + 4 HNO3  3AgNO3 + NO + 2H2O
e. 2H2O2 2H2O + O2

4. Which of the following reagents would be good oxidizing agents:

Fe2+, Fe3+,MnSO4, MnO4-, F2,F-

5. Balance the following redox reactions
a. S + HNO3  SO2 + NO+ H2O
b. [Cr2O7]2- + S2- + H+  Cr3+ + S + H2O
c. HClO  HClO3 + HCl
Electrochemistry: Chemistry and Electricity

Oxidation-reduction is at the core of the relationship between the transfer of electricity.

The transfer of electrons from one chemical specie to another is utilized to produce
energy in electric batteries. The chemistry of redox reactions applied to meet the needs
of society.

Zinc-carbon flashlight battery

A dry cell consists of graphite carbon as

the positive electrode
Zinc casing as the negative electrode
And a paste mixture of MnO2, NH4Cl and
ZnCl2 as electrolyte

The Dry Cell

 Zinc Casing is the anode . Zn loses e’s, source of e’s and is (-)
 The graphite carbon is the cathode. Graphite receives e’s from outside, and is (+)

Chemical reactions in the flashlight

Zn  Zn2+ + 2e
2MnO2 + 2NH4+ + 2e  2NH3 + 2MnO(OH)
The NH3 produced combines with Zn2+ holding down the latter’s conc.
It also prevents a condition known as polarization or the accumulation of NH3 on the
cathode surface
The Zinc-carbon battery is an example of an electrochemical cell of the voltaic type.

The Daniell Cell

 Daniell cell is the simplest example of a voltaic cell (galvanic cell)
 In voltaic cell, the chemical energy of a spontaneous reaction is converted to
electrical energy
The electrolytic cell, on the other hand, requires a source of electric energy to affect
chemical change
The Daniell cell is a primary cell. It cannot be recharged
The salt bridge preserves the electroneutrality of the electrolyte solution
 Zn strip goes into the solution to form Zn2+ ions
Cu2+ in the solution deposit as Cu metal on the zinc strip

How does the Daniell cell work?

Half reactions:
Zn  Zn2+ + 2e (oxidation, anode, zinc surface)
Cu2+ + 2e  Cu (reduction, cathode, copper surface)
 The give and take of electrons between zinc metal and copper ions are harnessed in
someway such that an electrical current is produced. This is done by separating the
anode from the cathode and allowing the electrons to move in the external circuit.
 The electrons lost by zinc move out of the anode into the outside circuit, then flow
through the voltmeter and enter the cell again through the copper plate
 Zinc plate serves as the source of electrons for the outside circuit (- polarity, +
charge, anode )
 Copper plate is where the electrons enter the cell from outside (+ polarity, - charge,
cathode)

Voltage versus Ampere

Guide question: A car battery delivers hundreds of amperes at a potential of 12v. To
what can you compare this, a wide river flowing slowly or a small but sharp jet of
water like that used by a dentist?

Voltage compared to water pressure in a pipe

The higher the voltage, the higher the force that moves an electron from
point to point within an electric circuit. Ampere compared to the rate of flow of water
measured in quantities per unit time measures the rate of flow of current. A wide
river flowing slowly (low pressure, high rate of flow because of the large volume of
water) can be compared to the flow of electricity in a car battery (high current, low
voltage). It is not harmful because of the low voltage. Lahar flow during typhoon
comes rampaging. Both volume and rate are large. That is why it is damaging. It
can be compared to electric current at high voltage and high amperage, which are
so harmful that may even kill people.

Important concepts
The potential to gain e’s is measured as electrical voltage and is referred to as
reduction potential. The potential to lose e’s is measured a electrical voltage and is
referred to as oxidation potential. The reference standard for measuring potential is
the reduction of two H+ ions to a H2 molecule. When all participating substances are
in their respective standard state, the reduction potential measured is referred to as
the standard reduction potential and is labeled Eored.
A positive sign for the reduction or oxidation potential means that the reaction is
spontaneous. A negative sign means the reaction is non spontaneous.

Refer to the table of standard reduction potential of substances in the order of

increasing tendency to be reduced.
Example:
Li+ + e  Lio Eored = -3.04 v
Lio  Li+ + e Eoox = +3.04 v
* Note: reduction /oxidation potential is an intensive property and its value does
not depend on the number of atoms, molecule or electrons involved in the reaction.
An electrochemical cell is obtained by combining an oxidation half cell and a
reduction half cell.

The cell generates electricity spontaneously, if the resulting cell potential is

positive
Eocell = Eoox + Eored

Cell potential of the Daniell cell :

Zn  Zn2+ + 2e Eoox = +0.76 v
Cu2+ + 2e  Cu Eored =+0.34 v
Zn + Cu  Zn + Cu Eocell =+1.1 v
2+ 2+

* The Eocell is positive, thus the reaction is spontaneous and will serve as a
source of energy or voltaic cell

The accepted convention in representing an electrochemical cell

1. Write the oxidation half cell on the left
2. Write the reduction half cell on the right
3. A single bar indicates the interface between the electrode and electrolyte.
4. A double bar represents a salt bridge

Zn / Zn2+ // Cu2+ / Cu

Lead storage battery

Secondary cells
• These are voltaic cells which can be generated by passing electric current in the
reverse direction of discharge.
• Rechargeable
• While in neutral position, the battery is being recharged by the generator or
alternator.
• The voltage output depends on the number of cells that are joined in the series
 • They are available in 6, 24 or 32 volts.
• Each cell consists of parallel lead plates in grid form.
• One plate is filled with spongy lead, the other with lead (IV) oxide
• The electrolyte is dilute sulfuric acid which at normal operating condition is about
38% by mass

A. During discharging
Anode: Pb (-)
Cathode: PbO2 (+)
B. During charging
Anode: PbO2 (+)
Cathode: Pb (-)

The spontaneous reaction when discharging is:

Pb + PbO2 + 2 H2SO4  2PbSO4 + 2H2O
Eo= +2.04 v
When the battery is charging, the reverse non spontaneous reaction occurs:
2PbSO4 + 2H2O  Pb + PbO2 + 2 H2SO4
Eo= -2.04 v
*Half cell reaction during discharge:
Pb  Pb2+ + 2e Eoox = +0.36 v
PbO2 + SO4 + 4H + 2e  PbSO4 + 2H2O
2- +
Eored =+1.69 v
*Half cell reaction during charging:
Pb2+ + 2e  Pb Eoox = -0.36 v
PbSO4 + 2H2O  PbO2 + SO42- + 4H+ + 2e Eored =-1.69 v

Guide Questions:
1. How many individual cells in a Pb storage battery should be connected in a
series to give a 24 volt output?

Answer: Twelve individual cells connected in series would give a 24 v output

since one cell’s output is 2.04v
*Take note that voltage is additive while current is constant

2. What happens to the pH of the battery solution when it is discharging? Charging?

 Answer: The pH rises during discharge (less acidic) since H+ ions are used up
forming H2O. During charging, pH goes down (acidic) since H+ ions are being
produced
3. To check the degree of discharge of a Pb storage battery, a hydrometer is used
to check the density of the electrolyte. What is the basis of this procedure?
Answer: The Pb2+ ions formed during discharge react with SO42- forming
insoluble PbSO4. When taken out of solution, the density of the solution
decreases.

Other Commercial Batteries

1. Alkaline batteries

- has KOH mixed with powdered Zn for electrolyte.

- has porous sleeve that separates the electrolyte from the MnO2
-metal nail at the core collects electrons from the Zn and conducts them to the (-)
terminal

2. Mercury or Rubin-Mallory Cell

Used in hearing aids, pace makers, and watches
Provides a constant voltage of 1.35v bec overall reaction involves only solid subs
Longer lasting and has higher capacity
Overall reaction :
Zn(Hg) + HgO(s)  ZnO(s) + Hg(l)
 3. Silver oxide battery

Cathode: Ag2O
Anode: Zn
Electrolyte medium: moist alkaline paste

Cathode: Ag2O(s) + H20 + 2e  2Ag(s) + 2OH-(aq)

Anode: Zn(s) + 2OH-(aq)  Zn(OH)2(aq) + 2e
Zn(s) + Ag2O(s) + H2O(l)  2Ag(s) + Zn(OH)2

Comparison of Commercial Batteries

Type Feature Voltage
Alkaline battery Contains KOH in electrolyte; longer 1.5 v
lifetime
Lithium battery Li is the anode Over 3 v

Mercury battery Rxn between Zn and HgO 1.3 v

Silver oxide battery Rxn between Zn and Ag2O 1.5 v

4. Nickel-Cadmium cell
Efficiently used for electrochemical storage for space operations in Explorer, Gemini,
Mariner and Ranger satellites
Secondary cells
Anode: cadmium
Cathode: Nickel (IV) oxide
Electrolyte: Alkaline medium

Anode: Cd + 2H2O  Cd(OH)2 + 2e + 2H+

Cathode: NiO2 + 2H+ + 2OH- + 2e  Ni(OH)2 + 2OH-
Overall: Cd + NiO2 + 2H2O  Cd(OH)2 + Ni(OH)

5. Fuel Cell
Fuel cells are claimed to have greater power conversion efficiency
Voltaic cells which operate as long as the fuel (gas) is continuously supplied
Used in spacecrafts e.g. Apollo missions
Reactants: cryogenic H2 (fuel) and O2 (oxidizer)
Anode: H2-O2 fuel cell made up of porous electrode with finely divided Pd or Pt as
catalyst
Cathode: porous electrode with CoO, Pt or Ag catalyst
Electrolyte: concentrated solution of NaOH or KOH

Anode: (H2 + 2OH-  2H20 + 2e)2

Cathode: O2 + 2H20 + 4e  4OH-
Overall: 2H2 +O2  2H20
Advantage: H2-O2 fuel cell does not produce any toxic waste product
Disadvantage: The reactants or fuels are gases and require large volumes of container.
This is not very portable.

Electrolysis and Electrolytic cells

 Electrolysis is the decomposition of a substance into its constituents by means of
electricity.
 Requires electrolytic cell
 Electrolytic cell is the opposite of voltaic cell
 Requires external source of energy, usually DC current
 Essential parts: electrodes and electrolyte
 Anode: oxidation occurs; cathode: reduction occurs

Polarities of the electrodes

  During electrolysis
Anode: Cl-  ½ Cl2 + e Eoox = -1.36 v
Cathode: H + e  ½ H2
+
Eored = 0 v
H + Cl  ½ H2 + ½ Cl2
+ -
Eocell = -1.36 v
• Ec is negative, the reaction is non spontaneous

Redox in everyday life

The energy that we used in our homes, factories and transportation is mainly derived
from the burning of fuels.
Burning is a redox reaction
C8H18 + 25 O2  16CO2 +18H2O
Use of chlorine to destroy pathogenic bacteria during purification of drinking water,
extraction of metal from their ores, photography and use of explosives.

The Chemistry of Corrosion

Corrosion is the wearing away of materials exposed to the elements of the
environment. Most common example of direct oxidation of metals is rusting Fe is
exposed to air and water. The ideal condition for rusting is to have iron partly
exposed to oxygen and partly protected from oxygen.

Anode: the part that is protected from oxygen

Cathode: the part that is exposed to air

Anode: Fe  Fe2+ + 2e
Fe2+  Fe3+ + e

Cathode: 2H2O(l) + O2(g) + 4e  4OH-

* The products of these separate reactions then combine to form Fe2O3.H20, or rust.

The anode portion of the iron pipe undergoes the corrosion process
Fe  Fe2+ + 2e
Fe2+  Fe3+ + e
The cathode portion of the pipe requires oxygen for the reduction of water
2H2O(l) + O2(g) + 4e  4OH-
Thus, the part exposed to air becomes cathodic and the embedded part
becomes anodic and corrodes.
Homework Unit 6b
Name: Date: Score:
Course, Yr & Sec:

1. If an iron nail is placed in a solution of Zn2+ ions and Cu2+ions, what spontaneous
reaction will occur?

2. What will happen if both copper and silver are placed in contact with solutions
containing both Cu2+ and Ag+ ions?

3. Would a household bleach solution containing ClO- be able to remove the color
of iodine stains? Explain.

4. Calculate the cell potential for the following rxn

Fe(s) + Cl2(aq)  Fe2+(aq) + 2Cl-(aq)

Represent the electrochemical cell for this reaction

5. Explain the oxidation-reduction processes in developing photographic films

6. Trinitroglycerin is a known explosive. What structural features does it have that

give its explosive properties?
 NUCLEAR CHEMISTRY
OBJECTIVE
At the end of this lesson you are expected:
 To write, balance and understand the different nuclear reactions
 To understand the importance of half-life and carbon dating

Today, nuclear chemistry is very much in the news. Its role in the creation or
manufacture of atomic bombs, hydrogen bombs and neutron bombs connote dreadful
implication relating to Hiroshima and Pearl Harbor bombing. There is also a fear of
swiping half of the world’s population if a nuclear war happens between or among nations.
The sub-atomic particles called electrons play an important part to most of the reactions
taking place in an atom. This activity instead, covers the reactions involving changes in
the nucleus of an atom.

On the other hand, Nuclear science has saved lots of people’s lives because it is
now used in the detection and treatment of diseases, especially the dreadful disease;
cancer, could be cured by the practical applications of Nuclear chemistry. In the field of
agriculture and industry, radioactive isotopes are used to increase food production to
meet the demands of the growing population of the world.

DISCOVERY OF RADIOACTIVITY

A scientist must have an open mind so as not to miss an accidental discovery like
what happened to Henri Becquerel in 1896. He placed pieces of uranium crystals on
photographic plates in his drawer and after developing, they showed “fogging” even if the
plates were placed in black paper to avoid exposure to sunlight. He then concluded that
it is not the radiation from the sunlight that caused the photographic plates get exposed,
but the uranium crystals.

Pierre and Marie Curie who were students of Becquerel, observed the same
properties exhibited by thorium, polonium and radium and termed them radioactive. It was
noted that element 96 is named curium in honor of Marie Curie, the grand lady of
radioactivity. RADIOACTIVITY is the property that causes an element to emit radiation.
 The differences between a chemical reaction with that of a nuclear reaction is
shown in the table below.

Chemical reactions Nuclear reactions

1. Atoms are rearranged by 1. Elements or isotopes of the same

breaking and forming of elements are converted from one
chemical bond form to another.

2. Only electrons in atomic 2. Protons, neutrons, electrons and

orbitals are involved in the
breaking of bonds
3. Reactions are accompanied by
absorption or release of
relatively small amounts of
energy
5. Rates of reaction are
influenced by temperature,
pressure, concentration and
catalysts
other elementary particles may be
involved
4. Absorption or release of
tremendous amounts of energy
accompanies reactions.
5. Rates of reaction, normally are not
affected by temperature, pressure
and catalyst

Types of Radioactivity
The nucleus of an atom occupies a very small portion of the total volume of an
atom, but contains most of the mass because the protons and neutron are inside the
nucleus. Protons and neutrons are collectively called nucleons. When referring to a
single type of nucleus, the term nuclide is often used.

Heavy unstable nuclei undergo spontaneous change into another by the process
called radioactive decay. The unstable nuclide is often called the parent nuclide; and
the nuclide that results from decay is called the daughter nuclide. These different types
of radioactive decay can be classified by the radiation they produced:

1. Alpha decay. This type of radioactive decay occurs when the reason for the instability
is due to very large or heavy nucleus. The emission of an alpha particle reduces the
size of the nucleus, thus making it more stable.
2. Beta decay. This type occurs when the reason for instability is that the nucleus has
too many neutrons relative to the number of protons. The atom becomes stable by
the emission of an electron that changes the neutron to proton.
3. Gamma decay. This occurs when the reason for instability of the nucleus is due to
excess energy of the nucleus. The emission of a gamma ray reduces the energy of
the nucleus.

The table below summarizes and differentiates the three types of radiation stated
above.
 Type of Gree Number Identity Ionizin Penetrating power
radiation k of g
letter nucleon power
s
1. Alpha  4 Helium Strong Very weak – stopped by
nucleus paper
2. Beta  0 Electron Weak Weak – stopped by thin
aluminum sheet
3.  0 High-energy Very Strong – stopped by lead or
Gamma radiation weak thick concrete

Ionizing power refers to the ability of radiation to cause the formation of ions in
matter by knocking off the atoms or molecules in their path. The harmful effects of this
radiation upon human being is caused by its ability to ionize and ultimately destroy the
organic molecules of which the body cells are composed.

Another type of radioactivity, known as nuclear transmutation, results from the

bombardment of nuclei by neutrons, protons or other nuclei. Both radioactive decay and
nuclear transmutation are nuclear reactions that require a high-energy change in an
atomic nucleus.

MATERIALS
Calculator, Periodic table

PROCEDURE
1. Balancing Nuclear Reactions
The procedure for balancing nuclear reactions are different from those used for
ordinary chemical equation. To write a balanced nuclear equation, you must account for
all atomic numbers and mass numbers. A nuclear equation is considered balanced when
the sum of the subscripts (atomic number) is equal to the sum of the subscripts of the
products. Moreover, the sum of the superscripts (mass number) of the reactants is equal
to the superscripts of the of the products. To balance the atomic numbers and mass
numbers, you must be able to write the atomic notation for each of the particle in the
reaction.
 The symbols for the elementary particles that could be involved in a nuclear
reaction are as follows.
Elementary Particles in Nuclear Reaction
Particle Symbol Charge
4He
Alpha,  2 2+
0e 1-
Beta,  - -1
0e 1+
Positron, + +1

Gamma *,  0
0 0
Neutron 1n0 0
Proton, p+ 1H or 1p 1+
1 1

Alpha Emission

Write a balanced nuclear reaction for the alpha decay of Fermium, Fm with a
general notation of 248Fm100. We can write the decay process using the given symbols:

248 A 4
Fm100 Xz + He2 ( particle)
The atomic number (Z) of the element X must be 98 (from 100=98+2), which
corresponds to Cf, Californium in the periodic table. The mass number (A) for Cf must
be 244 (from 248= 244+4). The balanced nuclear equation is

248 244 4
Fm100 Cf98 + He2 ( particle)
Note that the alpha emission decreases the atomic number of the daughter nuclide
by two and makes it two places lower in the periodic table. Notice that the equation given
above shows a balanced atomic numbers and mass numbers both in the reactant side
and product side.

Beta Emission

Now, write the beta decay process for Radium Ra88.

228

228
Ra88 A
Xz + 0e-1 ( - particle)
The atomic number (Z) of the element X must be 89 (from 88 =89-1), which
corresponds to Ac, Actinium in the periodic table. The mass number (A) for Ac must be
288 (from 288= 288+0). The balanced nuclear equation is

228Ra
88
228
Ac89 + 0
e-1 ( - particle)
 Notice that beta emission increases the atomic number of the daughter nuclide by
one produces the next higher element in the periodic table.

Gamma Emission

An excited nuclide is represented by the symbol of the element with an asterisk.

The emission of the gamma ray by Co-60 is represented by the nuclear equation:

0
60
Co27* Co27
60
+ 0 (Gamma ray)

Notice that a gamma ray has an atomic number and mass number of zero and
thus have no effect on the equation.

Positron emission

A nucleus may become unstable when it has many protons relative to the number
of neutrons. In 1932, a new particle was discovered. Its mass is the same as that of an
electron, but the charge is 1+. The particle was given the name positron (+) for a positive
electron. A positron is emitted when a nucleus changes its proton into a neutron.

When sodium-22 emits a positron, it can be used in medicine to detect lesions in

the brain. The nuclear equation can be represented as follows:

22
Na11 A
X11 + 0
e+1 ( positron, + )

The atomic number (Z) of the element X must be 10 (from 11=10+1), which
corresponds to Ne, Neon periodic table. The mass number (A) remains the same (from
22= 22+0). The balanced nuclear equation is written as:

22
Na11 22
Ne10 + 0
e+1 ( positron, +

Note that emission of a positron decreases the atomic number by one and
produces a nuclide one place lower in the periodic table

Electron Capture

An unstable nuclide with too many protons relative to the number or neutron,
makes its nuclear proton to capture an electron from the K shell and changes it to a
neutron. This is the reason why this type of radioactivity is sometimes called K capture.
When this decay event happens, x-ray is simultaneously emitted. This is the process that
is used during x-ray diagnosis. Let us try to write the nuclear equation when Ba-133
captures an electron.

133
Ba56 + 0
e-1 A
Xz + x-ray

The atomic number (Z) of the element X must be 55 (from 56-1=55), which
corresponds to Cs, Cesium in periodic table. The mass number (A) remains the same
(from 22= 22+0). The balanced nuclear equation is written as:

133
Ba56 + 0e-1 133
Cs55 + x-ray
Note that the electron is written in the reactant side that causes the production of
an element with an atomic number lower by one and places this nuclide one place lower
in the periodic table.

2. Carbon dating

A clock based on Radioactivity

A nuclide that is unstable is called a radionuclide. Radioactivity makes it possible

to establish the ages of many geological and biological specimens because the decay of
any particular radionuclide proceeds at a constant rate regardless of its environment.
This makes the ratio between the amount of the nuclide and its stable daughter nuclide
in a specimen depend on the latter’s age. He greater the proportion of the daughter
nuclide, the older the specimen. This procedure is used to date objects of biological origin
using radiocarbon-14 that emits beta radiation.

Cosmic rays are high-energy atomic nuclei, chiefly protons that circulate though
the Milky Way galaxy of which the sun is a member. About 10 of them reach the earth
each second. When they enter the atmosphere, they collide with the nuclei of atoms in
their paths to produce showers of secondary particles. Among these secondaries are
neutrons from disrupted target nuclei. Such neutrons can react with nitrogen nuclei in the
atmosphere to form radiocarbon with the emission of a proton. The equation will be:

14
N7 +
14
C6 + 1H (Proton)
n0
1 1

The proton picks up an electron and becomes a hydrogen atom. Radiocarbon has
too many neutrons for stability and beta decays into N with a half-life of about 5760 years.
Although the radiocarbon decays steadily, the cosmic ray bombardment constantly
replenishes the supply.
 Shortly after their formation, radiocarbon atoms combine with oxygen molecules
to form carbon dioxide molecules. Green plants take in carbon dioxide and water which
they convert into carbohydrates in the process of photosynthesis, so that every plant
contains some radiocarbon. Animals eat plants and thereby become radioactive
themselves. Since the mixing of radiocarbon is efficient, living plants and animals all have
the same ratio of radiocarbon to ordinary carbon (C-14/C-12).

Stable nuclide

Radioactive Stable nuclide

nuclide
Radioactive
nuclide Radioactive
nuclide
1st half life 2nd half life 3rd half life

When plants and animals die, they no longer take in radiocarbon atoms, but the
radiocarbon they contain keeps decaying away to N-14. After 5760 years, they have only
one-half as much radiocarbon left-relative to their total carbon content as they had as
living matter. After 11,520 years, only one-fourth as much, and so on. By determining
the proportion of radiocarbon to ordinary carbon , it is therefore possible to evaluate the
ages of ancient objects and remains of organic origin. This elegant method permits the
dating of mummies, wooden elements, cloth, leather, charcoal from campfires and similar
artifacts from ancient civilization.

t1/2=0.693/k
Dry lab activity Unit 6c
Name: Date: Score:
Course, Yr & Sec:

1. Write the following nuclear reactions below:

a. Po-210 emits alpha rays

b. K-40 emits negative beta rays

c. C-11 emits gamma rays

d. N-13 emits positive beta rays

e. Tc-94 undergoes electron capture

2. Complete the following nuclear equations. Write the mass number, atomic number and the
symbol for the remaining particle.

a. 9Be4 +  6Li3 + 4He2

b. + 1n0  Na11 + 4He2

24

c. 40Ca
20 +  40K
19 + 1H1

d.  232
U92 + 4
He2

e. 201Pb
82  201Bi83 +

3. Identify the nuclear decay involved in the transformations of the following, (show the
nuclear equation):
 a. Thorium-230 to radium-226

b. Bismuth- 214 to polonium-214

c. Potassium-40 to argon-40

d. Lanthanium-138 to Barium-138

QUESTIONS/PROBLEMS
1. Explain why tritium, 3H, cannot undergo alpha decay.

2. What is the half-life of a radioisotope if it decays to 12.5% of its radioactivity in 12

years?

3. Explain why the application of nuclear fusion has a greater promise than the
existing nuclear fission reaction in the releases of enormous amounts of energy.

4. What are the uses of nuclear chemistry in medicine?

5. Gold-198 is used in the diagnosis of liver problems. The half-life of 198Au is 2.69
days. If you begin with 2.8 g of this gold isotope, what mass remains after 10.8
days?

6. What are the current global effects of the Chernobyl, Ukraine meltdown that
happened on April 1986?
Chemical fuels
Carbon, in combination with hydrogen, oxygen, nitrogen, and sulfur, forms the basis for
millions of organic compounds.
• Organic molecules form the products used in:
1. Cosmetics and perfumes
2. Pharmaceutical products
3. Soaps and detergents
4. Paints, varnishes, dyes
5. Many more!

The carbon atom is central to all organic compounds.

A carbon atom usually forms four covalent bonds.
• Single bonds
• Ex: H3C-CH3 in ethane
• Double bonds
• Ex: H2C=CH2 in ethene
• Triple bonds
• Ex: HCCH in ethyne (acetylene)

Petroleum refining

• Different units in petroleum refinery

- distilling unit
- cracking unit
-reforming unit

Petroleum refining
• Fractional distillation produces only small amount of gasoline, often poor quality
• Cracking breaks down large covalent molecules into smaller ones. This is done
by heating the high boiling material (high molar mass) at very high temperature
under pressure in the presence of catalysts
• Cracking increases the amount of highly branched low molar mass HC and
aromatics, thus improving the burning quality of gasoline.
• Alkylation is the opposite process of cracking. It involves combining an alkane
and an alkene to form a HC with higher molar mass.
• Catalytic reforming reorganizes HC molecules into more useful structures of the
same carbon content. Structures may undergo isomerization, cyclization, or
aromatization.
• Isomerization: straight chain alkane is converted to a more highly branched
isomer.
• Branching improves the octane rating of the blend.
• During cyclization, a straight chain HC is converted to a cyclic compound

Fractional distillation
 • Difference in boiling point makes the components of a mixture separable by
fractional distillation
• The fractionating tower consists of a heated still, a column composed of a series
of boiling plates and condenser

Factors that affect the boiling point of hydrocarbons

Molar mass As the molar mass increases, the boiling point increases

Chain branching Boiling point decreases as the HC becomes more highly

branched

Volatility More volatile substances have low boiling points

Operation of Internal combustion engine

The 4 stroke cycle:

• Intake stroke. The intake valve opens and the exhaust valve is closed. A
mixture of air and gasoline vapor is drawn into the cylinder as the piston goes
downwards.
• Compression stroke. Both valves are closed. The gasoline-air mixture is
compressed as the piston moves upwards.
• Power stroke. Both valves are still closed. The spark plug fires and ignites the
compressed gas-air mixture. Gasoline is burned and energy is released. The
piston is pushed downward by the expanding combustion products. This is the
force that moves the car.
• Exhaust stroke. Exhaust valve opens with the intake valve still closed. The
piston moves upwards and forces the combustion products out of the cylinder
Gasoline blends sold in cold countries vs those sold in tropical countries
• Gasoline blends for cold countries have more volatile components than those of
gasoline sold in tropical countries. This is to ensure that the car will start on cold
winter mornings.
• Kerosene is not a good fuel for cars. Its boiling range is higher, such that not enough
vapor will form and burn at the temperature of the internal combustion engine.

Engine knocking
• Engine knocking is the sound of actual explosions in the engine caused by
uncontrolled, irregular combustion.
• It happens when the engine is made to produce a lot of power rapidly or during pre-
ignition or from spontaneous combustion in several spots of the cylinder, either before or
at the moment the sparkplug fires.
• Knocking can damage the engine causing pit formation or fractures on top of the piston.
It results in loss of power, inefficient and uneconomical use of fuel

Octane rating

• Octane rating is used as a measure of the tendency of a gasoline blend to knock

- It is determined by comparing the knocking tendencies of a particular blend with
those of mixtures of 2,2,4 trimethyl pentane (isooctane) and heptane.
- The percentage isooctane in the reference mixture that has equal knocking
property as the gasoline blend is the octane rating of the blend.

• Octane enhancers are substances that are added to gasoline to make it burn
more smoothly and evenly, thus the engine is prevented from knocking.

Octane enhancers

• The most commonly used octane enhancer before was Lead tetraethyl.
- lead was found to have health hazards to humans
• Widely used today are alcohols e.g. methyl alcohol, tert-butyl alcohol, and ether
(methyl tert-butyl ether)
 The products of burning gasoline
Products of Sources Effects
Burning
Water vapor Normal burning Store latent heat in the atmosphere

Carbon dioxide Normal burning Contributes to greenhouse effect; Used by

plants for photosynthesis

Carbon monoxide Incomplete Binds with hemoglobin; produces toxic

combustion effects depending on conc. and time of
exposure

C particles and Incomplete Usually carcinogenic; especially if aromatic

unburned HC combustion
Sulfur oxides Burning of sulfur Contributes to acid rain; corrosive on
contaminant in low materials; causes respiratory ailments
grade petroleum
Lead compounds Gasoline additives to Poison catalysts in catalytic converters;
reduce knocking toxic to humans, usually affecting CNS,
body organs, reproductive system and
fetuses
Nitrogen oxides High engine Main chemical species in photochemical
temperature causes smog; contributes to acid rain; irritating to
combination of N2 lungs and respiratory organs
and O2 in air

Catalytic converters
• The catalytic converter is an after burner.
• It converts the hydrocarbons, CO and NO to CO2,H2O and N2.
Homework 6d

Name: Date: Score:

Course, Year & section:

1. Explain the chemical nature of gasoline.

2. Cite two chemical additives in gasoline. Explain their chemical nature in relation
to their purpose.

3. Describe the different energy transformations that occur in driving a car from
the moment the ignition key is turned on up to the moment the wheels are
moving.

4. Distinguish chemically among the following gasoline blends – regular gasoline,

leaded gasoline, unleaded and premium gasoline. If you are to select one fuel
to power your car, which will be your choice and why?

5. Discuss the social impact and environmental effects of burning fuels.

89
 Unit 7
Chemistry of Engineering Materials

Plastic Polymers

Plastics are polymers or macromolecules formed by the repeated linking of a

great number of small molecules. Plastics are materials, which can be molded into
different shapes e.g. fibers, sheets, films, blocks, etc. with or without the applications of
heat. They are generally synthetic organic materials.

Properties of Plastics
There are two types of plastics; thermoplastics and themosets. Thermoplastics
are plastics that soften when they are heated, then harden again as they cool. They
mimic fats. Thermoset plastics harden permanently once molded for the first time.
Reheating may cause them to decompose. They mimic egg white. e.g. Bakelite, billiard
balls.

http://chemistry2.csudh.edu/rpendarvis/Polymer.html

The simple molecules making up the polymer may be identical (homopolymer) or

different (copolymer). The polymer chain may be linear, branched, or cross-linked.
Cross-linking between polymer chains adds more chemical bonds making the polymer
stronger and durable. The molecules are prevented from slipping past one another,
even at higher temperature. Examples of homopolymers are LDPE, HDPE, PP, PS, and
PVC; while examples of copolymers are PET, Polyformaldehyde and Nylon 66.

A copolymer contains two different kinds of monomer units.

H H H2 H2 H H H H2
H2C C C C C C H2C C C C

butadiene unit

styrene unit
segment of styrene-butadiene rubber (SBR)

90
Development of Plastics

DATE EVENTS

1839 Charles Goodyear accidentally discovered the process of vulcanization

1846 Christian Schoenbein accidentally invented guncotton or nitrocellulose

1863 John Hyatt produced celluloid (articificial ivory) from a mixture of camphor and
lightly nitrated cellulose and was manufactured commercially in 1870
1909 Leo Hendrick Bakeland the first synthetic organic polymer
(phenolformaldehyde or Bakelite plastics)

1930’s Styrene-butadiene rubber developed by German chemists

Wallace Carothers developed Neoprene (synthetic rubber from chloroprene)
forcommercial production

1934 Polyethylene first prepared at Imperial Chemicals in Great Britain

1938 Teflon first prepared at Dupont

1946 John Rex Winfield produced the polyester PET from ethylene glycol and
terephthalic acid

1950 Karl Ziegler produced high density polyethylene in Germany

1953 Karl Ziegler and Giulio Natta prepared independently the first stereochemically
ordered polyproplyene

1963 Karl Ziegler and Giulio Natta received Noberl prize in Chemistry

Now, plastics are distinguished by their symbols. These are important in labeling
plastics as this would show how they are to be recycled. The symbols below represent
certain plastics.

Plastics and their symbols

PETE /PET- Polyethylene
terephthalate
HDPE- High density
polyethylene
V/ PVC- Polyvinyl chloride
LDPE- Low density polyethylene
PP- Polypropylene
91
 Plastics have revolutionalized the way we live in this present time but these
synthetic products whose chemical bonds have been made so strong that as a rule they
do not degrade in the environment. They may be considered the greatest invention
made by chemists for this century, but this also imposes problem to the environment.
Thus, this problem must be solved at the community level.

Plastic needs about 450 years just to start decomposing. Then, it takes another
50-80 years to decompose completely.

Did you know that?

 90% of the price you pay for the bottled water goes to the plastic bottle, while the
water cost you only 10% of the money you give.
 Sad but true, the worldwide fishing industry throws huge amounts of plastic
garbage in the oceans. Amazing 150,000 tons go into the water every year,
including packaging, plastic nets, lines and buoys.
 This trash causes death of many animals in the seas, which mistake the garbage
for food. Estimations say that the number of killed animals is over one million.

Distinguishing Polymers

PETE /PET- Polyethylene terephthalate

 Bottles for soft drinks, water, sports drinks and containers for condiments like
ketchup, salad dressing, etc.
 PET is considered safe, but it can actually leach the toxic metal antimony, which
is used during its manufacture.

HDPE- High density polyethylene

92
  HDPE, which is considered a low-hazard plastic, is often used for milk, water and
juice bottles, as well as bottles for cleaning supplies and shampoo, grocery bags.
 HDPE (like most plastics) has been found to release estrogenic chemicals.

V/ PVC- Polyvinyl chloride

 PVC is a widely-used plastic. There are many uses for PVC. As a hard plastic, it
is used as vinyl siding, magnetic stripe cards, window profiles, gramophone
records (which is the source of the name for vinyl records), pipe, plumbing and
conduit fixtures.
 PVC plastic can be rigid or flexible, and is commonly found in bags for bedding,
shrink wrap, deli and meat wrap, plastic toys, table cloths and blister packs used
to store medications. PVC contains toxic chemicals including DEHP, a type of
phthalate used as a plastics softener.
 Phthalates are one of the groups of "gender-bending" chemicals causing males
of many species to become more female. These chemicals have disrupted the
endocrine systems of wildlife, causing testicular cancer, genital deformations, low
sperm counts and infertility in a number of species, including polar bears, deer,
whales and otters, just to name a few.
 The general formula of repeating unit for polyvinyl chloride

 Globally, over 50% of PVC manufactured is used in construction. It has been

replacing traditional building materials such as wood, concrete and clay in many
areas. Despite appearing to be an ideal building material, concerns have been
raised about the costs of PVC to the natural environment and human health.

LDPE- Low density polyethylene

 Another plastic that is considered a low hazard, LDPE is used in bags for bread,
newspapers, fresh produce, household garbage and frozen foods, as well as in
paper milk cartons and hot and cold beverage cups. While LDPE does not
contain BPA, it may pose risks of leaching estrogenic chemicals, similar to
HDPE.

93
PP- Polypropylene

 PP plastic is used to make containers for yogurt, deli foods, medications and
takeout meals. While polypropylene is said to have a high heat tolerance that can
withstand autoclaving and making it unlikely to leach chemicals, at least one
study found that PP plastic ware used for laboratory studies did leach at least two
chemicals.

PS- Polystyrene

 A.k.a Styrofoam, is used to make cups, plates, bowls, take-out containers, etc.
 Polystyrene is known to leach styrene, which can damage your nervous system
and is linked to cancer.
 Temperature has a role in how much styrene leaches from PS containers, which
means using them for hot foods and beverages (such as hot coffee in a
polystyrene cup) may be worst of all.

Acrylic, Polycarbonate, Nylon, Fiber glass, others

 Acrylic acid has the structure:

O
||
CH2=CH-C-OH
 The polymer of its methyl ester is used as base for acrylic paints which are
formed simply by adding pigment. After applying these paints on a surface, it
forms a rubbery, flexible film as the water evaporates from the surface.
 Methyl cyanoacrylate is the substance in “Super glue” (it is not yet polymerized).
When spread on surface with electron rich groups (wood, paper, etc) containing
traces of water or alcohol, it starts to polymerize.
 Because of the bulky irregular nature of the substituent groups, the molecules do
not pack closely. There are lots of spaces which are filled and lock the surfaces
when joined
 BPA and BPS are endocrine disrupters, which means they mimic or interfere with
your body's hormones and "disrupts" your endocrine system. The glands of your
endocrine system and the hormones they release are instrumental in regulating
mood, growth and development, tissue function, metabolism, as well as sexual
function and reproductive processes.

94
Comparison between LDPE and HDPE

 LDPE  HDPE
 Soft, lighter, thermoplastic, low  Harder, denser, thermoset, more
melting rigid, higher melting
 LDPE has more side chains or  HDPE chains are formed without
offshoots from the main HC chain much branching
 Chains are packed in a very  Molecules are closely packed in an
irregular manner like tangled web organized manner
 There are more regions of
crystallinity

Burning Plastics

Most products from synthetic polymers burn at elevated temperatures. Many

such products are used as building materials or articles in our homes.
Generally, there are 3 significant burning characteristics associated with plastics:
The plastic product often melts as it burns
The plastic surface tends to char and disintegrate.
The burning plastic polymer evolves large amounts of smoke, carbon
monoxide and other toxic fire gases.

Melting can contribute to the spread of fire from its source to elsewhere.
Polymeric materials also conduct or radiate heat causing thermal degradation at
different points, the degradation can produce a combustible mixture of simple organic
substances which can ignite any time.

• Fatalities in burning buildings involving plastic polymers are usually caused by

inhalation of fire gases, as opposed to burns and other causes.
• In a small room, the concentration of fire gases can easily reach life threatening
levels in a matter of seconds.
• Fire gases include carbon dioxide, carbon monoxide, HCl, HCN, Ammonia, and
acrolein.
• Acrolein is an unsaturated aldehyde (CH2=CHCHO), it is a powerful irritating
lachrymator and carcinogen. Its theshold limit value (TLV) is only 0.1 ppm.

95
Hazards from Burning Plastics
Plastic Polymers Fire gases that may produce on burning

1. Polyethylene CO
2. Polyvinyl chloride HCl

3. Polyacrinonitrile HCN
4. Vulcanized rubber SO2
5. Nylon NH3, NO2

6. Teflon HF
7. Polyurethane NO2
8. Polystyrene CH4, ethene, ethane, benzene, toluene (all are
combustible and can easily ignite)

Plastic Wastes
 Plastics are synthetic products whose chemical bonds have been made so
strong that as a rule they do not degrade in the environment.
 How do we deal with plastic wastes?
- The theme used in dealing with plastic wastes is REDUCE, REUSE AND
RECYCLE.

The following Plastic Recycling Wheel shows which among the classes of
plastics could be recycled and serve as guide to people using plastics.

96
 ACTIVITY #7
PLASTIC POLYMERS
OBJECTIVES
At the end of the activity, the students shall be able to:
1. identify plastic materials that contain chlorine.
2. degrade plastic into its monomer.

MATERIALS
Beaker, test tube, hard glass test tube, graduated cylinder, copper wire, burner,
test tube holder, forceps or crucible tong. Sample plastic materials, nichrome wire,
aluminum foil, bent glass tubing inserted in cork stopper.

PROCEDURE
A. Test for chlorine in plastics
1. Prepare the following plastics needed for the analysis and cut them in to small
pieces.
Polyvinylcholride (e.g credit cards, films, raincoats, vinyl sheets,
water pipes)
Polyvinylidene chloride (food wrapping films “Saran”)
Polyesters (e.g. plastic bottles, synthetic fabrics)
Polyehtylene/ polypropylene ( e.g. plastic bag, bottle crates)
Cellophane
2. Attach a copper wire to an end of nichrome wire. Clean the copper wire by
heating in the hottest part of a flame until the color does not change anymore.
3. Get a sample of the plastic material by touching it with the copper wire until
the plastic slightly melts.
4. Hold the wire over the flame and observe the color of the flame. (a green
color of the flame confirms the presence of halogens in plastic materials.)
5. Clean the copper wire by burning the remaining plastic materials on the wire
until the floor of the flame does not change anymore.
6. Repeat the test on other plastic materials.

Sample Plastic number Color of Flame Interpretation of

classification Result

97
 B. Monomers in plastics
1. Line a hard glass test tube with a 12” x 12” aluminum foil. This will serve as
mold for the container for burning plastics.
2. Cut a plastic bag in to small pieces and place inside the molded aluminum foil
and place a bent glass tube. Seal with masking tape.
3. Prepare a test tube with 2 mL water and 3 drops of iodine.
4. Using low flame, burn the plastic and expose the test tube with iodine on the
other end of the glass tubing. Take note of the color and odor of gas. (Do not
inhale directly!).
5. Take note of the change in iodine solution.

Results Obtained Color of iodine (before) Color of iodine (after)

(odor and color of gas)

QUESTIONS/PROBLEMS
1. We use polyethylene bags as containers for wet food because the plastic repels
ions and water. But grease, fats and oils stain on plastics. Explain these
observations in terms of the structure of polyethylene.

2. Polymethyl methacrylate (Lucite or Plexiglass) is used for windshields, aircraft

windows, and optical lenses because of its transparency. Study the structure of
the polymer and explains its transparency.

3. SARAN is the cling wrapping for food and other materials we use at home.
Explain what makes it useful for this purpose.

4. PTFE or Teflon is one of the most slippery substance known. This makes it
useful as nonstick coatings on pans and as dry lubricant for bearings and other
similar applications. Explain this observed property of Teflon.

98
 5. Discuss the hazards from burning plastics.

WASTE DISPOSAL
Dispose plastics in appropriate trash bin .
Dilute solutions with water before disposing down the drain.

99
Homework #7
Name: Date: Score:
Course, Yr & Sec:

Essay. Answer the following questions briefly. (5 points each)

1. We use polyethylene bags as containers for wet food because the plastic repels
ions and water. But grease, fats and oils stains on plastics. Explain these
observations in terms of the structure of polyethylene.

2. Polymethyl methacrylate (Lucite or Plexiglass) is used for widshields, aircraft

windows, and optical lenses because of its transparency. Study the structure of
the polymer and explains its transparency.

3. SARAN is the cling wrapping for food and other materials we use at home.
Explain what makes it useful for this purpose.

4. PTFE or Teflon is one of the most slippery substance known. This makes it
useful as nonstick coatings on pans and as dry lubricant for bearings and other
similar applications. Explain this observed property of Teflon.

100
 UNIT 8
THE CHEMISTRY OF THE ENVIRONMENT

WASTEWATER MANAGEMENT AND TREATMENT

“ The death of a river is a vivid symbol of a crumbling social order… its putrid stench
is the smell of our collective guilt..”

Pasig river is one of the most chronicled rivers in the Philippines which located in
the heart of Metro Manila. Historians and artists describe its grandeur and natural
beauty over the centuries.
Today, the river is biologically “dead” which means that its water quality is no
longer suitable for aquatic life and biological processes due to too much sludge and
pollution. Presently, there are more than 20 rivers in the country that are considered
polluted.
The advent of the industrial age introduced many environmental pollutants. One
of these would include water pollution that causes change in water and upsets
natural balance of aquatic life. Wastewater consists of the liquid and water-carried
wastes from residences, commercial buildings and institutions, industrial wastes and
agricultural chemicals. The terms wastewater and sewage are sometimes used
interchangeably.
A pollutant is classified toxic based on its degradability or its ability to break down
into a less complex form and how long it remains in the environment. Pollutants can
be classified toxic, conventional and nonconventional. A toxic pollutant refers to a
contaminant which upon exposure will cause death, disease behavioral
abnormalities, genetic mutations of physiological malfunctions in biological organisms
or their offspring. A conventional pollutant is an identified pollutant that is well
understood by scientists and may be in the form of organic waste, sediment, acid,
bacteria, viruses, nutrients, oils and grease or heat while a nonconventional pollutant
is the default category for those pollutants not identified as toxic, toxic or
conventional.
Water pollutants can be classified into the following major categories as shown in the
table below:
Category Description Exercises
Plant nutrients Substances that promote the growth Nitrite and phosphate
of aquatic plant life, high levels of compounds
nutrients in a water body indicate
enrichment or eutriphication, which is
the fertilization of a water body
Sediment and Small particles of solid pollutants Organic and inorganic
other suspended in water bodies, which particles, including soil
suspended resist removal by conventional means and silt
solids
Pathogens Microorganisms that can cause Bacteria, viruses and
disease in humans, animals and parasites

101
 plants
Inorganic Chemical substances of mineral origin Acids, road salts
chemicals that are not of basically carbon
structure
Heavy metals Metallic elements with high atomic Mercury, chromium,
weights that tend to accumulate in the cadmium, arsenic, lead
food chains
Organic Synthetics and animal or plant- Pesticides, plastics, oil,
compounds produced substances containing gasoline, detergents
primarily carbon, hydrogen, nitrogen
or oxygen
Thermal Elevated temperature of water bodies Heated water
modification caused by the discharge of heated
water from industrial processes and
electricity generation
Radioactive Substances that emit ionizing radiation Radioisotopes
substances during decay

The parameters that evaluate waste water are biological oxygen demand (BOD),
suspended solids, acidity and alkalinity, microorganisms, chlorine demand, nutrients
and heavy metals and synthetic organic chemicals.
BOD is the oxygen required for biochemical decomposition of the organic matter
in wastewater. Oxygen is the most important dissolved gas in water, since it is required
to support aquatic life and maintain water quality. The absence of oxygen is the main
cause of the offensive odor and indicates the absence of biological life in polluted water.
BOD value increases directly to the extent of water pollution.
Suspended solids in wastewater are classified as either fixed or volatile. The
fixed solids are essentially inert and the volatile solids make up the organic fraction that
is suitable for biological degradation or incineration. Suspended solids may be
classified as settleable and nonsettleable. The settleable solids can be readily removed
by a period of quiescence in a sedimentation tank. The nonsettleable solids can be
removed by other means.
With respect to acidity and alkalinity, domestic wastewaters are generally neutral.
Industrial wastes, however, may make the water too acidic or too basic. When this
happens special pretreatment is needed because extremes of acidity or alkalinity are
toxic to the microorganisms to bring about biological treatment for organic wastes.
Many viruses and other microorganisms, particularly the enteric organisms that
live in the intestines of man and other warm-blooded animals are found in large
numbers in wastewaters. Some of these organisms are pathogenic, causing such
diseases as typhoid, cholera and dysentery. The numbers of these organisms are
usually small and their identification and enumeration are difficult.
The chlorine demand of wastewaters is important where the water is to be
disinfected, because chlorine is the most commonly used disinfectant. The higher the
degree of wastewater treatment, the less the chlorine demand of the treated effluent is
likely to be.

102
 Nutrients, particularly nitrogen and phosphorus compounds, are present in
significant concentrations in all domestic wastewaters, chiefly from human excreta and
detergents.
Heavy metals particularly lead and mercury are toxic to man and other animals.
Farmers also contribute to the pollution through fertilizers and pesticides they apply to
their crops. Some synthetic organic compounds such as the chlorinated hydrocarbons
(DDT, lindane and similar broad-spectrum insecticides) may also be toxic if they get into
water supplies or into the food chain.
Modern wastewater treatment is needed to save our endangered natural
resources. This can be divided into three general phases: primary, secondary and
tertiary. Each of these steps produces sludge, which can be disposed of or used for
various purposes.
Primary treatment or plain sedimentation removes only the settleable solids from
wastewaters. This process is considered to be the absolute minimum of treatment that
every community must afford. It reduces the concentration of suspended solids by
about 60% and reduces the BOD by about 35% but removes very little of the other
constituents of the wastewater.
Secondary treatment involves the addition of a biological treatment phase
following plain sedimentation. At best, this treatment removes about 85% to 95% of the
organic constituents in wastewater. It has little effect on dissolved materials or on the
nutrients that stimulate the growth of algae in the receiving waters. There are two basic
methods used in secondary treatment namely trickling filter and activated sludge filter.
In trickling filter, the wastewater is applied to the filter through rotary distrubutors
and is allowed to trickle down over large stone or plastic beds that are covered with
microorganisms. The area requirements for trickling filters are about 5 to 20 hectares
per million people. On the other hand, in the activated-sludge process, heavy
concentrations of aerobic microorganisms called biological floc or activated sludge are
suspended in the liquid by agitation that is provided by air bubbled into the tank or by
mechanical aerators. Final sedimentation tanks are needed to separate the floc
material from the flowing liquid. Most of the biologically active sludge is then returned to
the aeration tank to treat the incoming water.
Tertiary treatment is designed for use in areas where the degree of treatment must
be more than 85% to 95% or where the wastewater, after treatment is reused. It is
primarily intended to further clean, or polish, secondary treatment plant effluents by
removing additional suspended material and lowering the BOD, generally by filtration.
This polishing however, has little impact on the dissolved solids, including the
nutrients, synthetic organic chemicals and heavy metals. To eliminate these
constituents of wastewater, other methods of treatment have been devised. These
processes include coagulation, and sedimentation, precipitation, adsorption on
activated carbon and adsorbants, foam separation, electrodialysis, reverse osmosis,
ion exchange and distillation.
Water pollution is one of the major environmental threats not only in our
country but globally as well. Industrialization has environmental tailings that should be
given attention. It should be strictly implemented that industrial wastes should be
treated before they are disposed of to the river systems. We should not treat the rivers
as a convenient sink for domestic and industrial sewage. Biodegradable products

103
should be given great consideration to lessen toxic and nonbiodegradable substances
that are discharge by every household, which contributes half to the problem of
wastewater management. We should discipline ourselves to the fullest extent to save
our environment from the growing problem of water pollution.

104
 Activity # 8a
Cigarette Smoking and Air Pollution
DISCUSSION
Smoking is the number one cause of preventable disease and death worldwide.
Smoking-related diseases claim many lives each year resulting to billions of dollar of
direct healthcare expenditures. Cigarette smoke contains more than 7,000 chemicals, at
least 69 of which are known to cause cancer. Smoking harms nearly every organ in the
body, and is a main cause of lung cancer and chronic obstructive pulmonary disease
(COPD). It also is a cause of coronary heart disease, stroke and a host of other cancers,
emphysema, and chronic bronchitis diseases.
Environmental tobacco smoke may also act as environmental risk factor for the
development of asthma. The fine particles of tobacco that originated from insufficient
combustion of biomass or coal, have quite similar carcinogens, and cause similar
diseases.
The molecular structure of Nicotiana Tabacum, more commonly known as
nicotine is shown below. The left hand ring also known as the pyridine ring consists of a
benzene ring with nitrogen attached. The right ring is called a pyrrolidine ring, also has a
nitrogen attached to a pentagon. The methyl groups are one of the most common
structures in organic molecules, consisting of one carbon and three hydrogen atoms.

Nicotine is a dangerous and highly addictive chemical. It can cause an increase

in blood pressure, heart rate, flow of blood to the heart and a narrowing of the arteries
(vessels that carry blood). Nicotine may also contribute to the hardening of the arterial
walls, which in turn, may lead to a heart attack. It affects the cell proliferation, oxidative
stress, apoptosis, DNA mutation by various mechanisms which leads to cancer. It also
affects the tumor proliferation and metastasis and causes resistance to chemo and
radio therapeutic agents. It is important that these substances be regulated and given
much attention in preventing the cause of many non-communicable diseases.

OBJECTIVES
At the end of the activity, the students shall be able to:
1. qualitatively identify the presence of nicotine in cigarette samples
2. screen the cigarette samples for the presence of heavy metals

MATERIALS
Spot plate, dropper, gauze or cheesecloth, test tube, mortar and pestle
PROCEDURE
 Determination of tobacco alkaloids
1. Remove the butt from a stick of cigarette and peel off the paper cover. Macerate
cigarette content using mortar and pestle.
2. Transfer the macerated cigarette in a spot plate. Add 2 mL of ethyl alcohol.

105
 3. Squeeze and filter the mixture using a gauze or cheesecloth.
4. Take 5 drops of the filtrate and transfer on a spot plate.
5. Add 3-5 drops of Dragendorff’s reagent to the mixture. Compare this with a
reagent control containing Dragendorff’s reagent only and sample control
containing sample only. A change to dark orange to brown color indicates the
presence of alkaloids in the sample cigarette.

 Determination of the presence of heavy metals in tobacco

1. Peel of a stick of cigarette and place the tobacco in a crucible.
2. Burn off the organic contents of the tobacco by igniting the all the contents of the
crucible in a fume hood.
3. When all the black substances were removed by ignition, cool down the crucible and its
contents, add63.0 mL of 12N Nitric acid and 2 mL conc. HCl mix thoroughly. (Note: use
safety goggles and other appropriate PPE’s in handling concentrated acids)
4. Heat the mixture on a hot plate for about 60 minutes. Filter the solution.
5. To the filtrate, add 5 Ml of 5% potassium chromate. Mix and allow to stand for 15
minutes.
6. Any precipitate formed indicates the presence of heavy metals. Note your observations.

References
https://thesciencesofsmoking.wordpress.com/2016/02/27/molecular-structure-of-nicotine-and-similar-
drugs/
https://www.lung.org/stop-smoking/smoking-facts/health-effects-of-secondhand-smoke.html
https://thesciencesofsmoking.wordpress.com/2016/02/27/molecular-structure-of-nicotine-and-similar-
drugs/
https://www.medicalnewstoday.com/articles/240820
https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC4363846/
Gilmour, M. I., Jaakkola, M. S., London, S. J., Nel, A. E., & Rogers, C. A. (2006). How exposure to environmental
tobacco smoke, outdoor air pollutants, and increased pollen burdens influences the incidence of
asthma. Environmental health perspectives, 114(4), 627–633. https://doi.org/10.1289/ehp.8380
Zhou G. (2019). Tobacco, air pollution, environmental carcinogenesis, and thoughts on conquering strategies of lung
cancer. Cancer biology & medicine, 16(4), 700–713. https://doi.org/10.20892/j.issn.2095-3941.2019.0180

106
 Name:
Report: Cigarette Smoking
Activity #8a Section: Date:
and Air Pollution
Instructor:
DATA & RESULTS
A. Determination of tobacco alkaloids
Samples Color reaction Interpretation

Reagent control

Sample control

Tobacco sample

B. Determination of tobacco alkaloids

Samples Precipitate formation Interpretation

Questions for Research

1. Give examples of the biological effects of cigarette smoke to humans.

2. What is the effect of second hand smoking to humans? How does it compare to first
hand smoking?

3. What are the implications of the presence of heavy metals in tobacco?

4. How does cigarette smoke contribute to air pollution?

107
 Activity # 8b
Pressure, Volume and Temperature of Gases

Gases are made up of tiny particles called molecules. Properties of gas could be
described in terms of having no definite shape and no definite volume. It has a low
density, large compressibility and moderately expands with temperature.
Compressibility is a measure of the change in volume of a sample of matter
resulting from a pressure change. Thermal expansion is a measure of the change in
volume of a sample of a sample of matter resulting from a temperature change.
In order to understand the behavior of a gas, it will involve four variables
pressure, volume, temperature and amount expressed in moles of gas present.

OBJECTIVES
At the end of the activity, the students shall be able to:
1. determine and explain the effects of pressure and volume at constant
temperature
2. compare the effects of varying diameter of straws used to the volume of liquid
drawn
3. determine and explain the effects of volume and temperature at constant
pressure.

MATERIALS
Narrow and wide opening drinking straws about 20 pieces each, Erlenmeyer flask, test
tubes, boiled eggs, modelling clay
WASTE DISPOSAL
All solid materials are to be thrown into the trash can

PROCEDURE
A. Behavior of Gas at Different Pressure and Volume
1. For Set-up 1, measure the length of the straw to be used.
2. Open the first bottled water (filled-up) and starting with one straw, try to drink
the water through the straw. Connect another straw and secure the
attachment with a masking tape each time you add the next straw.
Discontinue adding straw when you are not able to drink the water any longer.
Maximum number of straw to e used up to only 10 pieces only.
3. Take note of your observations and determine the maximum number of
straws that were used.
4. Record the length of the straws used.
5. Repeat procedure A.1 to A.4 using wider diameter straw.

108
 6. Compare results based on the number of straws used and difficulty in drinking
through the straw.
7. For Set-up 2, make a hole on the bottle cap just enough to insert a narrow
straw. Secure the straw with the modelling clay and make sure that the
drinking bottle is filled with water before putting back the previously prepared
bottle cap with the straw.
8. Try drinking the water through the straw. Take note of your observations
based on difficulty or ease in sipping water through the straw.
9. For set-up 3, discard half of the contents from the water bottle from A.8.
10. Using the half-filled water bottle, position one narrow straw inside the bottle
and another one outside the half-filled bottle water.
11. Put the two drinking narrow straws in your mouth and try to sip through the
straws.
12. Take note of your observations based on difficulty or ease in sipping/drinking
through the straws.
13. For Set-up 4, position a narrow straw into the half-filled bottled water and put
your thumb over the opening of the straw.
14. Remove the straw out of the water by keeping your thumb over the opening of
the straw.
15. Try to transfer collected water in an empty test tube.
16. Repeat procedure using the wider diameter of straw.
17. Compare your observations based on the amount of fluid transferred.

B. Behavior of Gas at Different Temperature and Pressure

1. Drop a piece of burning paper (1/4 size of a bond paper) into an Erlenmeyer
flask with a neck just smaller than the largest diameter of a boiled egg.
2. Remove the eggshell and place the peeled, hard-boiled egg on top of the
flask pointing the small side downwards.
3. Observe what happens after a few minutes. Record your observations.

109
Report Name:
Pressure, Volume Section: Date:
Activity # 8b and Temperature of Instructor:
Gases
DATA AND RESULTS
A. Behavior of Gas

Ability to sip water

At Different Pressure and Volume /Observations

Number of straws used (Set-up 1)

1-Narrow Diameter Straw
2-Wider Diameter Straw

Bottle with sealed cap (Set –up 2)

Drinking from two drinking straws

(Set-up 3)

Straw covered with thumb (set-up 4)

1- Narrow Diameter Straw

2- Wider Diameter Straw

B. Behavior of Gas at Different Temperature and Pressure

Test Performed Observation/s

Hard-boiled egg in a Flask

QUESTIONS FOR RESEARCH

1. Why can you drink from a straw?

110
2. Were you able to drink in all the steps of the experiment? Describe your observations.

3. Was there a limit in the number of straws where you are able to drink? Why?

4. Does the diameter of a drinking straw affect the ability and amount of water you can
drink? Explain your answer.

5. In the egg experiment, explain the gas law involved or exhibited in the procedure.

111
 UNIT 9
CHEMICAL SAFETY

Hazard is something that is a potential source of harm that could be: biological,
chemical, electrical, flammable, thermal, radiation, radioactivity, auditory, sharps or
activities like slippage/crushing. A hazard can also be the absence of something.
Risk is the exposure to the chance of injury or loss. Risk is the combination of
the likelihood and consequences of an undesirable event related to a specific hazard or
threat. The risk associated with the biological materials in the laboratory has a safety
and a security component. Biorisk encompasses biosafety and biosecurity.

Categories of Hazards in the workplace

Physical Hazards. This category includes hazards from exposure to: noise, vibration;
and temperature.

Chemical Hazards. This category includes hazards associated with the exposure to
chemicals and other hazardous substances, such as: cyanide; acids; caustic soda;
and lead.

Ergonomic Hazards are associated with the interrelationship between people and the
equipment/machinery they work with. This includes: work station layout; equipment
design; and instrument layout.

Biological Hazard. This category includes hazards associated with exposure to:
viruses; bacteria; and parasites.

Radiation Hazards. This category includes hazardous sources of radiation energy,

such as: ultraviolet radiation from exposure to sunlight or arc welding; ionising radiation
from x-ray equipment; and infra-red radiation from drying. Baking and heating
processes.

Psychological Hazards. This category includes the hazards that can have an effect on
the person’s mental well-being and behaviour, such as: work load; shift arrangement;
and workplace violence.

Hazardous chemicals: carcinogens, toxic or highly toxic agents, reproductive toxins,

irritants, corrosives, sensitizers, hepatotoxins, nephrotoxins, neurotoxins, agents which
act on the hematopoietic systems, and agents which damage the lungs, skin, eyes, or
mucous membranes

112
Common Chemical Hazard Symbols

Fire Hazard Ratings of Some Common Laboratory Chemicals

113
There are a variety of ways to label containers. What matters is that the required
information is on the label.

NFPA: Labeling system of the National Fire Protection Association (NFPA).

The labels are diamond-shaped and color coded.

Blue indicates the health hazard.
Red indicates the fire hazard.
Yellow indicates the reactivity hazard.
White gives special information such as water or oxidizer incompatibility.
In each field, the degree of the hazard is rated from 0 to 4, with 4 being the greatest
hazard and 0 indicating no significant hazard.

HMIS: Another labeling system that is similar to the NFPA system but in bar graph
format. Same colors and numbers, except the white area is generally reserved for
listing any PPE that may be needed when working with that chemical.

114
DOT: Labeling system of the Department of Transportation. These labels are typically
found on the outside of shipping cartons and are color-coded with the hazards depicted
by readily identifiable symbols. These universal symbols are sometimes found on a
container's label as well.

115
Risk Assessment for Hazardous Chemicals
1. Identify chemicals to be used and the circumstances of use
2. Consult sources of information
3. Evaluate type of toxicity
4. Consider possible routes of exposure
5. Evaluate quantitative information on toxicity
6. Select appropriate procedures to eliminate exposure
7. Prepare for contingencies

Hazards are dealt as a follows from highest to lowest:

1. Elimination
2. Substitution
3. Engineering controls
4. Administrative controls
5. Personal Protection

Safety equipment required of a laboratory

• Lab gowns/Aprons (1 per student)
• Eyewash (2 per classroom)
• Fire Blanket (1 per classroom)
• Fire Extinguisher (1 per classroom)
• First-Aid Kit (1 per classroom)
• Goggle disinfecting materials or equipment (1 set per
classroom)
• Materials Safety Data Sheets (1 set per school)
• Safety goggles, splash-proof (1 per student)

What does a safe Laboratory look like?

• adequate work space for students and teachers
• clearly marked emergency evacuation routes
• master gas and electric cutoffs
• properly maintained safety equipment
• signs and labels to identify safety

Storage Requirements for Flammables

1. Store all flammables in a dedicated flammables cabinet.
2. Keep cool, between 55*F and 80*F (12.8oC to 27oC), at all times.
3. Store away from all sources of ignition.
4. Store away from all oxidizers,
5. Never store flammables in refrigerators unless the refrigerator is explosive proof.
6. Avoid storing any chemicals, especially flammable materials in direct sunlight

116
CHEMICAL STORAGE
Proper storage of chemicals helps eliminate breakage, chemical spills and
inadvertent mixing of non-compatible materials.

The following are precautions that should be taken.

• Store chemicals by hazard class and segregate each class in a separate area.
• Chemical bottles should not be stored on the floor or above eye level.
• Store over 10 gallons of flammable materials in an approved flammable storage cabinet.
• Only chemicals in current use should be on the lab bench or in the fume hood.

MSDS- Material Safety Data Sheet

A material safety data sheet (MSDS) is a form containing data regarding the
properties of a particular substance. It includes information such as physical data
(melting point, boiling point, flash point, etc.), toxicity, health effects, first aid, reactivity,
storage, disposal, protective equipment, and spill-handling procedures. An MSDS must
be on file and available for each chemical in the laboratory.

The major sections of an MSDS are:

1. Reagent and Company Identification

This section provides the common chemical and trade names for the chemical reagent
as well as contact information, useful in case of emergency, for the chemical supplier.
This section will also provide the date on which the MSDS was prepared. Whenever
possible consult the latest version of an MSDS currently available.

2. Reagent Composition

In the case of reagents that are sold as mixtures, this section provides composition
information for any known health hazards that are present and which constitute more
than 0.1% of the material. This section also provides information on the safe exposure
limits such as the OSHA permissible exposure limit.

3. Identification of Potential Hazards

The third section of the MSDS provides information on major hazards that may be
associated with use and handling of reagent such as toxicity and flammability.

4. First Aid Measures

Appropriate measures for treatment of injuries by inhalation, ingestion, and eye and/or
skin contact are outlined in this section.

5. Fire Fighting Measures

117
This section provides information on flammability and/or explosive nature of the reagent
and details the appropriate equipment and or measures to take if a fire or explosion
takes place involving the reagent.

6. Accidental Release Measures

Procedures and materials that should be used in case of an accidental spill are provided
in this section of the MSDS.

7. Reagent Handling and Storage

This section provides useful information regarding the proper methods to use in
handling and storing the reagent in the laboratory. Chemical incompatibilities,
information about the potential for the formation of peroxides (explosion hazards) upon
extended storage, need for a flammable storage cabinet, etc. are detailed here.

8. Exposure Controls and Personal Protection

This section provides information on the types of personal protective equipment that
may be required in order to safely handle and work with the reagent.

9. Physical and Chemical Properties

Useful fundamental data regarding the physical and chemical properties of the reagent
such as the form, color, odor, melting point, boiling point, solubility in water, vapor
pressure, are provided in this section. This information can be extremely helpful in
determining how to properly handle and store a reagent.

10. Reagent Stability and Reactivity

If the material is or could become unstable, this section will provide information on any
conditions that might produce hazardous reactions and/or decomposition of the reagent.

11. Toxicological Information

Information on the toxicity of the reagent is detailed here. Data usually provided include
the LD50 (lethal dose 50; single, usually oral, dose of the reagent that results in the
death of 50% of test subjects) and the LC50 (lethal concentration 50; concentration of
an inhaled volume of air containing the reagent that produces death in 50% of test
subjects).

12. Ecological Information

This section provides any available information concerning the effect that release of the
reagent might have on plants and/or animals in the environment.

118
13. Disposal Considerations

Information on the appropriate methods that may be used to dispose of waste

containing the reagent are described in this section of the MSDS.

14. Transport Information

This section provides information on how the reagent may be safely transported.

15. Regulatory Information

Any relevant regulatory information relevant to risks and safe use of the reagent are
provided in this section.

16. Additional Information

This section may contain the name of the author of the MSDS, any references that
he/she used to prepare the MSDS, and often contains legal disclaimers regarding the
use of the MSDS that are intended to protect the manufacturer against liability

List of MSDS Links/Chemical Hazard resources

http://www.flinnsci.com/
http://www.msdssearch.com/
http://www.msdsonline.com/
http://www.ilpi.com/msds/index.html
http://hazard.com/msds/
http://ccinfoweb.ccohs.ca/default.html
http://www.sigma-aldrich.com

119
 Activity # 9
Material Safety Data Sheet
Hazard is something that is a potential source of harm that could be: biological,
chemical, electrical, flammable, thermal, radiation, radioactivity, auditory, sharps or
activities like slippage/crushing. A hazard can also be the absence of something.

Risk is the exposure to the chance of injury or loss. Risk is the combination of the
likelihood and consequences of an undesirable event related to a specific hazard or
threat. The risk associated with the biological materials in the laboratory has a safety
and a security component. Biorisk encompasses biosafety and biosecurity.

One way that consumers, workers and laboratory personnel are informed of the
risks is by use of material safety data sheets (MSDS). An MSDS is a form containing
data regarding the properties of a particular substance. It includes information such as
physical data (melting point, boiling point, flash point, etc.), toxicity, health effects, first
aid, reactivity, storage, disposal, protective equipment, and spill-handling procedures.
An MSDS must be on file and available for each chemical in the laboratory.

OBJECTIVES
At the end of the activity, the students shall be able to:
1. read and interpret chemical hazard labels and MSDS
2. familiarize with the different parts of an MSDS
MATERIALS
MSDS assigned to you by your instructor

PROCEDURE
1. Search for the MSDS of the chemical substance assigned to you by your
instructor. The following MSDS links/ resources could be used:

http://www.flinnsci.com/
http://www.msdssearch.com/
http://www.msdsonline.com/
http://www.ilpi.com/msds/index.html
http://hazard.com/msds/
http://ccinfoweb.ccohs.ca/default.html
http://www.sigma-aldrich.com

2. List down the major sections of an MSDS

120
3. Interpret colors on a chemical label given below. What hazard corresponds to
each color?
a. Red
b. Yellow
c. Blue

d. White

4. Interpret numbers on a chemical hazard label.

a. A number is the most serious, and a number is the least serious
b. What does the number four on a blue background mean?
c. What does the number zero on a red background indicate?

5. Complete the NFPA hazard coding colors and numbers of the reagent assigned
to you
6. Identify the engineering control measures needed for the assigned reagent
7. What Personal Protective Equipment is/are needed to safely handle the reagent.

121
 Name:
Report: Material Safety
Section: Date:
Data Sheet
Activity #
9 Instructor/s:

1. Name of reagent:

2. The major sections of an MSDS are:

3. Color representing hazards

a. Red
b. Yellow
c. Blue
d. White

4. Interpret numbers on a chemical hazard label.

a. A number is the most serious, and a number is the least serious

b. What does the number four on a blue background mean?

c. What does the number zero on a red background indicate?

122
5. The NFPA hazard of : (chemical assigned
to you)

6. The Engineering control measures needed for is/are

.

7. The PPE’s needed is/are .

8. Why must an MSDS be on file and available for each chemical in the laboratory?

9. What information do the chemical hazard label and MSDS have in common?

10. Given the following information for a reagent:

123
 a. Fill up the NFPA hazard code for the given chemical

b. Classify the grade of the given chemical.

c. What protective equipment should be used when handling the reagent?

d. How should the reagent be disposed?

e. What is its toxicity level?

Note: Attach with this report a copy of the MSDS of the chemical assigned to you by
your professor.

124