Predicting run time of an Hourglass

J. Introduction

The hourglass is a historic time keeping device, first arising in France in the eight century (My Hourglass Collection).
The purpose ofthe hourglass was its use as a time keeping device, which was able to constantly run for a known
period oftime, allowing for time to be accurately measured before the invention ofmore complex time keeping
devices such as clocks and watches. The idea that people in the recent past were reliant on simple tools such as an
hourglass is quite intriguing to me, who has grown up in the digital age with access to almost anything, like a
stopwatch on my phone. A drawback ofthe concept of the historic hourglass is the fact that it can only measure a set
period oftirne, depending on bow it was calibrated. This makes it impractical in many situations were different
periods oftime need to be measured. I think that it would be interesting to try and modify the historical fixed period
hourglass in order to make it practical to use as an accurate time keeping tool able to measure a continuous variety of
times

The aim ofthis investigation is to create a continuous function able to model the run time ofan hourglass based on the
height at which it is filled with fme salt. This function must be able to accurately predict bow long the hourglass will
run for depending on bow heigh it is filled. This will allow for the single hourglass to be used for measuring a variety
of times, unlike the history, single period hourglasses. For this investigation, I wiU base my calculations off a real hour
glass, and attempt to make a function to predict the run time ofthat specific hourglass through several approaches.
These results will be tested against real data collected from the run time ofthe hourglass to test the accuracy and
reliability ofeach of the models. The approaches that will be used in this investigation will firstly be to discover
appropriate functions that model the perimeter ofthe hourglass using different mathematical approaches. The solid of
revolution, found using integration, ofthe functions will then be found which, due to the symmetry ofthe hourglass,
represent the volume of the hourglass. By setting limits on the functions found for the solid of revolution, the volume
of material in the hourglass can be found when the hourglass is filled to any height. Lastly, real data will be collected
by filling the hourglass to various heights with known volumes of salt and measw-ing the run time, giving a ftmction to
translate between volume and run time.

2. Background Information

The model ofhourglass that will be used in this investigation is shown below, labeled figure 1. The hourglass, bought
from the website Glastrends.nl, has a height of 19.5cm and a maximum diameter of8cm (Glass Trends). These
measurements were acquired from the description ofthe hourglass on the website and were manua!Jy measured with a
ruler to ensure that the dimensions specified on the website were correct. Figure 1 is labeled with the key tenns related
to an hourglass relevant to this investigation.

Fig.I, Labeled diagram of hourglass used throughout the investigation (Glass Trends)

Neck- /Bulb

1
Historically a wide range of materials were used within the hourglass, ranging from sand, to liquids such as water or
mercury, but any material can be used as long as it contains grains much smaller than the relative width of the neck of
the hourglass and have granules of similar sizes (Mills). Materials such as sand which consist of many small granules
exhibit liquid propetiies through the way that they flow, but unlike most liquids, the rate at which they flow is not
dependent on the volume of material above them. This will be tested experimentaLly during the investigation. This
means that in theory, sand flowing out of an hour glass flows out at a constant rate, unlike a Liquid Like water, who's
flow rate would depend on the volume of water above it (Mills). This investigation will need to link the volume of a
material that passes through the neck of the hourglass to the time that the hourglass is running for. This can be done
using the basic formula: V=txvxA (1)

V = Volume (cm3 ) t = Time (s) V = Velocity ccmls) A = Cross sectional area of neck (cm2 )

The formula states that the volume of material, notated by V, that passes through the hourglass is dependent on the
time that has passed, notated by t, the velocity of the material that passes through the neck, notated by v, and the cross
sectional area of the neck, notated by A, which allows grains to pass through. The product of the velocity and cross
sectional area will be found experimentally by conducting numerous trials where the volume of the material is
recorded and the run time is measured. Given that these two variables will be known, the product of the velocity and
cross sectional area (v x A) can be calculated. This product can be seen as a single constant throughout the
investigation, as long as the same material and hourglass is used since the velocity and cross sectional area will remain

constant. The formula can be reatTanged to t = � to determine how long the hourglass will run for, since the product
VXA

v x A will be found through testing and the volume of the material, V, will be predicted using the mathematics
outlined previously.

3.0 Calculating volume at varying heights

As shown in formula 2 in the section above, the volume of the material (V) passing through the hourglass must be
known to detennine the run time (t). As stipulated in the aim, I am attempting to create a function that will output the
nm time of the hourglass depending on the height at which the hourglass is filled, hence a function must be created
giving the volume of material in an hourglass if the height of the material in the hourglass is known. Given that the
function should be continuous, the best approach seems to be to model the edge of the hourglass using functions,
which can then be integrated and rotated around an axis giving the volume within the function. By setting the limit of
the integral as the height of the material, the calculations should output the volume of material at that beigbt. The
benefit of this method is that the goal of creating a continuous function, as stated in the aim, can be met as any
arbitrary value for the height of material could be substituted into the function and give the volume of the material.
The following 3 sections will discuss 3 separate approaches to creating a model for the edge of the hourglass.

2
 3.1 Integration to Find Volume

3. I I Integration with piecewise function

The first approach to modeling the edge of the hourglass will be to integrate with respect to the x-axis. The following
section makes use oftbe graphical tool Desmos. To model the edge of the hourglass, the image ofthe hourglass, which
was also used in figme 1, was added as a background to the graph. The image was made transparent so the axes are
still visible and the image was rotated by 90°, as this section will attempt to integrate along the x-axis. Lastly, the
image was scaled up to ensure it had the same dimensions as the real hourglass, with one unit ofthe graph being
equivalent to 1cm. These dimensions are a height of 19.5cm and a maximum diameter of 8cm. To ensure these
measurements were correct, I also measured the physical hourglass which gave the same dimensions. The image is
also placed with its center in the origin of the graph (0,0). It should be noted that due to the symmetrical nature of the
hourglass, a function only needs to be created which encloses the hourglass in one quadrant, as the hourglass is
symmetrical over the line ofx = 0 and y = 0. ln order to begin creating a function which encloses the hourglass in
one quadrant, the cartesian coordinates of some significant points of the hourglass in this quadrant need to be known.
These significant points any local maximums or minimums on the y-axis and the bonds of the hourglass on the x-axis.
These significant points are plotted on graph I below, with the approximate coordinates of the points being found
using Desmos and using the known dimensions of the hourglass. An assumption that is made is that the neck has a
negligible width, and it is thus assumed that the function for the hourglass can start at the origin, at the coordinates
(0,0). Quadrant I will be used in the following calculations for simplicity with quadrant I, represented as Q1 in graph
1, being the quadrant with positive values for both x and y.

Graph 1. Graph with accurately sized representation of hourglass and relevant coordinates

I
Q2 C (6.2 4) Q1
4

A,(',0,)' 5
-2 0 2 8 10 1
I

-+
x(cm)

I -2

-4
QS-- Q

A variety of functions can be considered for modeling this shape along the x-axis. These functions must satisfy the
conditions ofintersecting with the coordinates in graph 1. Point A in graph I is the left bound of the hourglass on the
x-axis in quadrant I, point B is the right bound of the hourglass on the x-axis and point C is the maximum y­
coordinate of the hourglass. Several different functions were considered, such as the use ofthe arctan function, a
polynomial function with its zero's set to the x-intercepts, or the function y = a Vx where the coefficient a scaled the
function to intercept with the relevant points from graph 1. These functions did not fit as closely as desired to the
3
hourglass shape and will not be used in the investigation, but they can be found in appendix A. The use of a sine
function closely fits with the general shape of the hourglass. To ensure that the sine function meet the conditions based
on the coordinates in graph 1, it must undergo a transformation:

General fonnula: y = a sin(bx + c) + d

Given the sine curve must have a maximum amplitude of 4, as this is the maximum height of the hourglass: a = 4.
The x coordinate of this maximum amplitude is 6.2, as shown in graph I. Thus, given that the distance between the
origin and the first maximum is a quarter of the period of a sine curve, Period = 4 x 6.2 = 24.8 . To find the value
of b, the formula b = period
� is used, thus: b = �-
24.8
No ve1tical nor ho1izontal phase shift is required thus c and

d remain 0 giving the function as:

y = 4 x sin ( �� x x) (2)
2 8

The sine function meets the specifications of intersecting with the origin and coordinate (6.2,4), but does not intersect
with the right most bound of the x-axis, (9.75,0). More importantly, as shown in graph 2 below, the sine function
diverges from the shape of the hourglass approximately when the value of x exceeds 8. Therefore, it can be stated that
the sine function is applicable when: 0 ::; x ::; 8.

To account for the last section of the hourglass shape, an additional function is needed which is bounded between 8
and 9.75. The chosen function for this is a parabola, rotated by 90°, which follows the general formula of: x =
a(y) 2 + c. This function was chosen due to its relative simplicity, and its close resembalance to the desiered hourglass
shape. To detem1ine the transfonnations that the function must undergo, some relevent coordinates must be known. It
was determined that when the x value exceeds 8, the sine function loses accuracy. By subsituting x = 8 into equation

2: y = 4 x sin(� x
24.8
8) = 3.591 ... . The value for y is written with 4 significant figures, but the value is not
rounded, as shown by ... , when used in calculations. The 4 significant figures are only used for clarity and this
will be the case throughout the investigation. Rounding will only occur when the final function is found, with the
rounding being shown through the use of an approximation sign ( ""'). The new function must intersect the coordinate
(8, 3.591) to ensure that the diverging sine function is not used in the model. Secondly, the function must intersect the
coordinate (9.75, 0) as this is the left most bound of the hourglass.

Given that the parabola must be opening to the left, it can be detennined that the value for a in the gereral
formula must be a negative. Furthermore it is known that the function must intersect with the coordinates (9.75, 0).
Thus, when y = 0 in the general equation of x = a(y) 2 + c, the value of x must be 9.75. Subsituting these values for
x and y the formula becomes: 9.75 = c. Now that c is known, the second set of known coordinates of (8, 3.591) can
be subsituted to find the value of a: 8 = a(3.591 ... ) 2 + 9.75 :. a= -0.1356 ... . Hence, the formula is: x =
-0.1356 ... (y)2 + 9.75. This can be rearranged to make y the subject of the equation, as this is the formate of the
previous sine equation. This leads to the function:

z (x - 9.75)
y=± -0.1356 ...
(3)

4
The function is applicable within the range: 8 < x :s; 9.75, as when x is less than 8 the sine function should be used
and since x cannot be greater than 9.75 due to the dimensions of the hourglass. Since the model will only look at the
first quadrant, the negative solutions of the value for y in equation 3 can be ingored

Graph 2. Functions of hourglass around the x-axis in quadrant I based on equations 2 and 3

Since the aim of this investigation specifies that the run time of an hour glass needs to be found depending on the
height (h) at which it is filled, a relationship between the variable of height (h) and the x coordinate value needs to be
found. When the hourglass is filled with a material, it would fill starting from the line of x = 9.75 and fill until a
maximum of the line x = 0, depending on the height it is filled to. Therefore, the leftmost (minimwn) value on the x­
axis that an hourglass filled to a height of h would reach is 9.75 - h, giving the relationship: Xmin = 9.75 - h. The
leftmost/minimum value on the x-axis that is reached when the hourglass is filled will be referred to as Xmin , which
changes depending on h

To calculate the volume enclosed within the hourglass at different values of h, both functions need to be rotated
around the x-axis through an angle of 2n, which give the total volume enclosed by the function. Given that the
hourglass is modeled by two functions, there are two situations in which different formulas need to be used. The first
situation is if 8 < Xmin :S 9.75. In this situation, only the parabolic function is needed as the hourglass is not filled to
a high enough point for the sine function to be needed. By substituting Xm in with 9.75 - h, as Xmin = 9.75 - h, the
inequality can be found with respect to h, which becomes: 8 < 9.75 - h :S 9.75, therefore, 1.75 > h 2'. 0 (the
inequality signs flip as each side is multiplied by -1). Thus, if the height of material in the hourglass remains under
1.75cm, only the parabolic equation is required. Finding the inequality with respect to his needed as this is the
independent variable and, as stated in the aim, a function needs to be found to find the run time dependi11g on the
height the hourglass is filled to, not Xmin ·

The formula for a volume of revolution, when rotating around the x-axis or y-axis respectively, are as followed:

a and � are used as opposed to the conventional a and b notation used in integral limits to prevent confusion in
notation later in the investigation. As this situation requires a rotation around the x-axis, the first formula is used. In

5
the situation where 1.75 > h 2: 0, the function for the volume ofmaterial in the hourglass with respect to the height,
which will be notated as V(h), is:

( ----�2
1
9 75
• 2 (x - 9.75)
V(h) = TC --- dx
9 .75-h -0.1356 ...

This equation is derived using equation 3, by substituting this function for y in the formula for a volume ofrevolution.
The region bounded by this function, denoted and a and p, is detennined by the height ofmaterial in the hourglass.
Given that the hourglass has a maximum x coordinate value of9 .75, this is a constant upper bound in this
investigation. The lower bound, {3, is dependent on the height of material in the hourglass, following the equation:
Xmin = 9.75 - h. Using this relation, the lower bound of xmin can be substituted with 9.75 - h, giving the equation
above. This equation can be simplified in the following manner:

.75
( �---.2
- .75 9.75 - .75)
I. V(h) = Jr9.75-h
9
TC 2 (x 9 )
-0.1356...
dx = Jr9.75-h TC ( (
-0.1356...
) dx
x 9

2. J.9·
9
75
.75 1t
x 9• 75
_ TC ( ( -
-0.1356...
)) dx n:
= -0.1356 ...
J.9;
9
5
_ (x
. 5 h
- 9.75)dx
n: 9 75 n: 9•75
= -0.1356...
2
r •
x
3 (x - 9• 75)dx ([ 2
- 9 75x] 9.75-h)
• -0.1356... J9.75-h •
The integral of both x and 9.75 are found and the integral is written in the form]�
9-75) 9 75-h
= -0.1356...
2 2
4. V(h) n: 9.75 2)- (C • ) (9.75 - h) X 9.75)]
[ (C 2
- -
2

By substituting x with both the upper and lower bond, and subtracting the function of the upper bound with
that ofthe lower bound, the region between the closed interval is found.

s. = -23.15 ... x [C-47.53 ... ) -(c9•752-h )

2
V(h) - (9.75-h) x 9.7s)] (4)

The equation at point 5 approximate the volume of material in the hourglass ifthe height satisfies the conditions
1.75 > h 2: 0. If this is not the case, the sine function described earlier, equation 2, will need to be applied. Us ing the
formula for a volume ofrevolution and the function of the sine curve, the formula becomes:

1
8 2TC
V(h) = TC(4 sin ( x x)) 2 dx
9.75-h 24 8

The upper bound is determined given the range ofthe sine function, being 0 � x � 8, so the x coordinate cannot
exceed 8. The lower bond is the minimum x coordinate reach by the material filling the hourglass when height is h.
The equation can be simplified in the following manner:

• n:
2 • 2 2n:
1. 1r9_75_ h TC ( 4 sm ( 24_ 8 x))2 dx _ TC 1r9_ (24_ 8 x)dx
8 - 16 x
8 _ s
75 h m

2. 16TC f9\ 5_ sin 2

(z2t8 x) dx = 16TC f \ _ ½(1 - cos (2 x :� x)) dx
c:�
h 9 5 h 2 8

The identity Cos(20) = 1- 2sin 2 (0) can be rearranged to sin2 (0) = ½Cl - cos(20)). Thus, sin 2 8
x)

is substituted with½ (1- cos (2 x

tx
2
2 8 )
)

6
 a 4rr _ sm
• (m47r x) 8
3. f 1
16rr 9 _75_h2 1- cos C x) ) dx - 8rr[x-
( 4_8 (�)
] 9_75_h
24.8

sin(z:"8 x(9.75-h))
5. 240.2 ...- 8rr ( 9.75- h- 4,. )
(24.8)

Point 5 gives the equation for the volume of material for the domain O � x � 8. It does not take into account
the volume of material in the domain 8 < x � 9.75. Thus this volume of material needs to be added to the
equation at point 5 to make it equivalent to the total volume in the hourglass. This gives the final equation:

sin (2� 8 x (9.75 - h) )

rr

V(h) "" 240.2 - 8rr ( 9.75 - h - 4rr ) + 35.45

(24.8)

The value 35.45 that is added to the equation and is the solution to the fonnula for V(h) in the domain 1.75 >
h � 0, when the value of h set to 1 .75. This solution is found by substituting h with 1.75 in equation 4.

Using the calculations above, the formula for the volume of material in the hourglass as a function of the height of
materials is:

(9.75 - h) 2
-23.15 x [ (-47.53) - ( - (9.75 - h) x 9.75) , 1.75 > h � 0
2 ]
V(h) s:: sin ( 2��8 x (9.75 - h) )
240.3 - 8rr ( 9.75 - h - ) + 35.45, 9.75 � h � 1.75
4rr
Cz4_3)

*as this is the final result of this model and calculations are complete, tbe values bave been rounded to 4 significant figures, with
this rounding being indicated by the appro,cirnation sign(�)

3.12 Integration with implicit functions

The method attempted in the previous section used a piecewise function in order to model the shape of the hourglass.
The accuracy of this will be tested in a later section, but an inherit drawback of using a piecewise function is that there
are two different fomrnlas, depending on the initial height of the material. Although this may still lead to an accurate
fonnula, I would like to attempt to construct a single formula to model the time that that the hourglass will flow for.
To do this, the shape of the hourglass will need to be modeled using a single function. Implicit functions may be
useful for this as they are not restricted to a many to one or one to one relationship between the x and y values,
allowing for the creating of shapes such as circle, ovals and many others. An applicable implicit function which
closely resembles the hourglass shape is a Cassini Oval. A Cassini Oval is a shape which consists of two focal points
each surrounded by circular shapes with merge together in the region between focal points. The shape is defined as a
set of points, where the product of the distance to each focal point is a constant, denoted as b 2 (Math Curve). The
distance between the focal points and the center of Cassini Oval is denoted as a. The general equation for a Cassini
Oval is as follows: (x 2 + y 2 + a2 ) 2 - 4 x a 2 x x 2 = b 4 (Math Curve)

7
Fig. 2, Example of Cassini Oval with function (x 2 + y 2 + 12 ) 2 - 4 x 1 2 x x2 = 14
Figure 2 contains the two focal points in
the oval, showing that the distance from
the focal points to the center is a. d 1 and

..
'
d 2 are the distances from the focal points
t o an arbitrary point on the curve. The
product of d1 and d2 is b 2 .

The first step in attempting to find

the volume of the hourglass with this function is to calculate the values ofthe variables a and b to ensure that the
function models the shape of the hourglass on a 2 dimensional cartesian plane. I will attempt to do this using the
properties of the Cassini Oval: the product of the distance from any point on the shape to the two focal points is a
constant, b 2 , and the distance between focal points is 2a, with the distance from the focal point to the center of the
shape being a. By placing the Cassini Oval with its center on the origin, the coordinates of the focal points can be
written as F1 (-a, 0) and F2 (a, 0), where F1 is the first focal point and F2 is the second focal point To calculate the
values of a and b, the x and y coordinates of at least two point located on the Cassini Oval need to be known, which
will allow for a and b to be found through simultaneous equations. Graph 3 below shows two points on the hourglass
with their coordinates which should be found on the Cassini Oval. Unlike the previous method this model will not
assume neck of the hourglass has no width, instead the coordinate of the neck is shown on the graph with point A.
Point B is the maximum x value ofthe hourglass. At the x coordinate ofa 9.8cm the hourglass follows a vertical line,
as it is the base of the hourglass, but for the Cassini oval to fit with the shape of the hourglass this vertical line will
need to be ignored and the shape oftbe hourglass will need to continue in its roughly circular path, intercepting with
the x axis at around 10.2cm, which is the point B.

Graph 3, Coordinates ofpoints A and B which must be points on the Cassini Oval

B tn?
�--o+----------------+---,-�
2
; x (cm:

Using the properties of the Cassini Oval, the following equation must be true:

(5) (Lee)

This equation states that the product of the distance from the first focal point (F1) to A and the distance from second
focal point (F2 ) to A is equivalent to the product ofthe distance from the first focal point (F1 ) to B and the distance
8
from second focal point (F2) to B. Both equations are equal to the constant b 2. Using the coordinates for A and B,
found in graph 3, the coordinates F1 (-a, 0) and F2 (a, 0), and the distance fonnula, the values of the constants a and b
can be found.

IF1AI X IF2AI = ✓c-a - 0) 2 + (0 - 0.45) 2 X ✓ea - 0) 2 + (0 - 0.45) 2 = ✓ca 2 + 0.45 2 ) 2 = la 2 + 0.20251

IF1 BI X IF2 BI = ✓(-a - 10.2) 2 + (0 - 0) 2 X ✓ea - 10.2) 2 + (0 + 0) 2 = 1(-a - 10.2)1 X l(a - 10.2)1 =
1-a2 + 104.041
IF1 AI x IF2AI = IF1 BI x IF2 BI :. la 2 + 0.20251 = 1-a2 + 104.041 :. a 2 = 51.91 ... :. a= ±7. 205 ... (The
equality with absolute value on each side can be solved by first squa1ing both sides and finding a 2)

IF1 AI x IF2AI = b 2 :. la 2 + 0.20251 = b 2 :. 51.91 ... + 0.2025 = b 2 :. b = ±7. 219 ...

Using the values of a and b calculated above, the formula of the Cassini Oval can be written as: (x 2 + y2 +
(±7.205 ... ) 2 ) 2 - 4 x (±7.205 ... ) 2 x x 2 = b 4 = (±7.219 ... ) 4 . Given that both a and bare raised to an even
power, tbe ± sign is not needed as both result in an equivalent value. Graph 4 below shows the equation of the Cassini
Oval on the hourglass. The equation is:

(x 2 + y 2 + 51.91 ... ) 2 - 4 x 51.91 ... x x 2 = 2716 ... (6)

Graph 4, Cassini Oval function (equation 6) place on the hourglass with focal points and the points A and B

F1 B 1 .2 3
-6 12
x(cm)

Equation 6 can be rearranged to be written with y 2 as the subject, allowing the fonnula for a rotation around tbe x-axis
to be used. The equation of the Cassini Oval becomes:

y2 = ✓2716 ... + 4 x 51.91 ... x x 2 - 51.91 ... - x 2 (7)

The formula for the volume of revolution is as follows:

(*note that a used in the integral limit can be any arbitrary values and is not equivalent to a used previously as a value in the
Cassini oval)
9
To find the volume of material in the hourglass at varying heights, first the maximum volume of one half of the
hourglass must be calculated, similarly to what was done in section 3.11 and 3.12. The bounds of the hourglass when
filled with a maximum volume of materials between x = 0 and x = 10.2. Thus, the limits to the integral are: a =
0 and f3

Vmax =
1
= 10.2. Thus the formula for the maximum volume is:
10.2
✓
rr X ( 2716 ... + 4 X 51.91 ... X x 2 - 51.91 ... - x 2 )dx
0

Finding this integral is done as followed:

I. J: 0 •
2
rr x (..J2717 + 4 x 51.91x 2 - 51.92 - x2 )dx = rr J: 0 2
• (14.41 ... x (✓13.08 ... + x 2 ) - 51.91 ... - x2 )dx

2. ✓13.08 ... + x 2 = ✓(3.616 ... )2 + x 2

Writing 13.08 ... as (3.616 ... )2 allows for further integration

3. rr
02
J: ✓ 10 2
• (14.41 ... c (3.616 ... )2 + x 2) - 51.91 ... -x 2 )dx = rr(14.41 ... fo • (3.616 ... ) 2 + x 2 )dx - ✓
fo10.2(51.91 ... + x ) dx
2

4. f 1/a2 + x 2 dx = f 1/a2 + a2 tan 2 (e) x asec 2(e) de

To further integrate the result from step 3, 3.616 ... will be substituted with a to make the integration easier.
To integrate the first integral in step 3, the substitution x = a tan e is used
5. f 1/a2 + a2 tan 2(e) x asec2 (e) de= f 1/a2 + a2 (sec2 (e) -l) x asec2 (e) d0 = f 1/a2 sec 2(0) x
asec 2 (0) d0 = f a2 sec 3 (0) d0 = a2 f sec(0) x sec 2(0) d0
= sec(0), du = sec(0) x tan(0) d0, dv = sec 2(0) d0, v = tan(0)
Integration by parts is used with: u
6. f udv = uv -f vdu :. a2 f sec 3 (0) d0 = a2 (sec(0) x tan(0) - f tan(0) x sec(0) x tan(0) d0) =
a2 (sec(0) x tan(0) - f tan2(0) x sec(0) d0)
7. a2 (sec(0) x tan(0) - f tan 2(0) x sec(0) d0) = a2 (sec(0) x tan(0) -f(sec 2(0) -1) x sec(0) de)=
a2 (sec(0) x tan(0) - f(sec 3 (0) - sec(0))d0)
The identity tan2 (0) = sec 2(0) -1 is used in step 7
8. a2 f sec 3(0) d0 = a2 (sec(0) x tan(0) - f sec 3 (0)d0 + f sec(0) d0) :. 2a2 f sec 3 (0) d0 =
a2 sec(0) x tan(0)) + a2 f sec(0) d0
a2 f sec 3 (0)d0 is added to both sided of the equation. Only f sec(0) d0 needs to be found to complete the
integral, which is done below
sec(0)+tan(0) sec 2 (0)+sec(0)xtan(0)
9_ f sec(e) de = f sec(0)
1
X
sec(0)+tan(0)
de = f sec(0)+tan(0)
de

Using u-substitution this can be solved: u = sec(0) + tan(0), du = (sec 2 (0) + sec(0) x tan(0)) d0
sec 2 (e) c(B ) n(B)
10. f ;;; � ;; d0 = f !:.du= lnlul = lnlsec(0) + tan(0)1
sec +tan u
11. 2a2 f sec 3 (0) d0 = a2 sec(0) x tan(0)) + a 2(lnlsec(0) + tan(0)1) :. f sec 3 (0) d0 =
1 1
sec(0) x tan(0)) + 2 (lnlsec(0) + tan(0) I)
2
Since x = atan 0, tan-1 G) = 0. 0 can be substituted with tan-1(�) to introduce the variable x back
12. f sec 3 (0) d0 = ¼sec(tan- 1(�)) x tan (tan-1(�))) + ¼(in 1sec (tan-1(�)) + tan(tan- 1(�))1) + C
 To simplify the equation in step 12, a right angle triangle can be drawn with side lengths of x, a and -Jx 2 + a2
(this being the hypotenuse). Using this triangle the equation can be simplified using the basic trigonometric
rules/identities

13. Jsec 3 (0) d0 =½C7 +lnl✓a a+x +�l)+C 2 2

x✓ a 2 +x2 ✓a +x x
14. J Va2 +x2 dx=a 2Jsec 3 (0)d0(seestep5):. JVa2 +x2 dx=-( +In 1 --+-)+C
2

l
2 a 2
2 2

2 a2 a a

... +x ... ln ( x+ 0
✓
15. rr(l4.41 ... [x 13.08 + 13.08 x +13. 8. .. no,2 - f. ol0.2(51.91 ... + x2) dx
2 2

2 2 0
13. 8. ..

10 2 J ✓
Step 15 substitutes 0 • (3 .61 6 ... ) 2 + x2 )dx from step 3 with the solution found in step 14

I 6. rr(14.41 ... [75.11 ... - 8.408 ... ] - fo

10 2
• (51.91 ... + x 2 dx = rr(961.2 ... - [51.91 ... x + � x 3 n°· 2

n°·2) = rr(961.2 ...- 883.3 ... ) =

) )

17. rr(961.2 ... - c[ si.91 ... x + ½x 3 244.9 ... cm 3

Using this method, the maximum volume of the hourglass is approximately 244.9cm 3 , which is similar to the value
predicted from the calculations in section 3.11, which predicted a maximum volume of approximately 275.7cm 3 . This
shows that both methods give similar values. Both sets of calculations leading to the two values for maximum volume
were also conducted using technology to ensure the final result was correct. The solutions found using technology
coJTesponds with the results calculated above. When researching the Cassini oval and its properties, a different
approach for integrating the shape was discovered which worked by translating the equation of the oval into polar
coordinates(Wolfi·am Math World). Although translating the Cassini oval into polar fonn was relatively simple, it was
clear that the method used above, finding the solid of revolution in cartesian coordinates, worked more effectively and
thus the use of polar coordinates was not required to reach the aim of this investigation. Even though the polar fonn
was not used in the investigation, learning about it was interesting and raises the question of bow the use of different
coordinate systems could simplify difficult problems in the standard cartesian form.

To find the volume of material in the hourglass, the volwne of the hourglass without any material i11 it can be
subtracted from the maximum volume, leaving only the volume of material . This is the same approach as was used in
3.11. The volwne of the section of the hourglass without any material depends on the height that the hourglass is filled
to. When the hourglass is filled, it is filled starting from the x coordinate x = 10.2, and can be filled until the material
reaches x = 0. Thus, the relationship between the height of material and the x coordinate that it reaches is: Xm in =
10.2 - h. This means that the fommla for the volume of the section of the hourglass containing no material is:

V = rr x 14.41 ...
(f 10.2-h
J(3.617 ... ) 2 + x 2 dx -
f 10.2-h
(51.91 ... + x 2) dx
0 0 )

Using the steps shown in the previous calculations, this can be simplified to:

I. = rr(l 4.41 ... (J13 .oa ... +x + lJ.OS ... ln(x + ✓x 2 + 13.08 ... )n°-2 -h - [51.91 ... X + ! x3 ]5°·2-h)
Z
V
2 2 3

V = rr(14.4 1 ... [cio.z-h)b • 2°···+Cto.z-h) + 13.� ••• 1n ((1 0.2 - h) + J(10.2 - h) + 13.08 ... )-
3 O
2 0
2.
2

ln✓13.08... )] - [51.91 .. . (10.2 - h) + ;(10.2 - h) 3 ])

13 8
( '� -

11
 The upper and lower bounds of 10.2 - hand 0 can be substituted into the equation for x giving the volume of
the hourglass that doesn't contain material at a given height.

By substituting the volume of the hourglass with no material at a certain height with the total volume, the volume of
the material is found. Since the maximum volume according to this model is 244.9cm 3 , the function for the volume
with respect to the height at which it is filled is:

✓
(10.2 -h) 13.08 + (10.2-h) 2 13.08
V(h)::::: 244.9 -rr(14.41[
2 2
✓
+- -ln ( (10.2-h) + (10.2- h)2 +13.08
)

13.08 1
-(- -ln✓13.08)] - [51.92(10.2- h) + (10.2 - h) 3 ])
2 3
3.2 Accuracy of models against real data
In sections 3 .11 and 3 .12, I created two functions to model the volume ofmaterial in the hourglass at varying heights.
Both methods lead to slightly different results, with the method from section 3 .11 predicting a maximwn volume of
275.7cm3 compared to the second method predicting a maximum volume of244.9cm 3 . Both methods have some
benefits and limitations. The piecewise function requires the use of two formulas depending on the initial height which
is not ideal, while the implicit function method requires the assumption that the end of the hourglass is circular. The
benefit ofthe implicit function is that one fonnula can be used to model the volume. In order to determine which
method is most accurate I tested the volume ofwater in ml, which is equivalent to cm3• that fit in the hourglass at
0.5cm height intervals. 0.5cm height intervals were selected as this would provide sufficient data points while still
being large enough to accurately measme with the available materials and measuring devices. To add water into the
homglass and remove the gains that were originally in the hourglass a small hole was carefully drilled into the top of
the glass using a drill. This hole was also used in further testing to add salt into the hourglass. Graph 5 shows a scatter
graph with the volume ofwater at each 0.5 cm interval using data from testing, along with the predicted volume
against height from the two methods. An image of the setup can be found in appendix B.

Graph 5, Volume of hourglass against height from real testing and predictions from two methods

l!, Pterl'\nU /1111et1011(0 < r< I,)):

(9.75-h)2
V(h) Ri -23.15 X [(-47.53)- ( - (9.75 - h) X 9.75
2 )]
� P11"r"11ise/1111r1io11(1 n,_rs9i-'.>):
200---1-----.-- sin( 2 x 0.2533 X (9.75 -h))
"" 240.3 - 81r 9.75- h -
V (h),,.., ) + 35.45_
( 2 x 0_2533
� /111phr11/1111r11011(0sr<I0.2):
,so
(10.2 - h)J13.08 + (10.2 - h) 2
V(h) � 244.9-rr(14.41[ ,,
13.08 13.08
+- -Ln ( (10.2-h) +J (10.2-/J) 2 +13.08) -(--lnll13.08)]
100 7 7.
1
- (51.92(10.2 - h) + (10.2-/J)3])
3
• lo/11111e from 11'-Sllllg

10 12
Height (cm)

12
Graph 5 shows both models accurately predict the shape of the resultant curve for the relationship between height and
volume, but the piecewise function over predicts the volume of water while the implicit function under predicts the
volume of water. An interesting trend between the piecewise function and the real data is that the prediction is quite
accurate for low height but loses accuracy as height increases. A justification for this could be that fact that the
piecewise function modeled the outer layer of the hourglass and didn't take into account the fact that the hourglass has
a certain thickness. This would cause a cumulative increase in the difference between the prediction from the model
and the real data, which is clearly shown on graph 5. This reasoning cannot be used to justify why the implicit
function under predicts the volume of water. This is likely due to the initial function not following the outline of the
hourglass accurately enough. In order to improve the accuracy of tbe piecewise function, the thickness of the glass
will need to be taken into account. Although this is not known, I will attempt to find the thickness using the data from
graph 5 to increase the accuracy of the model. The table below shows the predicted volume at each 0.5 cm height
interval using the piecewise function and the recorded volume at each 0.5cm height interval.

Table 1, Predicted volume at each height using the piecewise function and real data

Height Piecewise function Real data Height Piecewise function Real data volume
(cm) predicted volume volume (cm) predicted volume (ml)* (ml)
(ml)* (ml)
0.5 3 2 5.0 190 176
1.0 12 9 5.5 210 192
1.5 26 20 6.0 228 207
2.0 46 40 6.5 244 218
2.5 68 60 7.0 255 232
3.0 92 84 7.5 264 241
3.5 117 104 8.0 270 247
4.0 142 127 8.5 274 251
4.5 167 152 9.0 275 252
*The volume at each height interval predicted by the piecewise function is rounded to 0 decimal places as this
equivalent to the accuracy that the real data was measured in. The values are not rounded in the calculations, only in
the table for clarity

To find the thickness of the glass, I need to calculate the vertical phase shift of the piecewise function required to
account for the difference in volume between the prediction and real data. A vertical phase shift is a vertical shift that
applies to each point on the line equally. This phase shift should correlate to the thickness of tbe hourglass if the
model is correct. Graph 6 below shows an examples of a vertical phase shifts of the piecewise function by an arbitrary
value of -0.4 compared to the original function. The graph displays how the phase shift would account for the
thickness of the glass if it was 0.4cm thick. The graph is only an example of bow this method works and the value -
0.4 is arbitrary.

13
 3•
J. .75 2 (x- . 7 5) d J. .75 2 (x- .75) d J. .7 5 2/1
.75-h IT (2 X S X -0.1356...) X = 2 X IT X S .75-h ( -0.1356. ..) X = 2 X IT X X .75-h ( ✓� X
9 9 9 9 9

9 9 S 9

1/9.75 - x) dx = 2xrrxs x ✓0.131 ... f�:L (1/9.75 - x)dx

5 9 h

4. 2 X rr X s X � -2 (9.75 - x)2I X -1] 975

0.135... X [ 3
-- :7 5-h 9

5. 2 X rr X s X ✓0.1356..
1
. X �3 h�

. . . J.9 75 2 (x- 9.75) d

Thi S funchon IS th e llltegral Of .7. 5-h IT(2 X S 9
X
-0.1356...) X

J 975 2 d
6• • -h rr(s ) x = rrxs x[x . 75-h = rr x s xh
.9.75
2 ] 9•75 2
9

(9.75 - h)2 2 3
= -23.15 ... x x 9.75 + 2 x rr x s x � x -hz + (rr x s2 x h)
z
V(h)
)]
(-47.53 ... ) - ( (9.75 - h)
[ 0.1356 ... 3

All three integrals found in the previous steps can be added up to find the volume when 1.75 > h � O

Solving the second equation, when 9.75 � h � 1.75, can be done in a similar way as above.

9.75 2 (x- .75) J. 8 . 2 rr zd

I. J,8 rr( -0 . 5_hrr(4sm(-xx
-'----'--+s) 2 dx+ 97
.1356... 4.8 )+s) x=35.45 ...+sx26.33 ...+5.497 ... s +
9
2
2

The first integral was solved above. Since the limits ofit are constant it was able to be solved further.

2
2. J \5-/t rr( 4 sin X X) +s) dx = J9\5-h rr(16sin 2 (z2 ; X X) + 8 X s X sin c: X X) +s 2)
9 c:� 8 8 8

. _ sin(i:�8 .75-h))
rr
3. J9.75_h rr(16sm (2 4_8xx) - 240.2844 ... - 8rr ( 9.75 - h -
X
(9

)
8 2
(�
2

24.8 )
This integral was solved in section 3.11
21 rr X X)
4. J9 75 _/t rr(8 X S X sin T X X)= 8 X IT X S J9\s-h si n (z248
4
8
(z 8

To complete the next integral, u-substitution is required. The limits will be excluded and reintroduced at the
end
rr 2 4.8 2 4.8 . ) 4.8 4.8 2rr
5.
2 4.8 2 1T dU=dx; 2 1T J (U dU= 2 1T (U)= 2 1T (-X
U=-X,
24.8 )
2 2 2
- - Sin --COS --COS

4 48
6. 8xrrxs [ - ' cos (�x)]�7s-h =8xrrxs(l.737 ... - [- ' cos(�x(9.75 - h))D
21T 24. • 21T 2 4.
2 8 2
8 8

The limits can be added back in after the u-substitution, giving the solution to the integral
7. J9�75 _h rr( s 2 )dx=rrxs 2 x[x]�. 7s-h =rr xs 2x(-1.75 - x)

h
24 8x(9.75- ))
sin(�
8. 35.45 ...+s x 26.33 ...+5.497 ...s 2 + 240.2844... - 8rr ( 9.75 - h - • 4 rr )+
(24.8 )
48
8 x rrxs(l.737 ... - [- ' cos(� x (9.75 -h))D + rrxs 2 x (-1.75 - h)
2
21T 24.8

15
 By combining the solutions of all three parts of the integral, the solution for the volume when 9.75;::: h;::: 1.75

is found, as shown above.

(9.75 -h)2 3
2
-23.15... x (-47.53 ... )- (-----(9.75-h)x9.75 +2xirxsx x-h'i
[ 2 )] 0.1356 ... 3
�
+(irx s 2 x h), 1.75 > h;::: 0

= sin ( �� x(9.75 - h) )
V(h) 2 8
35.45 ... + sx 26.33 ... + 5.497 ... s2 + 240.2844 ... - 8rr 9.75 - h- )
4 rr
C24.8)
(
24.8
x(9.75-h )])+rrxs2 x(-1.75-h),
)
2rc
+Sxrrxs(l.737 ...-[- rr cos ( 9.75;::: h ;::: 1.75
2 24_8

Using the two equations above and the data from table I the value of s, the thickness of the glass, can be found. This
is done by substituting the height of material (h) in the equations above with a value of h from columns 1 and 4 of
table 1 and substituting the volume of material (V(h)) with the real volume at that height from columns 3 and 6. This
leaves only the variable s in the equation. The value of s can be calculated for each 0.5cm height interval and an
average value can be found. Due to the large amount of values that need to be calculated, it is best to complete the
calculations with technology. The results can be found in table 2.

Table 2, Vertical phase shift required to account for error in volume

Height (cm) Calculated vertical phases shift (cm) * Height (cm) Calculated ve1tical phases shift (cm)*
0.5 -0.2465 5.0 -0.1316
1.0 -0.2435 5.5 -0.1606
1.5 -0.3121 6.0 -0.1722
2.0 -0.1916 6.5 -0.1910
2.5 -0.1980 7.0 -0.1646
3.0 -0.1548 7.5 -0.1552
3.5 -0.2019 8.0 -0.1488
4.0 -0.1962 8.5 -0.1413
4.5 -0.1618 9.0 -0.1425
*The calculated phase shift is rounded to 4 significant figures for clarity but the calculations are conducted without
rounding

From table 2, the average phase shift was approximately -0.1841cm. Assuming that the piecewise function accurately
modeled the outside of the hourglass, the thickness of the glass must be approximately 0.1841cm. Graph 7 below
shows the piecewise function when this phase shift is taken into account by substituting the vertical phase shift
variable (s) with the average phase shift from table 2.

16
 Graph 7, Predicted volume of hourglass against height of piecewise function with phase shift (s = -0.1841) against
real data

A
� V(h) � -23.15 X l(-47.53) -( l • \
91 -h
)'" (9.15 - h) X 9.75 )f
J
2
+ 2 X rr X s X -- X - h! +(rr X s2 X h), 1.75 > - 0
h>
0.1356 3
�

� V(h) � 35.45 + s X 26.33 + 5.497s2 + 240.2844

7T
sin ( � x (9.75 - h) )
2 8 24 8 2
- 87! 9.75 - h - ) +8 X n X s(l.737 - (- � cos ( � X (9.75 - h) )])
2 24 8
• (�)
24.8
(
9.75;;:: h 2! 1.75
,,.
�'--<.....,____________ ;) +n x s2 x (-1.75-h).
...,,.
V

The piecewise function with the phase shift is much closer to the real recorded value but there is still a discrepancy.
There a number of possible reasons for this, such as that the piecewise function was not a perfect model of the
hourglass, the thickness of the glass was not constant, the initial measurements of the how·glass were not exactly
correct or that there were errors in the recording of the data. Regardless, the piecewise function still give a reasonable
approximation of the volume. This now needs to be translated into a formula which can output the run time of the
hourglass, as stipulated b y the aim of this investigation

4.0 Testing run time against volume

In section 2, Background theory, the formula relating volume and run time of the hourglass was introduced. The
equation is as followed:

V=txvxA

Where V is volume, t is the run time of the hourglass, v is the velocity at which the material flows through the neck
and A is the cross sectional area of the neck. I will assume that a material flowing through the hourglass will have a
constant velocity and that the neck cross sectional area is constant. With these assumption, I conducted a number of

tests with known volumes of material and measured the run time. Using the fonnula !:'.. = v x A, which is a rearranged
t

version of the original formula, I can find the value to the product of the two constants v and A. Using this product,
and through finding the volume using the piecewise function at different hei ghts, the run time can be predicted. I
decided to conduct the testing using fine salt as the material as this is easy to access in large quantities and it meets the
requirements for a material used in an hourglass: The grains are similarly sized, the grains have a small radius relative
to the neck of the hourglass and it is able to flow with little resistance. The results of the testing can be found in
appendix C, table I.

17
 5.0 Run time ofmodels

Volu 3
� (�l ; found through expe1imentation is 0.2711 ... cm /s, This is the average value
e
The average value for the
Run time s
from column 3 from the data table in appendix C, table 1. This should be a constant and should not change depending
on the height to which the hourglass is filled. To find the run time of the how-glass using the models and these
constants, the formula can be rearranged to the form:

--=t
vxA
.
Given that v x A � 0.2711 cm 3/s: - -�t
V
0.2711

Using this, the only change to the piecewise and implicit formula (which model the volume, V, in cm 3) to create a
3
fonnula to find the run time is to divide them by the constant, 0.2711 cm /s.Graph 8 shows a comparison of the
runtime of the hourglass predicted by both the piecewise and implicit function with the real data obtained.

Graph 8, Predicted run time at varying heights predicted by piecewise and implicit model compare to real data

•ooo

200

IO II
Ho,gl\l (cm)

244.9 - ,r(l 4.4 l

10 2 - h)Jl B + l0 2 -
{ • 3.� ( . j
h)' +�Jn ( (10.2 - h) + J(l0.2 - h) 2 + 13.08)- (�lnJIT.os)] - [51.92(10.2 - h) + {10.2 - h)3])
0.2711

sin ( �� x (9.75 -
2 8
h))
(35.45 + s X 26.33 + 5.497
4rr
<24.8)
s2 + 240.2844
+ 8 X ,r X s(l.737 - [-,Wcos (� x {9.75 - h
- Brr (9.75 - h
)
+ ,r X s' X {-1.75 - h) )m )
-'-----------------'-------� � � -'-------------------------'- 9.752:h2:1.75
0 2_ 71 1
=

18
Graph 8 shows that both models follow a similar trend to the real data. The piecewise function give highly accurate
predictions for the run time when the height ofsalt is low as there is almost no difference between the model and the
data, but the model loses accmacy at higher heights. The implicit function is more accurate with larger heights of salt
but is quite inaccurate at lower heights.

6.0 Results

The aim ofthis investigation was to model the shape ofan hourglass in order to create a formula with can predict the
run time ofthe how-glass when filled to any height, between the range of0cm and 9.75cm. This would allow for a
single hourglass to be used to measure a number ofdifferent times. The image below is a visual representation ofthe
results, showing the height of salt required for the hourglass to run at I 00 second intervals. The values from the real
data are approximated using the data points on graph 8, since the data was recorded in 1cm height intervals and not
based on 100 second intervals so it needs to be approximated.

Image 1, Visual representation of height required for the hourglass to run at I 00 second intervals according to both
models

,I

The image shows how the modeling used in this investigation creates a simply hourglass that is able to measure
multiple times by changing the volume ofsalt used in it. Similarly to graph 8, this image outlines the enor arising
from both models, but it is clear that the piecewise function gives good predictions to the hourglasses run time for the
first 800 seconds.

7. 0 Conclusion

The aim ofthis investigation was to create a continuous function that was able to model the run time of an hourglass
when filled to any height with salt. To create such a model two separate models were used, a piecewise function and
an implicit function. Real testing showed that the piecewise function cumulatively overestimated the volume ofsalt in
the hourglass as the height increased, which was possibly due to the function including the glass layer ofthe hourglass
as volume ofsalt. Through finding the appropriate vertical shift of the piecewise function to account for the difference
in volume from the model and the real values, the function gained accuracy and the suggested thickness ofthe glass

19
was approximately 0.1841cm. After completing all testing a section of the hourglass was broken off and measured to
detennine if this calculated thickness was accurate. The measured piece bad a thickness of 0.1 cm indicating that the
calculated value was near the actual value, but it must be noted that the thickness was not uniform over the hourglass
and thus the thickness at other parts could be closer or fwther to the calculated value. Testing was also conducted to
find the value of v x A (the product of the velocity of salt flowing through the hourglass neck and the cross-sectional
area of the neck). The value found remained constant regardless of the initial height of salt, as suggested in the
background research. A Limitation of this investigation is the possible inaccuracies in the data collected through
primary testing, such as the initial dimensions of the hourglass, value ofv x A fow1d and real volume at each height,
hence the inaccuracies of the final model are not simply due to inaccuracies in the mathematics used. Further,
limitations arose due to the assUJTiptions made when creating the models, such as that the flow rate of salt is constant
and that the hoLLrglass has uniform thickness. The thickness for example, is likely not unifonn as the thickness at the
neck is visible thicker than at any other part, yet the assumption that it is uniform allowed for a more accurate model.
From this investigation it can be concluded that this method works to an extend and approximating the run time of an
hour glass, but it has some limitations that largely arise when the height at when the hourglass is large. An extension
to this investigation could be to conduct it using a material were the flow rate depends on the volume of material
above it, unlike salt. This would require further mathematics, possibly derivatives, to find bow the rate oftlow of the
material changes depending on the height of material above it, and to incorporate that into the equation. Although this
investigation was based on a very specific premise, finding the run time of an hourglass, it can be extended to several
other fields where this method is also useful. For example from personal experience, when the volUJTie of fuel in a tank
needs to be found, such as in motor boats, a fuel gauge stick is used. This stick is placed vertically in the tank and
when pulled out you can see how high up the stick the fuel reaches, but knowing the height that the fuel reaches
provides limited information on the volume of fuel unless you have a formula to translate height on the fuel gauge to
volUJTie of fuel. Such a formula, to translate from height to volume was found in this investigation, just in a different
context to a fuel gauge. Another real world application of this investigation is finding how long it will take for
industrial equipment such as crop silos or water towers to empty, which allows for effective time management. This
investigation has given significant insights to the real world applications of mathematical concepts, notably modeling
and integration using implicit functions, and gives rise to the question: to what extent can implicit functions model
desired shapes? While researching the Cassini oval I came across many other quadratic curves each having their own
separate real world applications. It would be interesting to discover how implicit functions can be used to model more
complex shapes and to find the limits, if any, of what can be modeled with implicit functions.

20