Performance characteristics

of measuring instruments
Static performance characteristics

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Performance characteristics of measuring instruments
The detailed specifications of the functional characteristics of
any instrument are termed as its performance characteristics.
These are in general are indicative of capabilities and
limitations of the instrument for a particular application.
The knowledge of the performance characteristics of an
instrument is essential for choosing most suitable instrument for
specific measurement.

Static characteristics: These are the characteristics of instrument

which are concerned with measurement of quantities which are
constant or slowly varying with time.
These are: Accuracy, Precision, Sensitivity, Resolution,
Threshold, Reproducibility, Repeatability, Drift, Error, Linearity
etc.
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 Accuracy: Accuracy of a measuring system is defined as the
closeness of instrument output to the true value of measured
quantity (as per standard). However in usual practice, it is
specified as the percentage deviation or inaccuracy of
measurement from the true value.
Accuracy of the instruments can be specified in either of
following form:

Measured value - True value

1. Percentage of true value = × 100
True value
Measured value - True value
2. Percentage of full scale deflection = × 100
Maximum scale value

Percentage of true value is more accurate than full scale deflection.

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Ex: Given full scale is 1000 V and true value is 100 V. Accuracy of
instrument is ±1% of true value or of full scale. Calculate the
measured value.
Case 1: When accuracy is ± 1% of true value

± 1 Measured value - True value

=
100 True value
± 1 × True value
Measured value = + True value
100
1 × 100
= + 100 = 101 V ( + sign)
100
- 1 × 100
= + 100 = 99 V (- sign)
100
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Case 2: When accuracy is ±1% of full scale deflection

± 1 × full scale deflection

Measured value = + True value
100
± 1 × 1000
= + True value
100
1 × 1000
= + 100 = 110 ( + sign)
100
- 1 × 1000
= + 100 = 90 (- sign)
100

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True value: The true value of the quantity to be measured may be
defined as the average of an infinite number of measured values
when the average deviation due to contributing factors tends to
zero.
Static error: The accuracy of an instrument is measured in terms
of its error. Static error is defined as the difference between the
measured value and the true value of the quantity.
δA=Am-At=error
Am=measured value of quantity
At=true value of quantity

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Precision: Precision is defined as the ability of instrument to
reproduce a certain set of readings within a given accuracy.
For example if a particular transducer is subjected to accurately
known input and if repeated read outs of the instrument lie within
say ±1% then precision or alternatively precision error of the
instrument would be stated as ±1%.
Thus highly precise instrument is one that gives the same output
information for a given input information when the reading is
repeated a large number of times.
Precision of instrument is in fact, dependent on the repeatability.
The term repeatability can be defined as the ability of instrument
to reproduce a group of measurements of the same measured
quantity, made by same observer, using the same instrument,
under the same conditions.
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Repeatability: Describes the closeness of output readings for the
same input when the same input is applied repeatedly over a short
period of time with the same measurement conditions, same
instrument and observer, same location and same conditions of
use maintained throughout.
Reproducibility: Describes the closeness of output readings for
the same input when there are changes in the method of
measurement, observer, measuring instrument, location
conditions of use and time of measurement.

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 Accuracy vs. Precision
It may be noted that accuracy represents the degree of
correctness of the measured value with respect to the true value.
On the other hand, precision represents the degree of
repeatability of several independent measurements of the desired
input at the same reference conditions.
Target shooting example:
Target plate
Bull’s eye

High precision Poor precision Poor precision

High precision
Poor accuracy Good average Poor accuracy
High accuracy
accuracy 9
Static sensitivity (also termed as scale factor or gain): It is
defined as the ratio of the magnitude of response (output signal) to
the magnitude of the quantity being measured (input signal) i.e.
change of output signal
Static sensitivity, K =
change in input signal
∆q o
=
∆q i

In other words, sensitivity is

∆qo
represented by slope of the
input-output curve if qo ∆qi
ordinates are represented in
actual units. qi
For linear case K is constant 10
 B ( ∆qo ) A
(∆qo)B
KA =
A (∆qo)A (∆qi)B ( ∆qi ) A
qo (∆qi)A
( ∆qo ) B
KB =
( ∆qi ) B
qi Sensitivity at point A
and B
Ex: A mercury thermometer has a capillary tube of 0.25 mm
diameter. If the bulb and capillary tube are made of a zero expansion
material what volume must it have if a sensitivity of 2.5 mm/oC is
desired? Assume that operating temperature is 20oC and the
coefficient of volumetric expansion of mercury is 0.181×10-3/oC.

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Lc=length of capillary tube which would be occupied by mercury
contained in the bulb when it is not heated, mm
Lc+∆ Lc=length of capillary tube which would be occupied by
mercury contained in the bulb when heated, mm
Ac=area of capillary tube, mm2
αv=coefficient of volumetric expansion oC-1
∆θ=change in temperature, oC
∆qo (Lc + ∆Lc ) − Lc ∆Lc
S= = = = 2.5 mm/ oC
∆qi ∆θ ∆θ

Ac(Lc + ∆Lc ) = Ac(Lc + αv Lc ∆θ)

1 ∆Lc
Lc = .
α v ∆θ

1 3
Lc = −3
× 2 .5 = 13. 8 × 10 mm = 13.8m
0.181 × 10
π
volume of bulb Vb = Ac Lc = (0.25) 2 × 13.8 × 103 = 677.4mm 2 12
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Resolution (or Discrimination): It is defined as the smallest
increment in the measured value that can be detected with
certainty by the instrument. In other words it is degree of fineness
with which a measurement can be made. The least count of any
instrument is taken as resolution of the instrument. A high
resolution is one that can detect smallest possible variation in the
input.

Threshold : It is a particular case of resolution. It is defined as

the minimum value of below which no output can be detected.
Both threshold and resolution are not zero because of various
factors like friction between moving parts, play or looseness in
joints (more correctly backlash), inertia of moving parts, length
of the scale, spacing of graduations, size of pointer, etc.

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If the instrument input is increased very gradually from zero there
will be some minimum value below which no output change can
be detected. This minimum value defines the threshold of the
instrument.
In specifying threshold, the first detectible output change is often
described as being any “noticeable measurable change”.
Resolution defines the smallest measurable input change while
the threshold the smallest measurable input.

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Linearity: One of the best characteristics of an instrument or
measuring system is considered to be linearity that is, the output
is linearly proportional to the input. Linearity is depicted as
deviation between actual calibration curve and idealized straight
line.
Linearity is simply a measure of maximum deviation of any of
the calibration points from the straight line which is drawn by
using method of least square.
Maximum deviation
Output

Idealised straight line

Actual calibration curve

Input 15
 (maximum deviation of output from
the idealized straight line)
Non - linearity = × 100
actual reading
(maximum deviation of output from
the idealized straight line)
Non - linearity = × 100
full scale deflection

Hysteresis: Hysteresis effects show up in any physical, chemical

or electrical phenomenon. It is defined as the magnitude of error
caused in the output for a given value of input, when this value is
approached from opposite direction i.e. From ascending order
and descending order. This is caused by backlash, elastic
deformation, magnetic characteristic but mainly caused due to
frictional effects.

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 qo
Decreasing

Increasing

Input Dead band qi

Hysteresis loop due to

Hysteresis when measurement coulomb’s friction
starts on positive and negative Unloading

Output
Hysteresis loop
qo due to viscous Loading
friction
Input
qi
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Due to internal friction
Dead band: It is defined as the largest change of measurand to
which instrument does not respond.
Backlash: It is defined as maximum distance or angle through
which any part of mechanical system may be moved in one
direction without causing motion to the next part. It is minimised
when components are made with close tolerance.
Drift
All calibrations and specifications of an instrument are only valid
under controlled conditions of temperature, pressure etc. These
standard conditions are usually defined in the instrument
specifications. As variations occur in ambient temperature etc.
Certain static instrument characteristics change. Such environmental
conditions affect the output of the instrument and can be attributed
to a general term called drift.
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There are many environmental factors which cause drift. They may
be stray electric and magnetic fields, thermal emfs, changes in the
temperature, mechanical vibrations, wear and tear, and high
mechanical stresses developed in some parts of the instruments and
systems.
Zero drift: If the whole calibration gradually shifts due to slippage,
permanent set, or due to undue warming up of electronic tube
circuits, zero drift sets in. This can be prevented by zero setting.
Span drift or sensitivity drift: If there is proportional change in the
indication all along the upward scale, the drift is called span or
sensitivity drift.
Zonal drift: In case the drift occurs only over a portion of span of a
instrument, it is called zonal drift.

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 Characteristic with zero
Characteristic with span drift drift

Output
Sensitivity drift
Output

Nominal
characteristic
Nominal characteristic Zero
drift
Input
Input
Characteristic with zero and span Characteristic zonal drift
drift Total error due to zero and
span drift
Output

Output
Nominal Nominal
Zero characteristic characteristic
drift Input Input 20