Characteristics
Chapter 10
There are many excellent texts covering both
instrumentation and measurement. Some are
generic, one of the best being by Bentley (2004).
Others, which are specific to the process sector, are
referred to in the next few chapters.
As seen in Figure 3.3 there is usually some
combination of sensor, transducer and transmitter
associated with the measurement process. These
devices may be characterised in many ways, e.g.
according to principle of operation, performance,
physical design or commercial considerations. For
specification purposes the most important charac-
teristics are as follows:
a. Accuracy. This is a measure of the closeness of
the measurement of a variable to the true value
of that variable. Consider, for example, an instru-
ment for temperature measurement as shown in
Figure 10.1. Its calibration is linear, with an input
range of 75–100 ◦ C (span of 25 ◦ C) corresponding
to an output range of 4–20 mA (span of 16 mA).
θ( o C ) i ( mA )
Trans.
Fig. 10.1 Instrument for temperature measurement
Suppose a temperature of 85 ◦ C is measured as
84.5 ◦ C.In absolute terms the error is 0.5 ◦ C and the
instrument is said to have an accuracy of 0.5 ◦ C.It is
more usual to express accuracy on a percentage ba-
sis. The error may be expressed either as a percent-
age of the true value or, more commonly, as a per-
centage of the span of the instrument according to
Error
Accuracy = ± × 100%
Span
A temperature of 85 ◦ C should give an output
of 10.4 mA whereas the output corresponding to
84.5 ◦ C is only 10.08 mA. Thus the accuracy of the
instrument is ±2.0%. It does not particularly mat-
ter what basis is used for quoting accuracy, as long
as it is properly understood.
b. Precision, which is often confused with accu-
racy, is associated with analogue signals and is a
function of the scale used for measurement. Sup-
pose the above temperature measurement was in-
dicated on a gauge whose scale was calibrated from
75 to 100 ◦ C in divisions of 0.5 ◦ C between which it
is possible to interpolate to within 0.1 ◦ C. The pre-
cision is 0.1 ◦ C or ±0.4% of scale. Thus the mea-
surement which is only ±2.0% accurate can be read
with a precision of ±0.4%.
c. Resolution is, strictly speaking, the largest
change in input signal that can occur without any
corresponding change in output. Resolution is as-
sociated in particular with digital signals and is
a function of the number of bits used to repre-
sent the measurement. Again, using the 75–100 ◦ C
example, suppose the signal is stored in a 10-bit
register. The register has a range of 10232, each bit
corresponding to 25/1023 ◦ C, giving a resolution of
approximately 0.1% of range.
 58 10 Characteristics
d. Repeatability is a measure of an instrument’s
ability to produce the same output signal for dif-
ferent instances of a given input signal. Lack of
repeatability is usually due to random effects in
the instrument or its environment. Repeatability is
characterised by statistical metrics,such as average
value and standard deviation. For process control
purposes, where consistency of operation is of the
essence,an instrument’s repeatability is often more
important than its accuracy.
e. Linearity, as discussed in Chapter 4, pervades
automation. It is highly desirable that instruments
have linear I/O characteristics. If any significant
non-linearity exists, it is normal to quantify it in
terms of the maximum difference between the
output and what it would be if the characteris-
tic were linear, expressed as a percentage of the
instrument’s span.
For the example of Figure 10.1, suppose the
ideal (linear) and nonlinear outputs are given by
iid = −44.0 + 0.64. inl = f()
and are as depicted in Figure 10.2
i ( mA )
20
ideal
4 non linear θ( o C )
75 100
Fig. 10.2 Ideal and nonlinear characteristics
The percentage nonlinearity is thus
(−44.0 + 0.64. − f())max
× 100
16
f. Hysteresis is a particular form of non-linearity
in which the output signal may be different for
any given input signal according to whether the
input is increasing or decreasing, as illustrated in
Figure 10.3.
i ( mA )
20
idn
4 iup θ( o C )
75 100
Fig. 10.3 Characteristic with hysteresis
Hysteresis is also quantified in terms of the max-
imum difference between the two outputs ex-
pressed as a percentage of the span, i.e.
(idn − iup )max
× 100
16
g. Rangeability. Instruments are designed to have
some specified I/O relationship, linear or other-
wise. Normally this relationship is valid over the
whole range. Sometimes, however, the relationship
does not hold at one end or other of the range,
usually the bottom end. Rangeability is expressed
as the ratio of the proportion of the scale over
which the relationship holds to the proportion
over which it doesn’t. For example, an instrument
that is linear over the top 96% of its range has a
rangeability of 24.
h. Drift. This is a time dependent characteristic,
normally associated with analogue signals. It is the
extent to which an output signal varies with time
for a constant input. Drift is invariably due to heat-
ing effects. Many components take a while to heat
up after being switched on so a device’s output may
initially drift prior to stabilising. Drift can also be
an indication that a device is overheating.
i. Sensitivity, otherwise referred to as gain, is a
steady state measure of an instrument’s respon-
siveness.It is defined to be the change in output per
unit change in input.Assuming that its I/O charac-
teristic is linear across the whole range, sensitivity
is given by
Output span
Gain =
Input span

The gain of the example of Figure 10.1 is 0.64
mA/◦ C. Sensitivity is determined by the specifi-
cation of the I/O ranges and, for control purposes,
is arguably the most important of an instrument’s
metrics.
j. Speed of response. An instrument’s dynamics
are of particular interest. The types of instrumen-
tation used in process automation are relatively
slow. It is therefore normal practice to approxi-
mate their response to that of a first order system
and to characterise it in terms of a time constant
as explained in Chapter 69. If necessary, this can be
found empirically by carrying out a step response
test and measuring the time for a 63.2% change in
output.
k. Reliability. Process instrumentation has to be
designed to operate, with minimal maintenance,
for 24 h/day throughout the life of the plant. High
reliability is essential.For analogue devices,such as
sensors and transmitters, the most useful means of
quantifying reliability is either in terms of failure
rates, e.g. number of failures/106 h, or in terms of
the mean time between failures.MTBF is applicable
to any type of instrument that can be repaired by
the replacement of a faulty component or unit. For
discrete devices used in protection systems,such as
switches and solenoids, it is normal practice to ex-
press reliability in terms of the probability that the
device will fail on demand. Reliability is discussed
in detail in Chapter 53.
l. Intrinsic Safety. When an instrument has to be
situated in a hazardous area, i.e. one in which
flammable gas/air mixtures could exist, it must be
intrinsically safe. The extent of the IS requirement
depends upon the zone number, the gas group
and the temperature class. If the IS specification
for an instrument cannot be met, perhaps on the
grounds of cost, then it is acceptable to install it
in a flameproof enclosure. Depending on what an
instrument is connected up to, it may be necessary
to specify a barrier at the zone boundary. All of
these safety related issues are explained in detail in
Chapter 52.
10 Characteristics 59
m. Process Interface. Those parts of an instrument
that come into direct contact with the process have
to be capable of withstanding the temperatures and
pressures involved. They also have to be chemi-
cally resistant to the process medium, whether it
be acidic, caustic or otherwise. There is therefore a
need to specify appropriate materials of construc-
tion.The process interface,surprisingly,is the most
expensive part of an instrument. It usually consists
of a casting of steel, or some other alloy, which
houses the sensor. Its manufacture requires a sig-
nificant amount of machining and assembly work,
all of which is labour intensive.
n. Physical. Mundane, but of vital importance to
the successful installation of an instrument, are
some of its physical characteristics. For example,
the correct fittings or flanges have to be speci-
fied for the process interface, appropriate brackets
for panel or post mounting, suitable connectors
for wiring purposes, etc. The intent with regard to
power supply must be made clear. There are many
options: the supply may be local to the instrument
or provided via the signal lines, the voltage may
be a.c. or d.c., the instrument may require special
earthing arrangements, screening may be speci-
fied, etc.
o. Availability. There is much variety in the supply
of process instrumentation: different techniques of
measurement, alternative designs, choices in func-
tionality, etc. There are many suppliers and the
market is both competitive and price sensitive. The
best way of identifying the principal suppliers of
an instrument type is to consult a trade catalogue,
such as the InstMC Yearbook. Looking at the tech-
nical press on a regular basis helps to keep abreast
of current developments. Some journals publish
surveys which are particularly useful.
p. Commercial. Most companies attempt to stan-
dardise on a limited range of instrumentation and
to maximise on its interchangeability. This reduces
the inventory of spares required, which could oth-
erwise be extensive, and makes for more effective
maintenance and repair. This standardisation in-
 60 10 Characteristics
evitably leads to a preferred, i.e. restricted, supplier
list. Factors taken into account include instrument
performance, product support, company stability
and pricing policy.
q. Cost. Whereas the purchase price of an instru-
ment is relatively easy to establish, its true capital
cost is not. This is because installation costs are
specific to the application and can vary widely. It is
not uncommon for the installed cost, i.e. the pur-
chase price plus installation costs, to be more than
double the purchase price. Strictly speaking, in
specifying an instrument, its life cycle costs should
be taken into account, i.e. its installed cost plus
maintenance costs. This seldom happens in prac-
tice because capital costs and operating costs come
from separate budgets.
Comments
Specifying an instrument inevitably involves mak-
ing compromises between desirable technical char-
acteristics and commercial criteria, subject to the
constraints of company policy. To do this properly
requires a good understanding of the application
and its requirements. It also requires alot of de-
tailed information. The extra time and effort spent
in getting the detail right at the specification stage
saves much money and inconvenience correcting
mistakes later on.