Valve Sizing

Chapter 20
20.1 Inherent Characteristic
20.2 Installed Characteristic
20.3 Comparison of Installed Characteristics
20.4 Worked Example No 1
20.5 Trim Selection
20.6 Valve Sizing
20.7 Worked Example No 2
20.8 Critical Flow
20.9 Nomenclature

Effectiveness is critically dependant on selecting As discussed in Chapter 19, the characteristic is de-
the right sort of valve for the job, specifying an termined by the plugs’ shape and/or profile, by its
appropriate characteristic and sizing it properly. size and by the position of the plug relative to its
This chapter provides an introduction to the com- seat. In principle, there are many possible charac-
plexities of sizing. For a more detailed treatment teristics. However, in practice, most manufacturers
the reader is referred in particular to the texts by have standardised on three trims which are readily
Driskell (1983) and Baumann (2003) and to IEC available and satisfy most applications. These are
60534 which supersedes various BS and ISA stan- referred to as square root, linear and equal per-
dards. centage, and are depicted in Figure 20.2.
The inherent characteristics and their slopes
are quantified in Table 20.1.
20.1 Inherent Characteristic Table 20.1 Characteristics and slopes vs trim types
The inherent characteristic of a valve is theoretical dF
to the extent that it is the relationship between the F = f (X)
dX
flow through the valve and its opening, assuming
a constant pressure drop. With reference to Fig- √ k2
Square root F=k X F =
ure 20.1: 2F
Linear F = kX F =k
F = f (X)|PV =const (20.1)
Equal % F = F0 ekX F = kF

x Valves with a square root characteristic are some-

F times referred to as having a quick opening trim,
but it cannot be assumed that any valve with a
ΔPv quick opening trim has a square root character-
istic. Some manufacturers produce trims with a
Fig. 20.1 Valve: symbols for flow, pressure drop and opening so called modified equal percentage characteristic
 134 20 Valve Sizing
Fig. 20.2 Inherent characteristics for standard trims
whose profile lies somewhere between linear and
equal percentage.
The equal percentage characteristic needs
some explanation. First, if the equation for its slope
is rearranged as follows:
F
= kX
F decrease. Thus the increase in flow will be less than
it can be seen that the fractional change in flow for
a given change in valve opening is constant. That
is, an equal percentage change in flow occurs for
a given percentage change in valve opening, irre-
spective of whereabouts in the range the change
occurs. Hence the name.
Second, note that if X = 0 then F = F0 , which im-
plies that there is a flow of F0 when the valve is
shut! There is a reason for this. Over most of the
valve’s range of opening, the inherent characteris-
tic holds true: it is determined by the geometry of
the plug relative to its seat. However, in the vicinity
of the origin,as depicted by the inset to Figure 20.2,
the characteristic is determined by the annulus be-
tween the plug’s rim and the top edge of the seat.
When the rim touches the seat shut-off is obtained.
Note that the slopes of the characteristics are
proportional to F−1 , F0 and F+1 respectively. This
enables the valves’ characteristics to be matched
against the plant and/or pipework. The inherent
characteristic chosen is that which gives rise to the
most linear installed characteristic, as discussed
below.
20.2 Installed Characteristic
In practice, the pressure drop across the valve
varies. A typical scenario is as depicted in Fig-
ure 20.3.
x
F
ΔPf ΔPv
Fig. 20.3 Control valve in series with fixed resistance
Cooling water flows from a supply main, through
some pipework and a control valve, and is dis-
charged into a return main. If the valve is opened,
the increase in flow will cause the pressure drop
due to friction in the pipework to increase. As-
suming that the overall pressure drop is approx-
imately constant, if PF increases then PV must
that predicted by the inherent characteristic which
assumes a constant PV .
The installed characteristic of a valve is the re-
lationship between the flow and valve opening that
would be obtained if the valve was calibrated em-
pirically, and takes into account the variation of
pressure drop.
 20.3 Comparison of Installed Characteristics 135

F = f (X, PV ) (20.2) This gives an implicit relationship between F and

X. The installed characteristic requires that it be
Returning to Figure 20.3, the pipework may be explicit. Squaring both sides and rearranging gives
treated as if it is a single fixed resistance to flow.Any

pipe fittings, strainers, bends, contractions and ex-
ae2kX
pansions, orifices, open isolating valves, heat ex- F = bc 2 (20.7)
changers, jackets, etc. may be lumped in with the b + c2 e2kX
pipework. The control valve is treated as a sin-
gle variable resistance to flow. The overall pressure
drop may be considered to be approximately con- 20.3 Comparison of Installed
stant.
PF + PV = a (20.3)
Characteristics
The characteristics of square root, linear and equal
The pressure drop across the fixed resistances due
percentage valves are summarised in Table 20.2.
to frictional losses is of the form

F = b PF (20.4)

Assume, for example, that the valve has an equal

20.4 Worked Example No 1
percentage inherent characteristic: A control valve and its pipework is as depicted in
Figure 20.3. The valve’s inherent characteristic is of
F = F0 ekX (20.5) the form
For a given opening, the valve may be considered F = F0 e4.0X
to behave like an orifice, in which case the flow What is the valve’s installed characteristic if nor-
through it depends on the pressure drop across the mal conditions are as follows?
valve: 
F0 = c PV (20.6) F = 60.0 kg/min X = 0.5 PF = PV = 1.0 bar.
This set of four equations is the model of the sys-
From Equation 20.3, if PF = PV = 1.0 bar then
tem of Figure 20.3. These may be solved:
a = 2.0 bar.
√ From Equation 20.4, if F = 60 kg/min and
F = F0 ekX = c PV ekX
 PF = 1.0 bar then b = 60 kg min−1 bar−0.5
√ F2 Comparison with Equation 20.5 reveals that
= c a − PF e = c a − 2 ekX
kX
b k = 4.0.

Table 20.2 Installed characteristics vs trim types

Square root Linear Equal percentage

Overall PF + PV = a PF + PV = a PF + PV = a

√ √ √
Fixed resistance F = b PF F = b PF F = b PF
√
Inherent characteristic F=k X F = kX F = F0 ekX
√ √ √
Variable resistance k = c PV k = c PV F0 = c PV
  
aX aX2 ae2kX
Installed characteristic F = bc F = bc F = bc 2
b + c2 X
2 b2 + c2 X2 b + c2 e2kX
 136 20 Valve Sizing
Table 20.3 Installed characteristic for valve of Worked Example No 1
X – 0 0.2 0.4 0.5
F kg/min 11.4 24.6 47.4 60.0
Combining Equations 20.5 and 20.6 gives
 applications, such as when a square process char-
F = c PV ekX
If F = 60 kg/min, PV = 1.0 bar and X = 0.5 then
c = 60e−2 .
Substituting for a, b, c and k into Equation 20.7
yields the installed characteristic:
 Sizing is essentially a question of specifying the
2e8X−4
F = 60
1 + e8X−4
from which the points in Table 20.3 are obtained.
Hence the installed characteristic may be plot-
ted. Inspection reveals a linear enough character-
istic for most control purposes.
20.5 Trim Selection
For various reasons, as explained in Chapter 4, it is
highly desirable for the output channel to have as
linear an installed characteristic as possible. The
shape of the installed characteristic is very sensi-
tive to the relative values of PV and PF :
PV > PF . If most of the pressure drop is across
the valve,then PV will not vary much
and a valve with linear inherent char-
acteristic should be used.
PV ≈ PF . If the pressure drop across the valve
and pipework are of the same order of
magnitude, then an equal percentage
valve should be used.
PV < PF . If the pressure drop across the valve is
less than about 30% of the total avail-
able, effective control will not be pos-
sible. To achieve any change in flow
the valve will have to be fully opened
or closed, i.e. the valve functions in an
on/off mode.
0.6 0.8 1.0
70.8 81.0 84.0
Note that the square root valve is used for special
acteristic is to be offset, or where a relatively “quick
opening” is required.
20.6 Valve Sizing
required characteristic and calculating the capac-
ity required. The latter is articulated in terms of
the hydraulic valve coefficient KV , as defined by
IEC 60534-1. The maximum flow through a control
valve, i.e. when the valve is wide open and X = 1, is
given by

PVM
QM = KV (20.8)
G
where QM and KV have units of m3 /hr, PVM is
in bar and G is the specific gravity of the liquid
relative to water. Clearly, if X = 1, PVM = 1bar
and G = 1, i.e. the liquid is water, then KV is the
volumetric flow rate in m3 /hr.
Equation 20.8 appears to be dimensionally in-
consistent due to a scaling factor of unity that is
not dimensionless.
There is a widely used alternative basis of valve
sizing, not used in this text, based upon the hy-
draulic valve coefficient CV in which:

PVM
QM = CV
G
where QM and CV have units of US gal/min, PVM
is in psi and G is the specific gravity of the liquid
relative to water. Clearly, if X = 1, PVM = 1psi
and G = 1, i.e. the liquid is water, then CV is the
volumetric flow rate in US gal/min.
Note that 1 US gal = 3.785 litres and 1 psi =
0.0687 bar, whence CV = 1.16KV.
The procedure for sizing a valve is depicted in Fig-
ure 20.4. It essentially consists of determining the
 20.7 Worked Example No 2 137

Estimate FMAX and Δ PVMIN

Assume X = 1.0 and calc K V Review values of

F, FMAX & Δ PVMIN
Select valve size ≥ K V

Choose , linear or =% char

Calc X for F = F
Choose Choose lin. and ΔPV = ΔP V
Y Y
N N Y
Is char lin? Is char =%? Is X > 0.7 ? Choose lin. Choose =% .
N Y Y
Y N N
Is X < 0.3 ? Is char ? Is char lin?
N
Specification

Fig. 20.4 Procedure for valve sizing

desired KV value from a formula,based upon maxi- • For most gases and vapours, at upstream pres-
mum flow and minimum pressure drop conditions. sures less than approximately 6 bar, a compress-
A valve is then selected from a manufacturer’s cat- ibility factor of Z = 1 can be assumed.
alogue. Invariably, none of the valves available will • These formulae are based on the mass flow rate
have the exact KV required, so the next biggest is of fluid through the valve, for volumetric flow
normally chosen. It is then checked to see that it rates there are alternative formulae available.
is roughly half way open under normal conditions.
The formulae to use are as follows: These two formulae are sufficient for something
For liquids like 80% of all applications.However,if critical flow
 exists then different formulae are necessary.
1
KV = 0.06FM (20.9)
PVM G
For gases and vapours
20.7 Worked Example No 2
 The temperature of the contents of a reactor is to
Z be controlled by regulating the flow of cooling wa-
KV = 2.44FM (20.10)
PVM (P1M + P0M ) G ter through an internal coil. The water is supplied
from a supply main at approximately 4.0 bar g and
Note that flows through to a return main at approximately
• The specific gravity G is relative to water for liq- 0.4 bar g. Under design conditions the water flow
uids and to air for gases and vapours. rate required is 90 kg/min. It is estimated that, at
 138 20 Valve Sizing

Fig. 20.5 Coil with control valve and pipework for cooling water

this flow rate,the pressure drop across the inlet and If FM = 180 kg/min then PFM ≈ 2.8 bar
outlet pipework, isolating valves and coil will be as hence PVM ≈ 0.8 bar.
shown in Figure 20.5. It is anticipated that the tem-
Calculate theoretical KV from Equation 20.9, as-
perature controller will need to vary the flow rate
suming G = 1.0:
by as much as ±100%. Specify a suitable valve.
This arrangement reduces to that depicted in 
Figure 20.3 in which 1
KV = 0.06FM ≈ 12.1
PVM G
PF = 0.7 bar PV = 2.9 bar F = 90 kg/min
Suppose that inspection of a manufacturers cata-
Equation 20.3 is thus
logue reveals that a valve whose KV = 12.9 is the
PF + PV = a next biggest available.
Choose a linear characteristic:
where a = 3.6 bar.
Equation 20.4 applies to the pipework: F = kX

F = b PF √
where k = c PV .
Substitute for normal conditions gives From the definition of KV :

b = 107.6 kg min−1 bar−1/2 . If PV = 1 bar and if X = 1.0 then

F = 12.9 m3 /hr ≡ 215 kg/min.
Establish maximum flow conditions: Hence c = 215 kg min−1 bar−1/2 .
 20.8 Critical Flow 139

Table 20.4 Inherent characteristic for valve of Worked Example No 2

X % 0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100
F US gpm 0 0.34 0.50 0.74 1.12 1.72 2.59 3.88 5.95 9.05 12.9

Check that the valve is half open under normal The valve is 65% open under normal conditions.
conditions. This is within the 30–70% range so is good enough.
Therefore the valve required has a KV = 12.9 and
If PV = 2.9 bar
√ an equal percentage trim.
then k = 215 2.9 = 366.1 kg/min.
So if F = 90 kg/min then 90 = 366.1X
Hence X = 0.246.
The valve is only 25% open under normal condi- 20.8 Critical Flow
tions so try an equal percentage characteristic: In the context of valve sizing, critical flow is a term
which relates to the onset of choked flow,cavitation
F = F0 ekX or flashing. It is also, ambiguously, used in relation
√ to sonic flow and is often mistakenly linked to crit-
where F0 = c PV . ical pressure.
The inherent characteristic for a valve whose Choked flow describes the situation when, with
KV = 12.9, as tabulated in the manufacturer’s liter- the upstream conditions remaining constant, the
ature, is typically as shown in Table 20.4. flow rate through a valve cannot be further in-
Thus, from the inherent characteristic, assum- creased by reducing the down stream pressure. It
ing a constant PV = 1 bar: is associated, in particular, with flashing. The on-
set of flashing is often described as critical flow.
If X = 1 then F = 12.9 m3 /hr ≡ 215 kg/min Thus sub-critical flow means that flashing is not
whence 215 = F0.ek occurring.
If X = 0.5, say, then Critical flow is also the term used to describe
F = 1.72 m3 /hr ≡ 28.67 kg/min the situation, with gas flow, when the velocity in
whence 28.67 = F0 .e0.5k the vena contracta approaches the speed of sound.
This occurs when the upstream pressure is twice
Eliminating F0 gives k = 4.03. the downstream pressure, i.e. if P1 ≥ 2P0 . Note that
From the definition of KV : when sonic flow occurs, the flow rate is a function
of the gas density. Thus, although the velocity has
If PV = 1 bar and if X = 1.0 then reached a maximum, the mass flow rate increases
F = 12.9 m3 /hr ≡ 215 kg/min. with increasing upstream pressure. This is not re-
√ lated to choked flow, flashing or cavitation.
Substituting gives: 215 = c 1.0.e4.03
Hence c = 3.82 kg min−1 bar−1/2 . Note that the critical pressure PC is that pres-
sure above which a gas cannot be condensed by
Check that the valve is half open under normal cooling alone. In the case of the water/steam sys-
conditions. tem, for example, PC = 221 bar. Critical pressure is
If PV = 2.9 a thermodynamic property of a substance and is
√ bar then not related to choked flow, flashing or cavitation.
F0 = 3.82 2.9 = 6.505 kg/min.
The effects of cavitation and flashing are best
So if F = 90 kg/min then 90 = 6.505.e4.03X explained by consideration of the saturated vapour
Hence X = 0.652 pressure PSV in relation to the pressure profile of
 140 20 Valve Sizing
PSV
P1
P0
P VC
Fig. 20.6 Typical pressure profile for flow through a control valve
the fluid as it flows through the valve.The saturated
vapour pressure of a pure liquid at a given temper-
ature is the pressure at which the liquid boils at
that temperature. For example, for water at 100◦C
its saturated vapour pressure is 1 atmosphere. A
typical pressure profile is as depicted in Figure 20.6
which is essentially the same as Figure 12.1 for flow
through an orifice. P1 and P0 are the upstream and
downstream pressures respectively, and PVC is the
pressure at the vena contracta.
Four scenarios are considered:
1. PSV < PVC . This is the normal case and neither
cavitation nor flashing occurs.
2. PSV = PVC . This case corresponds to the onset
of cavitation, often referred to as incipient cav-
itation. As the liquid flows through the valve its
pressure just drops to, but not below, the pres-
sure PSV .At this pressure the liquid is at its boil-
ing point but vaporisation does not occur.
3. PVC < PSV < P0 .Cavitation occurs.As the liquid
flows through the plug its pressure drops below
PSV . Some of the liquid vaporises and bubbles
are formed,the amount of vaporisation depend-
ing upon the difference between PSV and PVC .As
the two-phase mixture approaches the exit port
its pressure rises above PSV and the bubbles col-
lapse. The mechanical shock causes permanent
damage to the valve body and trim. In extreme
cases extensive damage can be done to down-
stream pipework.
The onset of cavitation is predicted by a valve’s
critical flow factor which is defined to be

P1 − P0
CF = (20.11)
P1 − PVC
Values of CF are tabulated against type and
size of a valve by its manufacturer. A value of
CF = 0.9 is typical. Cavitation is avoided by pre-
venting PVC from dropping down to PSV . This is
normally achieved by specifying a valve whose
CF factor is such that PSV < PVC . If this is not
possible, then it is best to change the process,
e.g. by reducing the temperature of the process
stream.
4. P0 < PSV < P1 . This case corresponds to flash-
ing. A proportion of the liquid vaporises as it
flows through the valve and, because PSV > P0 ,
exits the valve as vapour. This results in in-
creased velocities within the valve and leads
to potential noise problems. These can be ad-
dressed by the use of diffusers and baffles as
discussed in Chapter 19.Also, the increased vol-
umetric flowrate may require a larger pipe di-
ameter downstream of the valve.
For liquids, the criterion for the onset of
choked flow, cavitation or flashing is that
PV ≥ CF 2 .(P1 − PVP ). When this occurs, provided
that PVP < 0.5P1, where PVP is the vapour pressure
at the temperature of the flowing fluid, the basis
for valve sizing is:

0.06FM 1
KV = (20.12)
CF (P1 − PVP )G
For gases and vapours the criterion for the onset of
choked flow is PV ≥ 0.5CF 2 P1 . When this occurs,
the basis for valve sizing is that:

2.82FM Z
KV = (20.13)
CF P1 G
Note that CF occurs in the denominator of both
Equations 20.12 and 20.13. Given that CF < 1.0, it
follows that the effect of CF is to increase the KV
value: a larger valve is specified to accommodate
the increase in volume due to choked flow, cavita-
tion or flashing.
 20.9 Nomenclature 141

When a valve is installed between pipe reducers,
because the pipeline diameter is greater than that
of the valve’s body, there is a decrease in valve ca-
pacity. This is because the reducers create an ad-
ditional pressure drop in the system by acting as
a contraction and an enlargement in series with
the valve. There is a correction factor that can be
applied to take this into account.
Most valve manufacturers have programs for valve
sizing and specification.The sizing procedure is es-
sentially as depicted in Figure 20.4, the various siz-
ing formulae being invoked according to the con-
ditions. The programs normally provide for speci-
fication of all the mechanical details and materials
of construction.

20.9 Nomenclature
CV hydraulic valve gal(US) min−1
coefficient
CF critical flow
factor
F mass flow rate kg min−1
through the valve
G specific gravity –
KV hydraulic valve m3 hr−1
coefficient
P pressure bar (abs)
P pressure drop bar
Q volumetric flow m3 hr−1
rate
X fractional opening –
of the valve
Z compressibility –
factor

Subscripts
C critical
F fixed resistance
M maximum flow and minimum pressure drop
SV saturated vapour
V variable resistance
VC vena contracta
VP vapour at temperature of flowing liquid
0 downstream
1 upstream