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422 Electrical Machinery

drop Iar is added to the ordinates of curve 2, the internal characteristic shown by curve 3 is
obtained. Note that r is the sum of series field resistance and armature circuit resistance (in­
cluding brushes). Thus the voltage drop BD is equal to the total armature resistance drop/or
and the voltage drop CD is due to the armature reaction. A horizontal line through D meets the
magnetization curve at F and DF gives the demagnetizing effect caused by the armature reac­
tion for a load current equal to OA.
It is obvious from the shape of the external characteristic that the series generator is a
variable voltage generator— it is therefore never used as a voltage source.
4.11.4. Compound generators. Cumulatively compounded generators are more common
because these can furnish almost constant voltage from no load to full load.
(i ) No load characteristic. For the no load characteristic, same current flows through the
series field and shunt field turns in case of a long-shunt compound generator. Since the number
of series field turns is far less than that of the shunt field turns, the effect of series field m.m.f.

ww
may be neglected in comparison with the shunt field m.m.f. at no load. For a short-shunt com­
pound generator, series field carries no current when obtaining its no load characteristic. Thus
the no load characteristic of a long-shunt or short shunt compound generator is the same as if

w.E
it were a shunt generator.
(ii) External characteristic. The external characteristics of a compound generator are

asy
shown in Fig. 4.50 (a). In a cumulatively compounded generator, with the increase of load cur­
rent, the series field flux aids the shunt field flux. Depending upon the number of series field
turns, the cumulatively compounded generator may be under-compounded (terminal voltage

En
falls with increase of load), level or flat-compounded (terminal voltage remains practically con­
stant with increase in load) or overcompounded (terminal voltage rises with increase in load).

gin
In a differentially compounded generator, with the increase in load, the series-field flux opposes
the shunt-field flux and consequently the terminal voltage falls more rapidly. These external

eer
characteristics, along with shunt and separately excited generators for comparison purposes
are sketched in Fig. 4.50 (a) where no-load voltage is assumed to be the same in all the cases.

ing
.ne
t
(a) (b)
Fig. 4.50. (a) External characteristics of various types of d.c. generators
and (6) circuit diagram of a compound generator with diverter.

Differentially compounded generators are not damaged by short circuit. In view of this,
these generators may be used for welding purposes, where sudden short circuit occurs
everytime the electrode touches the working part. However, modern welding generators are of
special design. Slightly overcompounded generators are used for maintaining constant v o l t a g e
at the load terminals.
The degree of compounding can be controlled by connecting a suitable low resistance called
diverter, in parallel with the series field winding as shown in Fig. 4.50 (6).

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Art. 4.11]
D.C. Machines 423

but u n d e r ^ h e ^ s ^ m n ^ n ^ f ° f Vanous types d c- generators are also drawn in Fig. 4.50 (c)
. , f , 0 same rated terminal voltage Vtr and load current ILr. The observa­
tions made from these V-I characteristics are as under :

mmrlnJhT" ^1
eneirator»_curve 1, the terminal voltage rises rapidly with load current. At
.. ’ n vo age egins to decrease owing to saturation, armature reaction etc.
(ii) For cumulative overcompounded generator, curve 2, no-load voltage is less than Vlr.
(m) For level or flat, compounded generator, curve 3, the no-load and full-load voltages are
equa . owever, ermina voltage at light load is more than Vt but at overloads it falls below
V tr-

(iv) For cumulative undercompounded generator, curve 4, no-load voltage is more than
tr

(u) For both separately-excited (curve 5) and shunt (curve 6) generators, Vtr is less than
no-load voltage. Voltage variation from no load to full load is less in separately-excited gene­

ww
rator than in a shunt generator.
(vi) For differential compounded generator, no load voltage is much higher than Vfr.

w.E voltag e
'DIFFERENTIAL
S EPARATEL Y E X C I T E D
J

asy
£

.L IT "
5 ____
____/
Z
y^UNDER COMF
^SHUNT

En
gin
eer
ing
.ne
t
C UR RE NT
Fig. 4.50. (c) External characteristics of d.c. generators.

Fig. 4.50 (c) reveals that voltage variation from no-load to full load is quite high in series
and differentially compounded generators.
4 .11.5. Effect of speed on external characteristics. The external characteristics of
shunt and compound generators are affected considerably by the operating speed of the driving
motor. In this section, this effect is investigated first for a dc shunt generator and then for a
cumulative compound generator.
Shunt gen era tors. In Fig. 4.51 (a), magnetisation curves for two different speeds
ft! and n2 are drawn for a dc shunt generator. For the same no-load generated emf E, shunt-
field current or mmf is OB for speed n j and OA for speed n2 where rated speed n2 > n\. It is seen
from Fig. 4.51 (a) that at lower operating speed, flux or field mmf required for generating the
same no-load voltage is much greater (here OB) than that required at higher operating speed

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424 Electrical Machinery [Art. 4.11

(here it is OA). As a result, the iron in the magnetic circuit gets highly saturated at lower speed
nv

When the shunt generator is loaded, armature reaction comes into play. For the same ar­
mature current, the effect of armature reaction on the highly saturated field is less than on the
weak field. Let this effect be BC for strong field at speed n\ and A D on weak field at speed n2.
These two armature reactions are indicated in Fig. 4 .5 1 (a). The n et field m m f is
OC = (OB - BC) at speed nxand is OD = (OA - AD) at speed n2. At speed nj, resultant field mmf
OC gives rise to voltage CP and resultant field mmf OD generates voltage DR at speed n2. Note
that voltage at reduced speed has higher value CP than the voltage DR generated at rated
speed n2. This shows that voltage drop at high speed is more than at lower speed. As a conse­
quence, external characteristic at high speed lies below the external characteristic at low speed
as shown in Fig. 4.51 (b).

vt

ww
w.E *n t ( low er
speed)

asy 'n2(higher
speed)

En
D A C gin R a te d
c u rre n t

eer
mmf
F ie ld , m m f Loa d c u rre n t

• ^

ing (A)
Fig. 4.51. Effect o f speed on the external characteristics o f a dc shunt generator.

t e r i ^ r Ul a» ^ * i,; T P0Und ®enerf tors- K « already explained that open-circuit charac-

Z X ° magnetization curve for a dc compound generator is the same as that obtained for a
.ne
c shunt generator. In Fig. 4.52 (a ) ; two magnetization curves, one at speed n , and the other
at speed n2 are drawn. Here rated speed n2 >

OB) for a Bivcn " d

t
As in a dc shunt generator, field mmf requ.red

- « *

e a u a ^ ? s e r i« fiUiM m m f CUrre" ! ” “ dctcomP°und o r a t o r , net additional mmf would be

equal to (senes-fied m m f - armature react,on effect) = A A ' at speed n2 and it would be equal to
(senes - field m m f - armature reaction effect) = at speed Series-field mmf is same at

s o le d n ’ S . ' S * m T etiC 7 ™ ? highly saturated <">«re field mmf OB) at lower

X f dd'' f j armature reaction is less at speed nx than at normal speed n2. This means
that BB at speed ^ is more that AA ' at speed n2. These net additional mmfs BB' and AA' are

w resultant ^ n i f (OA + AA') = OA' at speed n2 and

(OB + BB ) = OB at speed Resultant mmf OA' at rated speed n2 generates a voltage A'C
greater than the voltage B'D generated by resultant mmf OB' at lower speed n v Higher
generated voltage A'C further boosts the shunt field current by a greater extent than that due
to lower voltage S O . As a consequence, compounding action is more effective at high speed
than at low speed and as such, terminal voltage at a particular load current is more at n9 than

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Art. 4.11]
D.C. Machines 425

A A' mmf
F ie ld m m f

(a)

at ww g . Effect o f speed on external characteristics of a dc cumulative compound generator.

This shows that external characteristic at high speed lies above the external charac­

w.E
teristic at low speed as illustrated by solid curves in Fig. 4.52 (b ).
It is seen from above that the effect of speed on external characteristics of a cumulative
compound generator is opposite to that in a dc shunt generator.

asy
Effect of speed on voltage regulation. Effect of speed on the voltage regulation in both
dc shunt and compound generators can be examined by

En
referring to Fig. 4.51 (b ) and 4.52 (b). In Fig. 4.51 (b), if
dc shunt generator runs at rated voltage, rated load cur­
rent and rated speed n2, then external characteristics at
speeds n2 and ni < n2 can be sketched as shown in Fig. gin
4.53. These two characteristics at speeds n2 and
eer in

ing
Fig. 4.51 (b) are pushed upward bodily so as to get the
same load voltage OA in Fig. 4.53.
Similarly, the external characteristics of Fig. 4.52
(b) are pushed bodily downward so as to get the same
.ne
t
load voltage OA in Fig. 4.53. It is observed from these
curves in Fig. 4.53 that at reduced speeds, voltage varia­
tion from no load to full load gets reduced. In other
words, the voltage regulation at reduced speeds gets im­
proved in both dc shunt and dc cumulative (under, level Fig. 4.53. Effect of speed on external
and over) compound generators. characteristics and voltage regulation.

It is seen from above that running the dc generators

at reduced speeds and higher field currents leads to better performance so far as voltage regula­
tion is concerned ; but it is accompanied by some drawbacks. There are (i) higher field currents
cause increased field-copper losses (ii) higher field currents also lead to more iron losses and
(Hi) reduced speed operation impairs cooling by ventilation. Thus overall machine efficiency
gets reduced. It is therefore advisable to operate dc generators at their designed specifications
only.
E xternal ch aracteristic from no-load m agnetization curve. The external charac­
teristic from the no-load magnetization curve of a compounded generator can be obtained in the
same manner as obtained in the case of a shunt generator, but here the effect of series field
m.m.f. must also be included.

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426 Electrical Machinery [Art. 4.11

Let ATd) proportional to armature current Iu, be the demagnetizing effect of armature reac­
tion. In a cumulatively compounded generator, the series field m.m.f., proportional to armature
current, counteracts ATd. Therefore the net m.m.f. is NJs - A T d and in terms of equivalent
shunt field current, it is given by
N Js - A T d
...(4.31)
Nr
For a cumulatively compounded generator, the effect of net equivalent shunt field current
given by Eq. (4.31) may be demagnetizing if ATd > NJ S; magnetizing if N JS> ATd, or zero if
NJs =A T d.
For a differentially compounded generator
NJS+ ATd
...(4,32)
Nf
and the equivalent shunt field current given by Eq. (4.32) is always of demagnetizing nature.
.I
ww
In order to obtain the external characteristic from OCC, draw OC equal to the equivalent
shunt field current obtained from Eq. (4.31) or Eq. (4.32), for any armature current Ia. In Fig.

w.E
4.54, note that the equivalent shunt field current has been shown as magnetizing. In case
equivalent shunt field current is demagnetizing, draw OC opposite to that shown in Fig. 4.54.
The total armature resistance drop (including brushes) is indicated by CD. Draw a line DH,

asy
parallel to field resistance line OA, meeting the saturation curve at H. Make Hh equal to CD.
With O'x equal to load current IL (= armature current/a— field current OB), draw a vertical line

En
at x and a horizontal line through h. Their intersection at W, gives the required point on the
external characteristic. Other points can be plotted similarly. At no-load, shunt field resistance

gin
line meets the open circuit characteristic at A, which gives the no load terminal voltage O'A'.
Vt

eer
ing
.ne
t
v, av n rr
magnetization curve at 1200 r.p.m.
-*
If, amp. 0.0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1.0 1.20 1.40 1.60 1.80
Ea, volts 6 53 106 160 209 241 258 272 282 28S

n s J ! % T mt inef reSi Stanl e °f! t f ries Windins and ^m ature Winding (including brushes) is
u J u ,“ S„ tUrns' At m tcd ou‘Put current, the speed is 1150 r.p.m. and
shunt field current is 1.00 A. For negligible armature reaction, calculate

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Art. 4.11]
D.C. Machines 427
(a) the terminal voltage at rated output current iftho r u .
(b)the num ber o f series field turns oer n 7
1
rator. converting it into a flat-compounded gene-

Solution. (a) Rated output current IL = I 0000. = 43 5 a

230
.-. Armature current at rated load Ia = IL + If = 43.5 + 1.00 = 44.5 A.
For long shunt compound gene­
rator, the series field current Is = ar­
mature current, Ia = 44.5 A.
Since the compound generator is
cumulatively compounded, the total
pole m .m .f. is i.e.,
(1000x 1.00 + 4 x 4 4 .5 ) ampere
turns.

ww
.-. The equivalent shunt field cur­

rent is given by
w.E {N flf+ N Jf) or

1.00 + 4 1QQQ5 = ^ ^
asy
t^ S
current, the generated e.m.f., from the
magnetization curve of Fig. 4.55, is 257
volts. For a speed of 1150 r.p.m. the ac­
En 02 0-4 06 08 1-0 12 1-4
tual generated e.m.f. Ea is
gin Fig. 4.55. Pertaining to Example 4.24.

eer
Ea= 257 x = 246 volts.

Vt = 246 - 44.5 x 0.5 = 223.75 volts.

ing
.-. Terminal voltage
(6 ) Vt = 230 volts, Ia = 44.5 A.
/. The generated e.m.f. in the armature at 1150 r.p.m.
= Vt + Iara = 230 + 44.5 x 0.5 = 252.25 V. .ne
For using the magnetization curve, the generated e.m.f. at 1200 r.p.m. will be given by

252 25 x
1150
= 263.3 volts. From open circuit characteristic, Fig. 4.55, the field current cor-
t
responding to 263.3 volts is 1.26 A.
The total m.m.f. must be equal to 1.26 x 1000 ATs. This total m.m.f. must be produced by
the combined action of shunt and series windings.
1.26 x 1000 = 1.00 x 1000 + Ns (44.5)
_0 .2 6x _1 0 00 = 58 2
.•. Series field turns 1’ ~ 44.5

Thus the number of series field turns should be 6.

Example 4.25. to) Repeat part M e f * a n * . 4 * 1 , V
reaction in terms o f equivalent shunt field curre a
. r- u m turns explain how the desired performance as a flat
(b) Iftlie sen es field minding has t10o , P lo be 0 05 SI.
compounded generator, can be achieved. Assu

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4 28 Electrical M achinery IArt. 4.11

Solution, (a) When the demagnetizing effect is accounted for, then from Eq. (4.27), we get
1.26 x 1000 = 1.0 x 1000 + Ns x 44.5 - 0.0022 x 44.5 x 1000
nr k, 0.3578x 1000 . .
or AT = -----------—— = 8 turns.
s 44.5
(6 ) If there are 10 series field turns, then from Eq. (4.27),
1.26 x 1000 = 1.00 x 1000 + 10 Is - 0.0022 l s x 1000

or i - ...Qffi = 33 3 A
' 0.0078
Out of total armature current of 44.5 A, only 33.3 A should pass through the series field.
This can be achieved by putting a resistor, Fig. 4.50 (b), in parallel with the series field winding.
mu r 4 4 5 X R di
Therefore, 33.3 = 5 -5 ^

OT
ww = 0 l H 3 = 01487
Thus the resistance of the diverter Rdi should be 0.1487 Cl.

w.E
Example 4.26. A 250 V compound generator has armature, series-field and shunt-field
resistances o f 0.4 O, 0.2 Q and 125 Cl respectively. I f this generator supplies 10 kW at rated

asy
voltage, find the e.m.f. generated in the armature when the machine is connected (a) long shunt
(b) short shunt. Ignore armature reaction and allow 1 volt per brush for contact drop.
(c)
En
I f a diverter o f resistance 0.3 Cl is connected in parallel with series-field winding, find the
percentage decrease or increase in series field ampere turns.
Solution. For this example, refer to Fig. 4.14.
gin
eer
Load current, IL = -1^ ° = 40 A

(a) Long-shunt connection :

Shunt field current, If =

125
=2A
ing
.-. Armature current, Ia = IL + If = 42 A
.ne
Series-field winding also carries 42 A.
.-. Generated e.m.f. in armature, E . = V, + /„ (r. + r„) + total brush contact drop t
E a = 250 + 42 (0.6) + 2 = 277.2 V
(6 ) Short-shunt connection:
Voltage across shunt-field and armature terminals
*V t + h - r ,
= 250 + 4 0 x 0 .2 = 258 V
Shunt field current, If = ||| = 2.064 A

Ic = Il + //r= 42.064 A
“ ^ ^Lr») "*■ ^ 2 x contact drop per brush
= 258 + 42.064 x 0.4 + 2 x 1 = 276.8256 V.

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Art. 4.12]

(c) Series-field ampere-turns are proportional to series-field current 7.

Series-field current with diverter = — x 7 = o fi T
0.5
/. Series-field ampere-turns with diverter « 0.6 7
Percentage reduction in series field ampere-turns
7 -0 .6 7
= J x 100 = 40%.

4.12. Operating Characteristics of D.C. Motors

The basic equations underlying the d.c. motor analysis are, Eqs. (3.44), (4.6), (4.18) to (4.23)
the no-load magnetization curve and power balance Eqs. (4.11) and (4.12). The armature m.m.f!
can be taken into account as explained in Fig. 4.35 (6).

In a d.c. motor, e.m.f. Ea generated in the armature is called back or counter e.m.f. as ex­
plained before.

___
ww
For d.c. motors, the supply voltage is usually constant and the quantities of common inter­
est are speed, torque etc. The following are the three important operating characteristics of d.c.
motors.
w.E
(i) Speed-armature current characteristic

asy
(ii) Torque-armature current characteristic and
(iii) Speed-torque characteristic.

En
The object of this article is to describe these operating characteristics for different types of
d.c. motors.

4.12.1.
gin
D.C. Shunt Motor. For constant supply voltage, the field current is constant. At
small values of armature current the demagnetizing effect of armature reaction is almost neg­

eer

;;;
ligible and therefore the air gap flux is uneffected. For larger values of armature (or load) cur­
rents, the demagnetizing effect of armature reaction, decreases the air gap flux slightly.
The speed of a d.c. motor, from Eq. (3.44) is given by
ing
t»m = T7-^7
.ne ...(4.33)

nr. ^
But

••
V. - I r
Ea = V , - l , r ,
t - < 4-34)
Ka §
—
(i) Speed-current characteristic. For constant supply voltage Vt and constant field cur­
rent If, the motor speed is affected by l ara drop and demagnetizing effect of armature reaction.
With the increase of Ia, the demagnetizing effect of armature reaction increases^hich reduces
the field flux— therefore the motor speed tends to increase. But with the increase of7a, \oltage
droP L ra increases and the numerator (Vt - Iara) decreases— therefore the motor speed tends to
decrease. With the increase of Ia, the numerator decrement is more than the denominator
decrement; in view of this, the speed of d.c. shunt motor with increase of 7„ drops only slightly
from its no-load speed wmo. Since 7„ at no-load is negligibly small, the shunt motor no-load speed
is given by

vt ...(4.35)
w"'° ~ K a Q

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