AC MACHINES

AC GENERATORS (ALTERNATORS)

General Types of Alternators

1. Synchronous generator – its speed is called synchronous speed and it is used in almost
all types of application.

2. Induction generator (Asynchronous generator) – it is an induction motor which is run

as a generator with a speed above the synchronous speed. Its power factor is leading
and usually connected in parallel with a synchronous generator in order to supply
lighting and power loads.

3. Inductor alternator – it generates voltages at higher frequencies (500 HZ to 10,000

HZ). It is used to supply power to induction furnaces in order to heat and melt alloys
and steel.

Two Possible Constructions of an Alternator

1. Stationary field and a revolving armature
Stator – as field
Rotor – as armature

2. Stationary armature and a revolving field

Stator – as armature
Rotor – as field

Note: The latter (2nd) arrangement is more preferable.

Prime Movers for Alternators

A. For large AC generators:
1. Steam turbine
2. Hydraulic turbine
3. Gas turbine
4. Internal combustion engine

B. For small AC generators:

1. Internal combustion engine

Frequency of Generated Voltage

PNs
f  120

where:
Eave – average generated voltage, volts
N – no. of turns in coil
 - flux per pole, lines/pole or maxwells/pole
 t– time for flux to change by , seconds
OR
Eave
N volts (if  is in webers/pole)
t

Eave = 4 f N  x 10-8 volts  1

For sinusoidal flux-density distribution, effective voltage is

E = 1.11 Eave
E = 4.44 f N  x 10-8 volts  2

For a 3 alternator,

E = 4.44 f N  x 10-8 volts  3

where: E - generated voltage per phase

N - no. of turns per phase

Note: Equations 1, 2, and 3 are used for alternators having concentric armature
windings and full pitch coils.

Armature Windings for Alternators

Alternator windings are very similar to the dc lap winding. Coils in ac armatures are
joined together by merely connecting the proper coil ends in the correct sequence.

Two(2) General Arrangements of Coils Employed:

1. Half-coiled (single layer) – one coil side/slot.
2. Whole-coiled (double layer) – two coil sides/slot
Note: The whole-coiled winding is the more usual of the two arrangements.

Coil Pitch – the distance between the two sides of a coil. It is usually express as a
percent of full pitch.

Coil pitch

Coil sides

A. Full-pitch coil – a coil having a distance between its two sides exactly
equal to 180 electrical degrees.

180o

Note: For a full-pitch coil, generated voltages in both coil sides are exactly in
phase.

B. Fractional pitch coil – a coil having a distance between its two sides less
than 180 electrical degrees.

<180o

Note : For a fractional pitch coil, generated voltages in the two(2) coil sides are
not in phase.

Pitch Factor – the ratio of the voltage generated in the fractional-pitch coil to the
voltage generated in the full-pitch coil.
 𝑃°
Kp = 𝑠𝑖𝑛
2

where: KP = pitch factor in decimal

P = span of the coil in electrical degrees

For a full-pitch coil, KP = 1 (unity)

For a fractional-pitch coil, KP < 1

Distribution Factor - the factor by which the generated voltage E must be

multiplied because the coils are distributed in several slots under the poles
instead of being concentrated in single slots under the poles.

𝒅°
𝒔𝒊𝒏 𝒏 ( )
d 𝟐
𝒅°
K =𝒏 𝒔𝒊𝒏 ( )
𝟐

where: Kd = distribution factor, decimal

n = no. of slots per pole per phase
d = no. of electrical degrees per slot

For concentric winding, Kd = 1 (unity)

For distributed winding, Kd < 1

Corrected Voltage of an Alternator

E = 4.44 KP Kd f N  x 10-8 volts

Alternator Schematic Wiring Diagram

a a
F. R.
+

DC source
(Exciter) To 3
_ Load
b b
c
DC field c
winding
Armature Windings
Equivalent Circuit Diagrams
1. For WYE connected armature windings:
a a
IL
+ I
f
Zs
I
Vf VL
E 
E VL
_ +~ ~ +
Zs Zs
b IL b
c I I
IL
VL
c

VL  V ; IL  I  ; EL  E

2. For DELTA connected armature windings:

+ a a
_
If ~ E IL
Zs +

Vf Rf I I I VL
E + 
Zs VL
_~
c IL b
_
+ ~_ b
Zs VL
E  IL
c

VL  V ; IL  I ; EL  E

Per Phase Equivalent Circuit Diagram:

(Wye or Delta Connected)

I = Ia E = V + Ia Zs (added vectorially)
Zs
V L Zs = Ra + j Xs
Xs = Xar + XL
E _

where : E = generated or open circuit or no-load voltage per phase
EL = generated or open circuit or no-load line to line voltage
V = terminal (output) voltage per phase
VL = line to line terminal voltage
I = Ia = armature current per phase
IL = line current
Ra = Re = effective or ac resistance of the armature per phase
Xs = synchronous reactance per phase
XL = armature leakage reactance per phase
Xar = reactance due to armature reaction per phase
Zs = synchronous impedance per phase
Rf = field resistance
If = field current
Vf = voltage drop across the field

Alternator Voltage Regulation

V  VFL
%VR  NL x 100%
VFL

OR
E  V
%VR  x 100%
V

Factors affecting the drop or rise of the alternator terminal voltage:

1. magnitude of the load
2. actual over-all power factor of the combined loads

Effect of various types of load on the alternator terminal voltage:

1. Resistive loads (i.e. incandescent lamps, heating devices) or loads with unity
power factor.
- 8% to 20% drop in terminal voltage below its no-load value

2. Inductive Loads (i.e. induction motors, electrical welders, fluorescent lighting)

or loads with lagging power factor.
- 25% to 50% drop in terminal voltage below the no-load value.

3. Capacitive loads (i.e. capacitor devices or special types of synchronous motor)

or loads with leading power factor.
- tend to raise or increase the terminal voltage of the alternator above the no-
load value.
Three (3) factors responsible for the change in voltage of an alternator:
1. resistance drop in the armature circuit (IaRa)
2. change in flux or armature-reaction effect (IaXar)
3. armature reactance drop (IaXL)

Alternator Phasor (Vector) Diagrams:

a. For lagging power factor b. For unity power factor

E E
IaZs IaZs IaXs
IaXs
o o
 V
IaRa
Ia V
IaRa
I = Ia =0

c. For leading power factor

Ia E IaXs
IaZs
o 
IaRa
V

From the phasor diagrams:

1. In complex form, E = V + IaZs

2. In magnitude, E 

where:  - power factor angle of the load

 - for lagging power factor
- for leading power factor

Three (3) tests necessary to perform in order to obtain data for the calculation of
the regulation of an alternator:
 1. Armature dc resistance test
2. Open-circuit test or no-load test
3. Short-circuit test

The Armature DC Resistance Test

With the dc field winding open, measure the dc resistance between each pair of
terminals. The average of the three sets of resistance values is called Rt.

Adc
1 2
Open dc field wdg.
DC Source

Vdc

High current rheostat

Rt =
𝑹𝟏𝟐+ 𝑹𝟐𝟑+ 𝑹𝟑𝟏 where: R12 = 𝑽
𝑨
𝒅𝒄 𝒓𝒅𝒈
𝟑 𝒅𝒄 𝒓𝒅𝒈

𝑹𝒕
For Wye-connected armature windings, R a ( d c ) =
𝟐

𝟑𝑹𝒕
For Delta-connected armature windings, R a ( d c ) =
𝟐

To get the equivalent effective or ac resistance of the armature, use a factor of 1.25
to 1.75. Say,

Ra or Re  1.25 Radc

The Open-Circuit Test or No-load Test

With the armature-winding circuit open, the alternator is driven at synchronous
speed. A dc source is connected to the field, making provision to adjust the field
current so that, starting at zero, it may be raised until the ac voltage between any
pair of terminals of the armature winding is somewhat above the rated voltage.
 F.R.
If
DC Source Open armature
windings
Vt

Prime Mover

AC voltmeter

𝑽𝒕
Open circuit voltage per phase, E oc =
√𝟑

The Short-Circuit Test

The alternator is driven at synchronous speed. Starting with a very low direct field
current, progressively increase its value as the ac ammeters increase their
deflections to rated current and above.

A1
Highly Resistive
F. R.
A2 Shorted
If DC Source
Armature
Windings

Prime Mover
A3

𝑨𝟏+ 𝑨𝟐+ 𝑨𝟑
Average short circuit current per phase, Isc =
𝟑
𝑬𝒐𝒄
Synchronous impedance per phase, Zs =
𝑰𝒔𝒄
a. For wye-connected armature windings
𝑽𝒕
𝑬𝒐𝒄 √𝟑
Zs = 𝑰𝒔𝒄 = 𝑰𝒔𝒄
b. For delta-connected armature windings
𝑬𝒐𝒄 𝑽𝒕
Zs = 𝑰𝒔𝒄 = 𝑰𝒔𝒄
√𝟑 √𝟑

Synchronous reactance per phase, Xs  R 

Alternator Efficiency:
Po
 Po
Pin x 100  x 100
Po  Total Losses

Alternator losses include:

1. Rotational losses
a. Friction and windage
b. Brush friction at the field collector rings (often neglected ; quite
small)
c. Ventilation to cool the machine (if necessary)
d. Hysteresis and eddy currents in the stator

2. Electrical losses
a. Field winding
b. Armature winding
c. Brush contacts (often neglected; quite small)

3. Losses in the exciter used for field excitation

4. Stray-load loss (negligible for small alternators)

Operation of Alternators in Parallel

Requisites for connecting alternators in parallel
1. Their voltages must be the same.
2. Their wave forms (frequencies) must be the same.
3. Their phase sequences must be the same.
If any of the above requisites is not met, there will be cross current between the
alternator windings thru the common bus bars. With the cross-current, the
alternator cannot be synchronized.

Alternator Under Faults

1. Three phase (3) fault at the alternator terminals (either wye or delta
connected alternator)

Note: In a 3 fault, the fault currents are symmetrical (balanced).

𝟏𝟎𝟎
ISC(L) = IL(rated) ( )
%𝒁𝟏

If alternator resistance is neglected, then

𝟏𝟎𝟎
ISC(L) = IL(rated) ( )
%𝑿𝟏

2. Phase to phase fault at the alternator terminals (wye connected alternator)

In a phase to phase fault, the fault currents are asymmetrical (unbalanced).
One fault current is zero. The other two fault currents will have a magnitude
of
√3 [𝐼Φ(rated) ( 100 )] (alternator resistance is neglected)
%𝑿𝟏+%𝑿𝟐
3. Line to ground or phase to ground fault (wye connected alternator)
In a line to ground fault, the fault currents are asymmetrical (unbalanced).
Two fault currents are zero. The remaining one will have a magnitude of

√3 [𝐼Φ(rated) ( 100 )] Alternator resistance and neutral wire

%𝑿𝟏+%𝑿𝟐+%𝑿𝟎
impedance are neglected

4. Double line to ground fault (wye connected alternator)

In a double line to ground fault, the fault currents are asymmetrical
(unbalanced). One fault current is zero. The other two fault currents will havea
magnitude of
1 ]
𝐼Φ(rated) = [ %𝑿 %𝑿
𝟐 𝟎
%𝑿𝟏 +
%𝑿𝟐+%𝑿𝟎
where: Isc = three phase fault line current
IL rated = rateLd line current of the alternator
I  rated = rated phase current of the alternator
% Z1= percent positive phase sequence impedance
% X1 = percent positive phase sequence reactance
% X2 = percent negative phase sequence reactance
% Xo = percent zero phase sequence reactance
 Example 1. A 3-phase, 16-pole alternator has a star-connected winding with 144 slots and
10 conductors per slot. The flux per pole is 0.03 Wb, Sinusoidally distributed and the speed
is 375 r.p.m. Find the frequency rpm and the phase and line e.m.f. Assume full-pitched coil.
(Elect. Machines, AMIE Sec. B,
Solution. f = PN/120 = 16  375/120 = 50 Hz
Since kc is not given, it would be taken as unity.
n = 144/16 = 9;  = 180°/9 = 20°; m = 144/16  3 = 3
kd = sin 3  (20°/2)/3 sin (20°/2) = 0.96
Z = 144  10 / 3 = 480; T = 480/2 = 240 / phase
Eph = 4.44  1  0.96  50  0.03  240 = 15.34 V
Linevoltage, EL = Eph   1534  2658 V

Solution. Since winding is chorded by one slot, it is short-pitched by 1/9 or 180°/9 = 20°
Example 2. Find the no-load phase and line voltage of a star-connected 3-phase, 6-pole
alternator which runs at 1200kcrpm,
 = cos 20°/flux
having 2 = 0.98 ; f = 6of0.1
per pole 1200/120 = 60 Hz distributed. Its
Wb sinusoidally
stator has 54 slots having double layer winding. Each coil has 8 turnsand
n = 54/6 = 9 ;  = 180°/9 = 20°, m =54/6 3 = the
3 coil is chorded
by 1slot. kd = sin 3  (20°/2)/3 sin (20°/2) = 0.96
Z = 54  8/3 = 144; T = 144/2 = 72, fMachines-I,
(Elect. = 6  1200/120 = 60 HzUniv.
Nagput
Eph = 4.44  0.98  0.96  60  0.1  72 = 1805 V
Linevoltage, EL =  1805 = 3125 V.

Example 3. The stator of a 3-phase, 16-pole alternator has 144 slots and there are 4
Solution.per
conductors Forslot
sinusoidal fluxindistribution,
connected two layers kand
f = 1.11;  = (180°  of
the conductors 150°)
each= phase
30° (elect)
are connected in
series. If the speed of the alternator
kc = iscos
37530°/2
r.p.m., calculate the e.m.f. inducted per phase. Result-
= 0.966*
 2
ant No.
flux of
in slots
the air-gap
/ pole, is 5  10 n webers
= 144/16per=pole
9 ; sinusoidally distributed. Assume the coil span
as 150° electrical.  = 180°/9 = 20°
m = No. of slots/pole/phase =(Elect.
144/16 Machine,
3=3 Nagpur Univ.


sin m  / 2 sin 3  20 / 2
k =  = 0.96; f = 16  375/120 = 50 Hz
d
m sin  / 2 3 sin 20 / 2
No. of slots / phase = 144/3 = 48; No of conductors / slot = 4
 No. of conductors in series/phase = 48  4 = 192
 turns / phase = conductors per phase/2 = 192/2 = 96
Eph = 4 kf kc kd f T
= 4  1.11  0.966  0.96  50  5  102  96 = 988 V
 Example 4. A 60-KVA, 220 V, 50-Hz, 1- alternator has effective armature resistance of
0.016 ohm and an armature leakage reactance of 0.07 ohm. Compute the voltage induced in the
armature when the alternator is delivering rated current at a load power factor of (a) unity (b)
0.7 lagging and (c) 0.7 leading. (Elect. Machines-I, Indore Univ.

Solution. Full load rated current I = 60,000/220 = 272.2 A

IRa = 272.2  0.016 = 4.3 V ;
IXL = 272.2  0.07 = 19 V
(a) Unity p.f. — Fig. 37.30 (a)

E = (V  IR )2  (I X )2  = 225 V

Fig. 37.30

(b) p.f. 0.7 (lag) —Fig. 37.30 (b)

E = [V cos  + IRa )2 + (V sin  + IXL )2]1/2
= [(220  0.7 + 4.3)2 + (220  0.7 + 19)2]1/2 = 234 V
(c) p.f. = 0.7 (lead) —Fig. 37.30 (c)
E = [(V cos  + IR )2 + (V sin   IX )2]1/2
a L
= [(220  0.7 + 4.3)2 + (220  0.7  19)2]1/2 = 208 V

Solution. It will be assumed that alternator is a single phase

Example 5. Find the synchronous impedance and reactance of an alternator in which D a
one. Now, for same field current,
given field current produces an armature current of 200 A on short-circuit and a generated
e.m.f. of50 V on open-circuit.
O.C. voltsThe armature
50 0.25resistance is 0.1 ohm. To what induced voltage must
the alternatorZSbe =excited if it is 
S.C. current

to deliver . 23 V
200 a load of 100 A at a p.f. of 0.8 lagging, with a terminal
voltageof 200V. C
10 V
XS =   0.23 .
Sa
Now, IRa = 100  0.1 = 10 V, IXS = 100  0.23 = 23 V; O
AB
cos  = 0.8, sin  = 0.6. As seen from Fig. 37.34.
Fig. 37.34

E0 =
= [(200  0.8 + 10)2 + (200  0.6 + 23)2]1/2 = 222 V
 Example 6. A 4-pole, 3-phase, 50-Hz, star-connected alternator has 60 slots, with 4
conductors per slot. Coils are short-pitched by 3 slots. If the phase spread is 60º, find the line voltage
induced for a flux per pole of 0.943 Wb distributed sinusoidally in space. All the turns per phase
are in series. (Electrical Machinery, Mysore Univ.
Solution. As explained in Art. 37.12, phase spread = m = 60° —given
Now, m = 60/4  3 = 5  5 = 60°,  = 12°

kd` = sin 5  12 / 2  0.957;   (3 /15) 180  36 ; k

 cos 18  0.95
5 sin 12 / 2 c

Z = 60  4/3 = 80; T = 80/2 = 40;  = 0.943 Wb; kf = 1.11

 Eph = 4  1.11  0.95  0.975  50  0.943  40 = 7613 V
EL = 3  7613 = 13,185 V

Example 7. A single-phase 2,400-volt synchronous generator delivers 450 amperes at unity

power factor. The synchronous impedance of the generator is 0.08 + j2.8 ohms. What is the
regulation in percent?
E (𝑉 + 𝐼 𝑅 ) + (𝐼 𝑋 ) = √(2400 + 450 × 0.08 ) + (450 × 2.8)
p 𝑝 𝑝 2 𝑝 𝑎
=√ 𝑎
2 ( ) 2

𝐸𝑝− 𝑉𝑝 2742.6−2400
%𝑉𝑅 = = = 0.142 𝑥 100 = 14.2%
𝑉𝑝 2400

Example 8. (a). A motor generator set used for providing variable frequency a.c. supply
consists of a three-phase, 10-pole synchronous motor and a 24-pole, three- phase synchronous
generator. The motor-generator set is fed from a 25 Hz, three-phase a.c. supply. A 6-pole, three-
phase induction motor is electrically connected to the terminals of the synchronous generator
and runs at a slip of 5%. Determine :
(i) the frequency of the generated voltage of the synchronous generator.
(ii) the speed at which the induction motor is running. (U.P. Technical University

Solution. Speed of synchronous motor = (120  25)/10 = 300 rpm.

(i) At 300 rpm, frequency of the voltage generated by 24-pole synchronous generator
24  300
= 120 = 60 Hz
Synchronous speed of the 6-pole induction motor fed from a 60 Hz supply
120  60
=
6 = 1200 rpm
 Example9. From the following test results, determine the voltage regulation of a 2000-V,1-
phase alternator delivering a current of 100 A at (i) unity p.f. (ii) 0.8 leading p.f. and (iii) 0.71
lagging p.f.
Test results : Full-load current of 100 A is produced on short-circuit by a field excitation of
2.5A. An e.m.f. of 500 V is produced on open-circuit by the same excitation. The armature
resistance is 0.8. (Elect. Engg.-II, M.S. Univ.
Solution. O.C. volts
= S.C. current —for same excitation
ZS

for same
excitation
= 500/100 = 5 

XS = ZSa2  R2 52  0.82  4.936 

OI

494
494

80 V

494
O V=2000 V 80 V
(a) O 80 V
80 V (c)
(b)
Fig. 37.35
(i) Unity p.f. (Fig. 37.35
(a)]

IRa = 100  0.8 = 80 V; IXS = 100  4.936 = 494 V

 E0 = (2000  80)2  4942  2140 V

2140  2000
% regn =  100  7%
2000
(ii) p.f. = 0.8 (lead) [Fig. 37.35 (c)]
E0 = [(2000  0.8 + 80)2 + (2000  0.6  494)2]1/2 = 1820 V
1820  2000
% regn =  100  –9%
2000
(iii) p.f. = 0.71(lag) [Fig.37.35 (b)]
E0 = [(2000  0.71 + 80)2 + (2000  0.71 + 494)2]1/2 = 2432 V
2432  2000
% regn =  100  21.6%
2000
 Example 10. The following test results are obtained from a 3-phase, 6,000-kVA, 6,600 V,
star- connected, 2-pole, 50-Hz turbo-alternator:
With a field current of 125 A, the open-circuit voltage is 8,000 V at the rated speed; with the
same field current and rated speed, the short-circuit current is 800 A. At the rated full-load, the
resistance drop is 3 per cent. Find the regulation of the alternator on full-load and at a power
factor of 0.8 lagging. (Electrical Technology, Utkal Univ.

Solution. ZS = O.C. voltage/phase 8000 / 3

S.C. current/phase  800  5.77 

Voltage/phase = 6, 600 3  3,810 V

Resistive drop = 3% of 3,810 V= 0.03  3,810 = 114.3 V
Full-load current = 6, 000  103 / 3  6, 600  525 A

Now IRa = 114.3V

 Ra = 114.3/525 = 0.218 
XS = ZSa2  R2 5.772  0.2182  5.74  (approx.)
As seen from the vector diagram of Fig. 37.33,
(b)

[3,810  0.8  114E.30 )2= (3,810  0.6  525  5.74)2]

 regulation = (6,180  3,810)  100/3,810 = 62.2
AC MACHINES
TRANSFORMER
PART 2
 Transformers

A transformer is a passive component that transfers electrical energy from one electrical circuit
to another circuit.

Induced EMF Equation

𝐸 = 4.44𝑁ƒØ𝑚
Wℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒: 𝐸 = 𝑟𝑚𝑠 𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑡𝑎𝑔𝑒 i𝑛𝑑𝑢𝑐𝑒𝑑 (𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑡𝑠)

𝑁 = 𝑛𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟 𝑜ƒ 𝑡𝑢𝑟𝑛𝑠

ƒ = ƒ𝑟𝑒𝑞𝑢𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑦 𝑜ƒ 𝑡ℎ𝑒 ƒ𝑙𝑢𝑥 (𝐻𝑒𝑟𝑡𝑧)

Ø𝑚 = 𝑝𝑒𝑎𝑘 𝑣𝑎𝑙𝑢𝑒 𝑜ƒ 𝑡ℎ𝑒 ƒ𝑙𝑢𝑥 (𝑤𝑒𝑏𝑒𝑟)

Equivalent Circuit of an Ideal Transformer

An ideal transformer comprises two resistanceless coils embracing a common magnetic circuit of infinite
permeability and zero core loss.

𝐸1 = 4.44 𝑁1𝐹1Ø𝑚1
𝐸1 = 4.44 𝑁2𝐹2Ø𝑚2
𝐸1 𝑁
𝐸2 1 =𝑎
=
𝐼1 𝑁2
1
𝐼2 𝑁2 =
= 𝑎
𝑁1

𝑍1
𝑁1 2 1
𝑍2 = ( ) =
𝑁2 𝑎

𝑁1 𝐸1
Wℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒: = 𝑇𝑢𝑟𝑛 𝑟𝑎𝑡i𝑜 = 𝑉𝑜𝑙𝑡𝑎𝑔𝑒 𝑟𝑎𝑡i𝑜
𝑁2 𝐸2
𝐼1 𝑍1
= 𝐶𝑢𝑟𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑟𝑎𝑡i𝑜 = 𝐼𝑚𝑝𝑒𝑑𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝑟𝑎𝑡i𝑜
𝐼2 𝑍2
𝐸1 = 𝑉𝑜𝑙𝑡𝑎𝑔𝑒 i𝑛𝑑𝑢𝑐𝑒𝑑 i𝑛 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑝𝑟i𝑚𝑎𝑟𝑦

𝐸2 = 𝑉𝑜𝑙𝑡𝑎𝑔𝑒 i𝑛𝑑𝑢𝑐𝑒𝑑 i𝑛 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑠𝑒𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑑𝑎𝑟𝑦

Equivalent Circuit of a Practical Transformer

A practical transformer is one in which there are some energy losses inside the transformer due to its

core and winding characteristics.

𝑆𝑚 = 𝐸1𝐼0

𝑄𝑚 = √𝑆𝑚2 − 𝑃𝑚2

𝐸12
𝑅𝑚 =
𝑃𝑚
2
X𝑚 = 𝐸1 where: R1 = resistance of primary winding (ohm)
𝑄𝑚 X1 = reactance of primary winding (ohm)
R2 = resistance of secondary winding (ohm)
X2 = reactance of secondary winding (ohm)
Xm = magnetizing reactance of primary winding (ohm)
Equivalent Circuit of a Rm = resistance representing the iron losses (ohm) iron losses (watt)
Practical Transformer at No Pm = iron losses
Load Sm apparent power absorbed by the core (volt-ampere)
Qm = reactive power needed to set-up the mutual flux (var)
E1 = induced emf of the primary winding (volt)
Eg = supply voltage (volt)

At no load l2 = 0 and so is I1. Thus only the exciting current lo flows in R1 and X1. And these impedances
are so small that the voltage drop across them are negligible.
Equivalent Circuit of a Practical Transformer at Full Load

At full load lg is at least 20 times bigger than lo, consequently lo can be neglected and the corresponding
magnetizing branch. This equivalent circuit can be used even if the loading is only 10% of the rated
capacity of the transformer.

Shifting Transformer Parameters from Primary to Secondary or Vice Versa

Where: Re1 equivalent resistance referred to the primary side

Re2 = equivalent resistance referred to the secondary side
Xe1= equivalent reactance referred to the primary side
Xe2 = equivalent reactance referred to the secondary side
Zet = equivalent impedance referred to the primary side
Ze2 = equivalent impedance referred to the secondary side

Equivalent Circuit of a Transformer Referred to the Secondary Side

Where: V2 = load voltage (volt)
I2= load current (ampere)
𝜃 = power factor angle
+ (sign) = if power factor is lagging
- (sign) = if power factor is leading

Open Circuit Test on Transformers

The open-circuit test, or no-load test, is one of the methods used in electrical engineering to determine
the no-load impedance in the excitation branch of a transformer.

Where:
Poc = reading of the wattmeter during the
test (watt)
Eg = rated low side voltage
(volt) Pcore = core or iron losses
(watt)

Short Circuit Test on Transformers

The short-circuit test of a transformer is used to determine copper losses in the transformer at full load.

Where:
Psc = wattmeter reading during the test
Isc = ammeter reading during the test
Esc = voltmeter reading during the test
Re = equivalent resistance referred to the
high side
Xe = equivalent reactance referred to the
high side
Ze = equivalent impedance referred to the
high side
PcuFL = copper losses at full load
Power Losses and Efficiency

Where:
Pout = output power (watt)
Pin = input power (watt)
Pcu = copper losses (watt)
Pcore = core or iron losses (watt)
Ke, Kh. Ke', Kh' = proportionality constant
f = frequency of the supply voltage (Hertz)
Eg = supply voltage (volt)
Bm maximum flux density of the core (tesla)
V2= load voltage (volt)
I2 = secondary current or load current (ampere)
pf = load power factor

Copper Losses at Any Size of Load

Where: x = percentage loading on the transformer
Pcux = copper losses at x% load
PCUFL = full load copper losses

Maximum Efficiency
Maximum efficiency will only occur when the core loss and the copper loss are equal.
 5𝑚𝑎𝑥 = 𝑃𝑜𝑢𝑡
𝑃𝑜𝑢𝑡 + 2𝑃𝑐𝑜𝑟𝑒

Voltage regulation
Voltage regulation is the percentage rise in the terminal voltage of the transformer when the
transformer load is removed.

𝐸2 − 𝑉2
%𝑉𝑅 =
𝑉2

Autotransformer
An autotransformer is a transformer with only one winding common to both the primary and the
secondary sides.

Where: N1 = number of turns of the primary winding

N2 = number of turns of the secondary winding
Ic = current in the common winding
V1 = supply voltage
V2 = load voltage
 Delta – Delta Transformer Bank

Wye – Delta Transformer Bank

Delta – Wye Transformer Bank Wye – Wye Transformer Bank

Scott or T-Connected Transformer Bank
This connection is used to transform three-phase system to two phase system or vice-versa. It consist of
two identical single phase transformers, one having a 50% tap and the other an 86.6% tap on their
primary windings.
AC MACHINES
MOTOR
PART 3

Prepared By:

Shiela Joy B.

Bongat
 An induction motor (also known as an asynchronous motor) is a commonly used AC electric motor. In an
induction motor, the electric current in the rotor needed to produce torque is obtained via electromagnetic induction from
the rotating magnetic field of the stator winding. The rotor of an induction motor can be a squirrel cage rotor or wound type
rotor. Induction motors are referred to as ‘asynchronous motors’ because they operate at a speed less than their synchronous
speed.

INDUCTION MOTOR FUNDAMENTALS

Synchronous Speed (Ns) – Speed of the rotation magnetic field in an AC motor. 120ƒ
= 𝑃
𝑁𝑠
Where: f – frequency of the voltage applied to the stator (Hertz)
P – number of poles
Ns – Synchronous Speed (rpm)
Rotor Speed (Nr) – speed at which the rotor rotates. Can be measured by means of a Tachometer.
Slip Speed (Nslip) – the difference between the synchronous speed and rotor speed.
Nslip = Ns - Nr
Slip (s) – ratio of the slip speed to the synchronous speed.
120
𝑁𝑠−𝑁𝑟 𝑁𝑟 = 𝑁𝑠(1 − 𝑠) = (1 − 𝑠)
𝑠 = 𝑁𝑠 𝑝
𝑁𝑟
Rotor Frequency (fr) – the emf induced in the rotor has certain frequency that depends upon the slip speed.
𝑃(Ns − Nr)
𝑓𝑟 = = 𝑠𝑓
120

TYPES OF THREE-PHASE INDUCTION MOTORS:

Squirrel-cage type - the rotor winding is practically self-contained and it’s not connecting either mechanically of
electrically with the outside power supply or control circuit. Consists of number of straight bar uniformly distributed around
the periphery of the rot and skewed and short circuited at the both ends by end ring to which they are integral Joined
Speed Characteristics: nearly constant speed
Torque Characteristics: starting torque depends on the resistance of the rot winding
Applications: constant speed service as in fans, blowers, compressors, pumps

Wound -rotor type - This is a three-phase motor that has another three-phase winding instead of a squirrel-cage rotor, the
terminals of which are connected to three slip-rings. Brushers rides these slip rings and deliver the current to an external three-
phase rheostat variable resistor to vary the characteristics of the motor. At start, all the resistances are in the circuit, as the
motor picks-up speed. The resistance is gradually decrease until final slip rings are short circuited
Speed Characteristics: Variable speed
Torque Characteristics: by inserting value of resistance in the rotor circuit variety of torque values (high or low) are
obtainable.
Applications: Where high starting torque with low starting current or where limited speed control is required, as in
fans centrifugal and plunger pumps. compressors conveyors, hoist and cranes, etc.

Equivalent Circuit per Phase of a Wound Rotor Induction Motor at Standstill

Where:
r1 – Stator resistance per phase (ohm)
r2 – rotor resistance per phase (ohm)
Rx – external resistance, effectively connected between one slip ring and
the neutral of the rotor (ohm)
Rm – resistance corresponding to the iron losses (ohm)
X1 – Stator leakage reactance (ohm)
X2 – Rotor Leakage reactance (ohm)
Xm – Magnetizing resistance
 Equivalent Circuit per Phase of a Wound Rotor Induction Motor when Running at Slips

𝑅2 = 𝑟 1 +
𝑅𝑥
𝐸1
𝐼2 = 𝑠𝐸1 ➀ 𝑅
√𝑅2 + (𝑠X )2 2 2 2
2 2 √( ) + X
𝑠 2
𝐼2 – Rotor Current per phase when running at slip s (ampere)

Equivalent Circuit per Phase of a Wound Rotor Induction Motor Referred to the Stator Side

𝐸𝑝
𝐼1 = 𝑅2
√(𝑟 + )2 + (X + X )2
1 𝑠 1 2
𝐼1 – Stator Current per phase when running at slip s (ampere)

 Active power absorbed by the motor (watt)

𝑃= 2
� + 𝐼 𝑟 + 𝐼 ( 𝑅2)
𝑝 2 2

1 1 1
𝑅𝑚 𝑠

 Reactive power absorbed by the motor (VAR)

𝑝2 2
O= � + 𝐼 (𝑋 + 𝑋 )
1 1 2
𝑋𝑚

 Apparent power absorbed by the motor (Volt-Ampere)

𝑆 = √𝑃2 + O2

 Operating Power factor of the motor

(pf)
𝑃
𝑝𝑓 =
𝑆
 Current Drawn (ampere)
𝑆
𝐼𝑝 =
�𝑝
 Active power supplied to rotor (watt) 𝑅2
𝑃 = 𝐼2 ( )
𝑟 1
𝑠
 Power dissipated as I2R losses in the rotor circuit (watt)
𝑃𝑐𝑢𝑟 = 𝐼2𝑅2 = 𝑠𝑃𝑟
1

 Mechanical Power developed by the motor (watt)

𝑃𝑚 = 𝑃𝑟 − 𝑃𝑐𝑢𝑟 = 𝑃𝑟(1 − 𝑠)

 Torque developed by the motor (Newton-meter)

𝑇 = 9. 55 𝑃𝑚
𝑁
𝑟𝑜𝑡𝑜𝑟
 Power Flow Diagram of an Induction Motor

𝑃𝑟 = 𝑃𝑠 − (𝑃𝑐𝑢𝑠 + 𝑃𝑐𝑜)
𝑃𝑚 = 𝑃𝑟 − 𝑃𝑐𝑢𝑟
𝑃𝑠ℎ𝑎𝑓𝑡 = 𝑃𝑚 − 𝑃𝑓w
𝑃𝑠ℎ𝑎𝑓𝑡 = 𝑃𝑠 − (𝑃𝑐𝑢𝑠 + 𝑃𝑐𝑜 + 𝑃𝑐𝑢𝑟 + 𝑃𝑓w )

Efficiency of Motor (η)

𝑃𝑠ℎ𝑎𝑓𝑡
𝜂=
𝑃𝑠

LABORATORY TEST FOR INDUCTION MOTOR:

A. No-load Test:
When supplied with rated voltage and frequency, voltage, current and power inputs are measured. The no-load power
input represents core loss, friction & windage, small stator copper loss and rotor copper loss (which is almost negligible). ( Slip(s)
is exceedingly small)
PNL = core loss + friction & windage + small stator copper loss
PNL ≅ Pco + Pfw

𝑅𝑚 = 2 2
𝑁𝐿
� 𝑁𝐿
𝑃𝑁𝐿 𝑋𝑚 = O𝑁𝐿

𝑆𝑁𝐿 = √3𝐸𝑁𝐿𝐼𝑁𝐿

O𝑁𝐿 = √𝑆2 − 𝑃2
𝑁𝐿 𝑁𝐿
Where:
𝑃𝑁𝐿 - Wattmeter reading during the test (power drawn by the motor)
𝐸𝑁𝐿 – Voltmeter during the test (line to line voltage of the supply)
𝐼𝑁𝐿 – Ammeter reading during the test (line current drawn by the motor)

B. Blocked Rotor Test:

When reduced voltage is applied, hold the rotor firmly so that cannot rotate, voltage current and input power are
measured, Ammeter reading represents the block rotor input current (short circuit current). The power input represents
"stator and rotor copper loss and small core loss" (almost negligible). (Slip(s) is equals to one)
PNL = Pcus + Pcur + small core loss
PLR ≅ Pcus + Pcur

𝑅𝑒
=
𝑃𝐿𝑅 𝑋𝑒 = O𝑁𝐿
3(𝐼𝐿𝑅)2 3(𝐼𝐿𝑅)2

𝑆𝐿𝑅 = √3𝐸𝐿𝑅𝐼𝐿𝑅 O𝐿𝑅 = √𝑆2 − 𝑃2

𝐿𝑅 𝐿𝑅
Where:
𝑃𝐿𝑅 - Wattmeter reading during the test (power drawn by the motor)
𝐸𝐿𝑅 – Voltmeter during the test (line to line voltage of the supply)
𝐼𝐿𝑅 – Ammeter reading during the test (line current drawn by the motor)
𝑅𝑒 – Equivalent resistance per phase of the motor referred to the stator side
𝑋𝑒 - Equivalent reactance per phase of the motor referred to the stator side

C. Dc Stator Resistance Test:

The motor is not running during the test. The resistance between any
two of its line terminals
1 is determined using an ohmmeter.
3
𝑟 = (𝑅 ) 𝑟 = (𝑅 )
1(w𝑦𝑒) 𝑡 1(𝑑𝑒𝑙𝑡𝑎) 𝑡
2 2

Where: r1 – stator (DC) resistance per phase

Rt – DC resistance of the motor between two terminals.
- ohmmeter reading during test
 Effects of Change in Voltage on Current, Torque and Slip Rings of an Induction Motor

 Starting current (I) drawn is directly proportional to the voltage (Vp) applied to the stator windings.
𝐼1 𝑉𝑝1
=
𝐼2 �
𝑝2
 Starting torque (T) developed is directly proportional to the square2 of the voltage (Vp) applied to the stator windings.
𝑇 𝑉𝑝1
1
=( )
𝑇2 𝑉𝑝2

 Torque (T) developed is directly proportional to the both the slip(s) and the square of the voltage (Vp) applied to the
stator windings.
𝑇 𝑠
𝑝1 2
= ( ) (𝑉 )
1 1

𝑇2 𝑠2 𝑉𝑝2

SYNCHRONOUS MOTOR

A synchronous motor is one in which the rotor normally rotates at the same speed as the revolving field in the
machine. The stator is similar to that of an induction machine consisting of a cylindrical iron frame with windings, usually
three-phase, located in slots around the inner periphery.

Rotor Speed (Nr) – is approximately equal to the synchronous speed.

𝑁𝑟 ≅ 𝑁𝑠 = 120ƒ
𝑃
Where: f – frequency of the stator voltage (Hertz)
P – number of poles
Nr – Rotor Speed (rpm)

Equivalent Circuit per Phase of a Synchronous Motor

Where:
Ep= back emf per phase (volt)
Vp supply voltage per phase (volt)
Ip = motor current per phase (ampere)
Ra = armature resistance per phase (ohm)
Xs = synchronous reactance per phase (ohm)

 If the motor is operating at a lagging pf

2 2
𝐸𝑝 = √ 𝑉𝑝 cos 𝜃 − 𝐼𝑝𝑅𝑎) + (𝑉𝑝 sin 𝜃 −𝐼𝑝𝑋𝑠)

|𝑉𝑝 sin 𝜃 −𝐼𝑝𝑋𝑠|

𝑎 = tan−1 𝑉𝑝 cos 𝜃 − 𝐼𝑝𝑅𝑎

 If the motor is operating at a leading pf (over-excited synchronous motor)

2 2
𝐸𝑝 = √ 𝑉𝑝 cos 𝜃 − 𝐼𝑝𝑅𝑎) + (𝑉𝑝 sin 𝜃 +𝐼𝑝𝑋𝑠)

𝑉𝑝 sin 𝜃 +𝐼𝑝𝑋𝑠
𝑎 = tan−1 𝑉𝑝 cos 𝜃 − 𝐼𝑝𝑅𝑎

 Using complex number format

𝐸𝑝∠ ± ð = 𝑉𝑝∠0° − (𝐼𝑝∠ ± 𝜃)(𝑅𝑎 + j𝑋𝑠)
Where:
ð − Angle between 𝐸𝑝 and 𝑉𝑝 (Also called torque angle)
+ 𝜃 − If motor is operating at leading pf
- 𝜃 − If motor is operating at lagging pf
 POWER FLOW DIAGRAM OF A SYNCHRONOUS MOTOR

𝑃𝑚 = 𝑃𝑠 − 𝑃𝑐𝑢𝑠
𝑃𝑠ℎ𝑎𝑓𝑡 = 𝑃𝑚 − 𝑃𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑦
𝑃𝑠ℎ𝑎𝑓𝑡 = 𝑃𝑠 − (𝑃𝑐𝑢𝑠 + 𝑃𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑦)
𝑃𝑠(1−𝜑 𝑚𝑜𝑡𝑜𝑟) = 𝑉𝑝 𝐼𝑝cos 𝜃 𝑃𝑠(3−𝜑 𝑚𝑜𝑡𝑜𝑟) = 3𝑉𝑝 𝐼𝑝cos 𝜃
2 2
𝑃𝑐𝑢𝑠 = 𝐼𝑝 𝑅𝑎 𝑃𝑐𝑢𝑠 = 3𝐼𝑝 𝑅𝑎
(1−𝜑 𝑚𝑜𝑡𝑜𝑟) (3−𝜑

Efficiency of Motor (η)

𝑃𝑠ℎ𝑎𝑓𝑡
𝜂=
�𝑠 + 𝑃𝑟
Where:
𝑃𝑠 = input power of the stator
𝑃𝑟 = input power of the rotor (power used in the exciter)
𝑃𝑐𝑢𝑠 = stator copper losses
𝑃𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑦 = Stray power or rotational losses
𝑃𝑠ℎ𝑎𝑓𝑡 = Output power in the shaft

POWER AND TORQUE DEVELOPED PER PHASE

On large horsepower motor, Ra<<Xs making Pm=Pa

𝑃= 𝑃
𝐸𝑝𝑉𝑝 (9.55)𝑃𝑚
𝑠 𝑚 = K𝑠
sin 𝛿 𝑇= 𝑁𝑠

𝑃 𝐸𝑝𝑉𝑝 (9.55)𝑃𝑚(max)
𝑚(max) = K𝑠 𝑇= 𝑁𝑠
 EXAMPLE PROBLEMS

1. A 6600 V, 3-phase, star-connected synchronous motor draws a full-load current of 80 A at 0.8 p.f. leading. The
armature resistance is 2.2 and synchronous reactance 22 per phase. If the stray losses of the machine are 3200 W,
determine: (a) the e.m.f. induced; (b) the output power; (c) the efficiency.

SOLUTION:

2. A four-pole 50 Hz three-phase induction motor has a rotor resistance of 0.24 Ω per phase and standstill reactance of
0.6 Ω per phase. Determine the speed at which the maximum torque is developed.

SOLUTION:

3. A 6.6 kV, 3-phase, star-connected synchronous motor is running in parallel with an infinite bus. It’s a direct-and
quadrature-axis synchronous reactances are 10 and 5 respectively. If the field current is reduced to zero, find the
maximum load that can be put on the synchronous motor. Also calculate the armature current and the maximum
power. Neglect armature resistance.

SOLUTION:
 4. A three-phase 1000 kVA 11000 V star-connected synchronous motor has an armature resistance and reactance per
phase of 3.5 Ω and 40 Ω respectively. Determine the induced emf and angular retardation of the rotor when fully
loaded, at: (i) unity power-factor.

5. A salient pole star-connected synchronous motor, rated at 187 kVA, 3ϕ, 2300V, 47A, 50Hz, 187.5 rpm has an
effective resistance of 1.5 Ω and a synchronous reactance of 20Ω per phase. Determine the internal power
developed by the motor when it is operating at rated current and 0.8 power-factor leading.

SOLUTION:

6. The efficiency of a three-phase 400 V star-connected synchronous motor is 92% and it takes 22 A at full-load
unity power-factor. Determine the back emf generated and the total mechanical power developed in kW for full
load and
0.8 power-factor lagging. The synchronous impedance per phase is (0.3 + j4) Ω.

SOLUTION:
 7. A twelve-pole three-phase alternator, driven at a speed of 500 rpm, supplies power to an eight-pole three-phase
induction motor. If the slip of the motor at full load is 3%, calculate the full-load speed of the motor.

SOLUTION:

8. A 415 V three-phase 50 Hz four-pole star-connected motor runs at 24 rev/s on full load. The rotor resistance and
reactance per phase are 0.35 Ω and 3.5 Ω respectively, and the effective rotor-stator turns ratio is 0.85:1.
Determine the: (i) synchronous speed (ii) slip (iii) full-load torque (iv) power output, if mechanical loss is 770W
(v) maximum torque (vi) speed at which maximum torque occurs and (vii) starting torque.

SOLUTION:

9. An induction motor has an efficiency of 90% when delivering an output of 37 kW. At this load, the stator copper loss
and rotor copper loss, each is equal to the iron loss. The mechanical losses are one third of the no-load. Calculate the
slip.

SOLUTION:
 10. A 220 V four-pole 50 Hz three-phase induction motor has rotor resistance and standstill reactance of 0.1 Ω and 0.9 Ω
respectively. The ratio of stator to rotor turns is 1.72 and full-load slip is 5%. Determine the full-load torque, output
power in horsepower (HP), maximum torque and speed at maximum torque. Neglect stator impedance.

SOLUTION:

11. A six-pole three-phase 50 Hz induction motor develops a maximum torque of 30 Nm at 960 rpm. Determine
the torque exerted by the motor at 5% slip. The rotor resistance per phase is 0.6 Ω.

SOLUTION: