SEMICONDUCTORSS

Classification of solids on the basis of their electrical properties:

A: Metals: They have very low resistivity or high conductivity. The energy gap between the completely filled valence band and the partíally

ctors: T pOSsc3 TeSistivity oidüciivity ntiitaiats #o icias ard isüattis. Tc cacrEy sap bctweca c Cnductia

C: Insulator: They have high resístivity and low conductivity. Their valence band is completely filled while conduction band is empty. There
is a large energy gap ( greater than 3 eV ), so even an electric field cannot give this much energy to an electron to make it jump
from the valence band to the conduction band. Here insulators are poor conductors of electricity.
Ererg bard diagra of solido:

CB
CB

E 3 eV }E3eV

Instrinsic semiconductor: The pure semiconductors are called instrinsic semiconductors. The presence ofmobile charge carriers (electrons
and hole is an intrinsic property of the material and these charges are obtained as a result of thermal excitation. In
an instrinsic semiconductor, the mumber density of electrons is equal to the number density of holes.
Extrinsic semiconductor: The semiconductors obtained by adding or doping pure semiconducior with small amounts of certain specifc atoms
varying valencies different from that of host atoms are called extrinsic conductors.

Doping: The process of deliberate addition of a desirable impurity to apure semiconductor so as to increase its conductivity is called doping.
The impurity atoms added are called dopants. Doping drastically
changes the densities of electrons and holes; the energy gap (E)
decreases with doping
Two type of dopants:

G) Pentavalent (Gr V) dopants ( eg. arsenic ( As ). antimony ( Sb ), phosphorus (P)) have 5 valence electrons
hence they make n-type semiconductors, where electrons are majority carriers, and holes are minority carriers.
in a semicnductor lattice,
(i) Trivalent ( Gr III) dopants ( eg Boron ( B), Aluminium ( AI )) have 3 valence clectrons and hence increases the concentration
of holes
in a semiconductor lattice, have thev ma p-type semiconductors. where holes are maiority carriers and electrons are minority carriers.

Energy Band Diagram of n-type semiconductor: Energy Band Diagram of p-type semiconductor:

CB CB

E 0.01eV eifective energy

gap E
VB E.
}EA 0.01-0.05 V
VB

In a semiconductor, the total no

of electrons (n, ) and total no of holes ( n,) that are recombining has to equal, ie nX n n
where n is the intrinsic charge carrier concentration.

SEMICONDUCTOR DIODE

n
- P n

Fig
Fig-2
 A Semicoductor having p-type impurity at onc cnd and n typc impurity at thc other is called p-n junction diode. If the p-type is connccted
to the positivo cnd of the battcry and the n-type is connected to the negativeend, the diodo is said to be roverse biascd( fig 2). A goneral
diode conducts clectricity only in forwrad biased condition. Hence it is called a valve.

The function of a diode is forward bias as a rectifier, ie it converts AC to DC.

Diodc Characteristics Curve (Forward biased -V curve )

1(mA)

-v +V
(mA) (volt)

volt )

Forward Biased Diode

Reverse Biased Diode

Avalanche breakdown:( Reverse voltage breakdown)

If the reverse bias is made sufficiently high, the covalent bonds near the junction break down releasing free electrons and holes. These elect
rons and holes gain sufficient energy to break other covalent bonds. Thus a large number of electrons and holes get froe. The reverse curre
nt increases abruptly to high value. This is called avalanche breakdown.

RECTIFIER

JUNCTION DIODE
HALF-WAVE RECTIFIER:

AC
input OUTPUT VOLTAGE

voltage

S2

t
T/2

T/2
 P
AC RL
ww.
input TI2

voltage OUTPUT
VOLT
TAGE

Pa 0-
S2 T2 2T

FULL WAVE RECTIFIER

Light Emiting Diode:

The general shape of the I-V characterisics ofa LED is similar to a conventional diode, however the barrier
potential slightly changes with the colour. The colour of the light emitted by LED depends in its band gap
energy. The intensity of LED is deternined by the forward current conduced by the junction.

l(mA)

V (volts)

hctodiode:
A photodiode is a junction diode fabricated by using a photo sensitive semiconductor material. When light of suitable
frequency is incident on it, it starts conducting. It is used in reverse bias, although its forward bias, because in reverse
bias it is casier to observe the change in current with change in light intensity. It is used to measure light intensity.

V volts )

Solar CelI

A solar cell is a function diode that converts light energy to electrical energy. It is based on photo
voltaic effect. The surface layer of pregein is made very thin so that the incident photons may eas
ly penetrate to reach the junction wnich is the active region.Wnn photons of energy greater than the
-0
band gap cncrgy arc made to incidcnt on th junction, cloctron-holc pairs arc crcated, which movc
in opposite direction due to junction, thus the producing photo voltage, giving rise to photocurrent Voc (opens circuit voltage)
Solar cells are used in satellites to recharge their batteries.

Isc ( short circuiting curent)

Zener Dicde

A Zener Diode is a spccially designed heavily dopod p-n junction. having a very thin deplction region
and having a very sharp breakdown voltage. It is always operated in reverse breakdown rogion. It is

uscd as a voltage regulator.

Reverse Voltage V
v(volt)
Rs
Unregulatcd
Voltage
Load Regulated
(R,)Vpltage
Circuit for Zener Diode
as Voltage Regulator

TRANSISTORS

A transistor has 3 terminals, called emitter, base and collector.

Emitter: It is heavily doped and hence a large number of majority charge carriers for flow of curent is supplied by it.
Base: It is the central region. It is very thin and lightly doped. It centrals the movement of charge carriers coming from the emiter
region.
Collector: It is moderately doped and large-sized as compared to emitter. It collects a majority portion of the majority carriers
Sppi y cnittor.
E B

Y
Pn-ptransistor

C
B

n p - n transistor

In a transistor, the emitter base is forward biased and the collector base is reverse biased

Common Emitter Configuration:

mA

HA C
n-p-n
E
Voc
 Input Characteristics: VCE OV
YcE 10V
Input resistancc: It is the ratio of change in basc-cmitter voltage (A VBE) to the
(A ) at a constant col
corresponding change in basc current

ie
llectoremitter voltageVCE
YCE
(
The resistance of a common emitter circuit is of the order of few hundred ohms. HA
input
Output Charecteristics:
VBE volt)>
S Active Region
40 u A
Ip30 A

Iy 20 u A

p10 u A

Tg 0 A
Cnt-off reoion.
Collector-Emitler voltuage Ver (vols)

Output characteristics are obtained by plotting collector current I, vs collector emitter voltage Vez at a fixed value of base curent
The region of the curves to the left of the line OA is called saturation region. The line OA is called saturation line. The region below
the curve I = 0 is called the cut off region. In this region, both junctions are reverse biased.

Tho ccatral rogion whcrc tho curves arc of uniforming spacing is called active rogion. In this rogion, cmitter-basc is forward biasod and
collector base is reverse biased.

Output resistance: It is defined as the ratio of change in collector emiter voltage (A Vc) to the coesponding change in collector
curent

(Alc), at constant Ig, ie

constant

Current amplification factors of transistor

Ihe common base current ampiification tactor ( AC current gain ) * is detined as the ratio of smail change n collector cunrent to the smaiî

change in emitter current for constant value of collector voltage in common base configuration, ie

constant

Common emitter current amplification factor ( AC current gain ) B is defined as the ratio of change in collector current to the change in base
current for constant value of collector voltage in common emitter configuration, ie

constant

The value of B ranges from 20 to 200. The current gain a and p are related as
 Vcc
Input AC Ouput AC
SIgnal signal

VBE
(p-n-pCE amplificr)

(n-p-n) C
c

Vcc
Input AC Dup AC
signal signal

VBE
mplifier)
TRANSISTOR AS SWITCH
A transistor can be useda s a switch if it is operated in its cutoff and saturation region only, and the transistor does not reamin in the
active state As long as the input volatge is low, and unable to forward bias the transistor the output voltage V, at Voc is high. If V, is
high enough to drive the transistor into saturation, then V, is low, nearly zero. When the transistor is not conducting it is said tobe
switched off and when it is driven into saturation, it is said to be switched on.
Cut off Active
Tegion region

C
Rcc Saturation region

Rp
Voc
VBB

TRANSISTOR AS AN OsCILLATOR

The oscillator consists of an npn transistor with an inductance L and a variable capacitor C connected
to the input of the transistor. The coil 1 is a feedback circuit which is connected to the output that is re
verse biascd.

C
When the switch S is closed a small current flows through L and hence with the coil L in the ditN
of the forwurd bias und a positive charge begins to build on the upper plate of the capacitor C. The emi n-p-a
fter current increuses us well as the collector current which increases the emiter and the collector curents.
Charging of'the capacitor continues. This process contúnues till the collector current becomes maximum oUTPUT E

When the curent through 1' vanishes stops charging the induced emf linked with L vanishes which decreases
the emitier current and hence the collector current This decrease current through L induces emf in L in the opposite
rection of e ferward biac. Tkis recults in decreave i he emiter current nd hence in he collecor r e t At he ane , post*
begins to build up till the collector current becomes zero . The induced emf linked with L also becomes zero and hence, the emitter and collecdar again staris nceasng I

keepa repoating again and ngain to give electric owcillution of constant amplitude and frequency 2rG
 COMAUNICATKCN SYSTEMS

TRANSM USER OF
INFORMATION | MESSAGE RECE RECEIVER
SOURCE TRANSMITTER D CHANNEL
INFORMATION
SIGNAL sIGNAL SIGNAL

MESSAGE SIGNAL
NOISE
Block diugram of an electronic communicalion syslem

Basic T nology used in electronic communication systems:

. TransducCT: Any dorico vwick conworts cacrgs from onc fom to inothor is callcd a trnsdiicr.

2. Signals: It is the electrical analog of the infomation produced by the sourca. It may be defined as a single-valued function of time
that conveys the information ) and which ; at every instant of time, takes a unique value. Signals can be analog as input
3. Noise : The unwanted electrical signals which get intcrfered with the information signal during its propagation through the transmision
medium constitute noise.
. T S i c r : Ris a r i c o wiich proccsscs a mcssago sigraB iitoa forin stitable for tarsissicn and thca transnits it to the rocciving
end through a transmission medium.
5. Receiver I is a device which removes the original message signal received at the output of the communication channel.

6. Attenuation: The loss of strength of a signal during its propagation through the transmission medium is called attenuation.

7. Amplification: It is the process of increasing the amplitude and hence the strength of an electrical signal by using an electric circuit called
the amplifier. Amplification is required to compensate for the loss of strength of a signal during its transmission.
8. Range: It is defined as the largest distance between the source and the destination upto which a signal can be received with sufficient
strength.
9. Bandwidth: It refers to the frequency range over which an equipment operates or the range over which the frequencies in a signal vary.
10. Baceband: t refers to the band of frequencies of the criginel signe! as in prodnced by the souree of information.

11. Modulation: Modulation is the process in which some charactersitics usually an amplitude, frequecy or phase angle of a high frequency
carrier wave is varried in accordance with the instantancous value of the low frequency information signal, called the modhu
latingsignal. There are three types of modulation, namely frequency, amplitude and phase.
12. Demodulation: The process of recovering the original information signal from the modulated wave at the receiver cnd is called demodu
lation or detection. Tt is the reverse process of the modulation process that occurs at the transmitting end.

Schematic arrangement for transmission and reception of a message signal: \

Antenna
Y Antenna

Tunable
D-Moabr
MICROPHONE
Apisie LAmplifier
LOUD SPEAKER
V
Transuiuer
Receiver

Antenna:
Practical Anienna length: To tansmit a signal effectively, the height of the antenna should be conmparable to the wavelength of the signal
( at least / 4in length) so that the antenna properly senses the time variations of thesignal

Wavelength Wave velocity 3x 10

Frequency (Hz) metre
Frequency
Effective power radiated by an antenna: For linear antenna of length T, power radiated
 AMDLITTDE

COMMUNICATION SYSTEMS:
Analog and Digital Signals
i. An analog messagc signal is in the form of a continuous nature in
vhiçh varigtione tnke place like in n cine wave ns ghoum AMPI TTDE

ii. A digital message signal is discrete and in the form of pulsc codcd
by 0 and1.
0

Dandwidthi oftiansünissiün mcdiuin

Nature of Broadcast Frcqucncy Band Comments

Standard AM Broadcast 540 1600 kHz
FM Bivauvasi G0- 108 Mil
Television 54 72 MHz VHF (very high frequency)
76 -88 MHz TV
174 216 MHz UHF (ultra high frequency)
420 890 MHz TV
Cellular Mobile Radio 896 901 MHz Mobile to base station

840 935 MHz Base station to mobile

Satellite-Communication 5.925-6.425 GHz Uplink

3./-4,2 Giz Downiink

Propagation of Electromagnetic waves through space

Space Communication
Communication through free space uses radio waves and takes over a wide range of frequencies.The electromagnetic waves can be transmit
tted through three difierent processes.
i) ground wave propagation ii) space wave propagation ii) sky wave propagation
1) Ground Waves: These are the waves radiated by antenma that travel parallel or at lower angles with respect to the earti's surface. As the
ground wave passes over the surface of earth, its energy is absorbed by earth's atmosphere; therefore, they die out after
travelling a short distance. Further high frequency waves aro absorbed strongely. Hence ground wave propagation can be
sustained only at frequencies 500 Hz - 1500 kHz

2 Space Wave propagation : The space waves are limited to troposphere region of atmosphere and have two components:

(a) Direct waves: These waves travel directly from transmitting to receiving antenna

(6) Reflccted waves: These waves travel from transmiting antenna to earth and then reflected to receiving antema.

Space warcs propagatioa is zsod in -

1. line of sight communication,
2. satellite communication
(9) Sky waves: These are waves radiation by antenna at lange angles, travel upward, then reach the roceving antenna añler sufering relection
fromionosphere or satellite. The frequeney range for sky wave propagation by ionosphere refection of radiowaves is from
about 3 MHz upto 30 MHz

Sateiite Communication:
A communication satellie is a geostationary satelite placed in an orbit around the carth, which camies on board microwaves receiving and
iransmiling equipmenl. IL is essenlially a microwave link repealer. Il repeales signals and returns to earth al difereni frequency by a device
known as transponder fitted on the satellite.

Advantages of Satellite communication:

i. A single rday :
i The cost of the communication is independent of the distance between any two points on the earth. The cost of a call across the ocean will
be same as that of a call across few kilometres.
ii The trasmilled inlormalion can be checked whether salellite has transmilled il correctly or nol.
 Disidvaltagos ofsitoltits comuiinicaiion
i Since the infomnation transmittod througth satollite through cnm be henred/enught by overy body so satclito communication is not good in
respect of' security and privaey
ii Bcing subjccted to cxtreme environmental stress the satellitc system is dilTicult to repair.

Modulation and Demodulation

ordor ts camy tho aiudio signat nesango to largo distances, t is suporinposcd on a high frosucncy caricr wavo. The proccs3 is cakcd
modulation.
At the rocciving station. the audio signal is separatod from the carrior wave. The procss is called demodulation or detection.
Need for Modulation

The socond waves of fiocqueney 20 Hz 20.000 Hz get attenuatod in atmosphere and cannot travel long distances. The higher frequcncy
waves. ( thc order of' Megahertz ) can travcl long distancos and arc called carrior wavos, To send farther the message signal or carrier wave
.The supcrposed wave is callod the modulated wave.
The modulation is noodod to

1) Transmission of audio ftequency, cloctrical signals neod long impracticablo sizc antonna
2) The powerradiatod at audio fhoqucncy is quite small, and transmiision rosults in large losses .
3) The various information signals transmitted at low froquency

Types of Modulation
In general, modulation is of two typcs depcnding on nature of carrier wave:
For continuous sinusoidal carrierwavce of the type c=c sin (o, t + ¢), tho modulation is ofthree types
i Amplitude modulation (AM)
ü Frequency modulation ( FM)
ii Angular or Phase modulation.

Modulation Index
The modulation index of an amplitude modulated wave is defined as tho ratio of the amplitude of modulating signal ( E, ) to the amplitude
of carrier wave ( E, ), ie;

m,
For modulated wave,

m,
Advaniages of Fií over AM
-
Noise can be reduced in FM reception
- FM transmission is highly efficient because all the transmitted power is useful
FM transmission can be used for stereo sound transmission because it has large number of sidebands
-
The operating range is quite large.

Disadvantages of FM ovar AM
In FM transmission, much wider frequency channel is required.
The arca ofreception for FM is much smaller that for AM
-
FM
transmiting and receiving cquipments are complex as compared to AM instruments.
Basic Ideas about Mobile Technology
A mobile phone is a device which can send and receive radio frequency ( about 800 950 Hz ) signals wvithout using any wire connections .
Alongwith making and receiving phonecalls, one can also perform a variety of other operations in latest mobile phones.
The mobile phone
operation uses a cellular radio network technology. Under this network, a
called cells or cell zones, usually of a hexagonal design. In every such cell , a radio antenna isgiven physical area is divided into
installed to receive and send radiosmaller
signalsparts
to all
the mobile phones present inside that cell. Handling of all outgoing and incoming calls is managed through a central control called Mobile Tel
ephone Switching Office ( MTSO). The working range of the cell antenna varies from a minimum of 1.5 to 2 km to about 50 to 60 km.
Basic Ideas of Global Positioning System ( GPS ):
Global Positioning System is a method of locating position of any person or
llite system. place on earth by using electromagnetic radio waves anda sate
riicipl: of GPS:A GPS dovics is fittod in tic sstci to iocdts its cxa positii on Dath. t taisiiits aiid roccivcs tis dkccmagactic
waves and gets linked up with the satcllites. The longitudc coordinates of the GPS device is determined by measurine
its dsitance from atlcast three satellites. This distance intormation is used further to identify the unique location of the
GPS devicc.Some of the common applicalions of GPS include
Map designing of a location
Keeping standard time world ovcr
Help.in navigation on land. water or air
Assistance in airplane trafiic movement
Measurement of speed of moving objects
Tracking of animals and birds and studying their movements
Global Positioning System is a free service available to anyone in the world.