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Learning Content: LEARNING FROM OTHERS AND REVIEWING THE LITERATURE

Learning Title: CHAPTER II – LITERATURE REVIEW
Learning Objectives: Upon completion of the lesson, students will be able: (a) selects relevant literature; (b) cites related literature using standard
style (APA, MLA, or Chicago Manual of Style); (c) synthesizes information from relevant literature; (d) writes coherent review of literature; (e) follows
ethical standards in writing related literature; (f) illustrates and explain conceptual framework; (g) defines terms used in study; (h) lists research
hypothesis (if appropriate); and (i) presents written review of related literature and conceptual framework.
______________________________________________________________________________________________________________________

FOCUS 1: QUALITATIVE RESEARCH

NOTE: Key concepts for both qualitative and quantitative researches are almost the same, however, they vary in some circumstances.

Review of Literature
The review of literature is the process of compiling, classifying, and evaluating what other researchers have written on a certain topic. It
can be a partial component of a research undertaking, but it can also stand alone as a self-contained review of writing on a subject. The review of
literature is crucial aspect of research, and serves the following purposes:

1. It helps in placing the work being reviewed in its context.

2. It describes the relationship of each work to the research being undertaken.
3. It identifies new ways to interpret and shed light to various gaps based from previous researches.
4. It helps in solving conflicts among seemingly contradictory previous studies.
5. It identifies the areas that are subject to a prior study to prevent duplication of efforts.
6. It points to another research undertaking.

Types of Reading (Wilson, 1990)

The investigator’s reading skills are essential in conducting the review of literature. In the book, Research in Nursing, Wilson (1990)
identifies four different types of reading:

A. ELEMENTARY READING – this is the most common kind of reading. It consists merely of the recognition of letters and basic sounds and
the literal comprehension of sentences. It is primarily useful that an individual can recognize letters and sounds correctly, but it is better if
he or she comprehends the ideas presented in each sentence after reading.

B. SYSTEMATIC SKIMMING – research demands a lot of reading. Hence, the reader must establish a system through which he or she can
maximize time in searching for pertinent or relevant literature. The reader must therefore choose wisely before investigating time in a book
or an article. The following are some guidelines for systematic skimming:

(1) the title page and the preface of the abstract should be quickly read.
(2) the table of contents should be studies carefully.
(3) the index should be checked.
(4) the publisher’s blurb or any boldface excerpts should be read.
(5) from the reader’s knowledge of the general nature of the books or articles contents, chapters or sections that seem pivotal
should be scrutinized; and
(6) the whole paper should be leafed through. It should be remembered to read a few lines because most authors sum up
important
points at the end.

C. ANALYTIC READING – the reader asks questions to understand the article such as, “What is the book or article all about?”, “What is being
said in detail and how?”, and “What of it?” He or she takes time to understand every detail of the piece. The following are some guidelines
to analytical reading:

(1) it should be discerned whether the findings reported in a book or an article satisfy the canons of science or whether they were
arrived at through personal trial and error, or what is often called “conventional wisdom.”
(2) it should be stated in a sentence or two what the reader has gained from reading.

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(3) the book or article should be thoroughly scanned to uncover the structure and organization of the major parts.
(4) the main questions or problems that the article or book is set to determined. When reading a thesis, the reader should be able
to do this by comparing findings and conclusions to the purposes or objectives.
(5) important and unfamiliar words should be noted and defined.
(6) the most important sentences in an article or book should be marked, and the propositions they contain should be uncovered.
This is best done when reading the conceptual framework of the study proposal or report.
(7) the basis arguments or premises should be defined.
(8) the solutions or conclusions an author must come up with should be recognized even before reading about them.
(9) before writing a critique paper, the reader should have a thorough understanding of its content.

D. COMPARATIVE READING – this is the highest level of reading which requires the reader to place what he or she is currently reading in
relation to other materials he or she has previously read. This type of reading helps the reader identify the similarities and differences
between two or more articles in terms of their variables and propositions. The skills are very essential in research, as one has to look for
similar studies for the firm foundation of the study. The following are some guidelines to comparative reading:

(1) the passages that bear one’s questions, needs, or interest should be identified.
(2) the ideas of the various authors using one’s own words should be expressed.
(3) the reader should formulate his or her own set of questions. He or she should read comparatively to determine how the
respective authors address them.
(4) issues that emerge should be defined so that one can recognize, sort out, and resolve controversies or contradictory findings
in the literature.
(5) the discussions read should be analyzed by asking, “Are they true?”

Conducting a Review of Literature

Steps in Reviewing a Literature

1. Finding relevant materials. It is the researcher’s priority to enrich his or her work by reading literatures containing important data
relative to his or her problem to fully comprehend the variables being studied.
2. Actual reading. The researcher must thoroughly critique the contents of the materials.
3. Note-taking. The researcher must take notes, putting openly the important data in his or her own words.

Strategies in Reading Literature

1. Previewing – it is the process of reading to get a general idea of the things to look for in the text. Systematic skimming is done
here.
2. Highlighting – is is done by physically marking the text to identify key details and to note the relationships among ideas.
3. Annotating – it is the recording of the reader’s reactions as marginal notes. The following are guidelines on how to annotate while
and after reading (New Hampshire School Administrative Unit #53, n.d.):

While reading: After reading:

a. Ask questions. a. Give a title to the chapters or article sections.
b. React to what you read. b. Summarize the material read.
c. Give an opinion. c. Respond to the reading itself.
d. Locate important passages. d. Make a prediction.
e. Make connections.
f. Define new words.
g. Track themes.

Different Styles of Research Writing

Once you have chosen a research paper topic for your future academic masterpiece, it is necessary to choose a research paper style, which is
one of the most important issues in research paper writing. Basically, various academic styles are used to meet scholar demands and requirements
in terms of conducting a research activity. When it comes to university writing, every academic piece has its proper requirements in terms of
formatting, which are depicted in guidelines to research papers writing. All in all, there are two most common research paper styles and several
minor ones.

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 One of the research paper styles is the APA (American Psychological Association) writing format. This style is used for writing research
papers on science, psychology, and other related subjects. It implies a schematic citation which allows authors to insert external
information from related sources. When using this citation format, the overall writing style needs to be aligned with the APA style. The title
of the project must be written beside the page number on the top right-hand corner of each page. Also, the bibliography page needs to
contain all necessary information about the original source.

 Another research paper style which you may use is the MLA (Modern Language Association style) writing format. MLA style is preferable
when writing materials in Social Sciences and Humanities. This writing format has much in common with APA, but the difference lies in the
pagination process. When using MLA, the author’s last name, and not the research paper title, needs to be written beside the page
number. There is also a difference in the bibliography page, where entries are not directly the same with those of APA.

 Other applicable research paper styles which you may use are Harvard, Chicago and Turabian writing formats. All of them are practically
the same but have some local variants. It is necessary to mention, that every higher educational establishment has its own, so called
“house”, writing format, which is based on one of the two main writing styles.

A research paper topic usually determines the writing style, which will be used in it. As it was mentioned above, science-related academic pieces are
likely to be written in APA style, while social and nonscience will be carried out mostly in MLA. That is why, before choosing a writing style for your
research, it is recommended to specify a subject field of a future study. A research paper writing style largely contributes to the academic value of
your work. And the more correct your work is – the better.

ASSIGNMENT #1: [TO BE SUBMITTED ON NOVEMBER 20, 2023]

Read and study the different styles of research writing and then compare each. Also, identify their formatting procedures.

1. MLA – Modern Language Association Citation Format

2. APA – American Psychological Association Citation Format
3. Chicago or Turabian Style Citation Format

Research Framework
A framework is defined as “a set of ideas that provide support to something” (Merriam Webster, n.d.). Essentially, any concept or theory
requires a strong framework to establish its general feasibility. In the case of research, it serves as the building blocks for the foundation of the study.
There are two types of research framework: theoretical framework and conceptual framework.

Theoretical and Conceptual Framework

The theoretical framework is formulated from existing theories and serves as the foundation of the study. The present study can adopt the
original model used by the cited theorist. However, the researcher can modify the variables of the original framework to better suit the study,
provided that the whole theory is utilized. In contrast, the conceptual framework is derived from a combination of theories or parts of theories. This
framework guides the researcher in synthesizing the different theories used in formulating a new one. Ideally, the theoretical framework is more
suitable for student researchers than the conceptual framework because of the former’s simpler approach. That is, it is less complicated to directly
base on existing theories than to formulate a new one. Although creativity and variability in research is valuable, a student researcher should also
consider the extent of his or her access to resource materials, which may be limited. With that consideration in mind, the following discussions are
tailored to theoretical framework.

Elements of the Theoretical Framework

Since the theoretical framework prefaces the entire study by providing background information, it should be supported by established facts
from different resource materials. To formulate the framework of the study, the following major elements should be present:

1. Relevant Theories. These are theories that are partially or fully relevant to the present study and are discussed to provide a basis for the
variables being tested.
2. Review of Related Literature. These are published materials that compare the study with existing knowledge of the research topic. This
part defines, classifies, and facilitates objective comprehension of the variables being studied.

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3. Review of Related Studies. This part includes the theses or dissertations on research topics carrying the same variables. The findings from
the previous studies define the approach that the researcher took in measuring the variables.

4. Paradigm of the Study. This is a diagrammatic presentation of the study used to visually summarize the whole study. It is the result of a
clearer understanding of the theoretical or conceptual framework. It is usually comprised of symbols and figures such as lines, shapes, and
arrows.

One of the most used paradigms is the IPO (Input-Process-Output) Model. It is used when the research seeks to discuss a factor or a
major variable that causes a problem, phenomenon, or transformation in the subject.

Figure 10.1 – Paradigm for Entrepreneurs’ Roles Toward Improved Work Performance

Developing the Theoretical Framework

A theoretical framework serves as the basis of the research. It points out, through its cited theories, which specific variables will be the
focus of the study. In doing so, the approach that the researcher will adopt in evaluation and interpretation of the data is better established. It also
prefaces the new knowledge introduced in the research by validating or challenging theoretical assumptions. Thus, writing a sound theoretical
framework provides the readers a better understanding of the research study. The University of South California (2016) provides the following
strategies in formulating the theoretical framework:

1. Examine your thesis title and research problem. The research problem should be well-founded since it serves as the foundation of the
theoretical framework.
2. Brainstorm about what is considered as the key variables in the research. The factors that are presumed to have significant bearing on the
results of the study should be identified.
3. Review related literature and studies. The basis of the research should be supported by relevant literature and studies from authors who
have conducted an extensive research on the topic.
4. List of constructs and variables. Constructs are information inferred from observation while variables are research factors that are
measured in the study. These should be identified to create the framework.
5. Review key theories. The theories that best explain the relationships between the key variables in the study should be identified.
6. Discuss the assumptions or propositions. The relevance of the cited theories to the research should be established to effectively support
the framework of the study.

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Relevant Theories
The word “theory” is derived from the Greek word theoria, which means “vision.” Singh (2009) defines theory as a non-observable
construct that is inferred from observable facts and events that are thought to influence the phenomenon under study and is primarily concerned with
determining cause-effect relationships among variables. In this part of the theoretical framework, the researcher cites and discusses related theories
that serve as the foundation of the variables and their relevance to the study. It prefaces the readers on what theories are used as the basis of the
research study. In the discussion of relevant theories, the following parts are mentioned: (1) name/s of the author/s; (2) title/s of the theory/ies; (3)
theoretical statement of principles; (4) explanation of the theoretical statement; and (5) relationship of the theory to the present study.

Related Literature (in some books this section is called as Review of Related Literature [RRL])
The related literature examines facts and principles from other resources that are related to the present study. That is, a research study of
learning curves of high school students would utilize literatures that deals with the same subject. These resource materials include books,
encyclopedias, published journals, newspapers, and magazines. The related literature, which is also called conceptual literature, serves to clarify the
different variables being studied. It removes any vagueness surrounding the central concepts of the research. As the literature is gathered, the
different major variables, as well as the sub-variables, are clarified and the delimitation of the study is established. The indicators for each variable
are identified and objectively established. The major variable is the central idea of the entire literature. Its sub-variables help specify which aspect of
the major variable is being referred to. The indicators, on the other hand, are specific information that describes the sub-variables.

Examples:
a. Major variable: Study habits
b. Sub-variable: Time required for studying, methods of studying, and place for studying
c. Indicators: Employing patterned time intervals for effective studying: using mnemonics in memorizing
the terms; and studying in one’s ideal environment.

The American Psychological Association (2001) states that review articles (called the literature review for research papers) are crucial in the
review process. A review article summarizes all the related literature and their relation to the study. Readers who are not knowledgeable on the topic
are provided with a basic understanding of the research before the new findings are presented. The different variables used in the study are the
focus of the review of literature. The title, statement of the problem, scope, and delimitation, as well as the framework of the study are the elements
that give the researcher an idea of its relevance to his or her own research. The number of resource materials to be gathered for the review of
literature depends upon the researcher’s judgment. If he/she believes that the important concepts and variables have been adequately explained
and that enough indicators have been established, then the review of related literature is considered sufficient.

It is a traditional practice that the review of related literature is divided into foreign and local literature. It is highly recommended that the
researcher uses the different variables and sub-variables being studied as subtitles in the review. This is very beneficial to the researcher and o
future investigators studying similar problems as there is a clear and logical organization of the variables under investigation. With this system, the
researcher can systematically define the important concepts and variables as well as the discussions, descriptions, and other information gathered
from the different sources. When the related literature is arranged systematically the construction of the research instrument (e.g., questionnaire) will
be easier since the indicators are presented logically and sequentially. Related literature also includes works of experts in refereed or peer-reviewed
journals. Expert readers or peers who are recognized authorities on the topic are consulted to review the written works of the researchers to
determine if they meet the standards of a good reference material, i.e., reliability and timeliness. Refereed journals are published nationally and
internationally.

Purposes of Review of Literature (RRL)

1. To obtain background knowledge of your research.
2. To relate your study to the current condition or situation of the world.
3. To show the capacity of your research work to introduce new knowledge.
4. To expand, prove, or disprove the findings of previous research studies.
5. To increase your understanding of the underlying theories, principles, or concepts of your research.
6. To explain technical terms involved in your research study.
7. To highlight the significance of your work with the kind of evidence nit gathered to support the conclusion of your research.
8. To avoid repeating previous research studies.

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9. To recommend the necessity of further research on a certain topic.

Writing the Literature Review

In her book, Conducting Research Literature Review: From the Internet to Paper, Fink (2009) defines a literature review or review of
literature as a presentation of the analysis, patterns, and critiques of individual sources or the body of literature. Its purpose is to offer a wide review
of refereed scholarly articles, and other sources like journals, theses, and dissertations. It is important to note that in reviewing literature,
understanding and comprehension both matters. Thus, the write-up expressed in one’s own words is the measure of the researcher’s synthesis of
the reviewed materials.

Styles or Approaches of Review of Related Literature

I. Traditional Review of Literature – to do a review of literature in a traditional wat is to summarize present forms of knowledge on a specific
subject. Your aim here is to give an expanded or new understanding of an existing work. Being necessarily descriptive, interpretative,
evaluative, and methodically unclear and uncertain, a traditional review is prone to your subjectivity. This kind of review does not require
you to describe your method of reviewing literature but expects you to start your intentions in conducting the review and to name the
sources of information.

Traditional review is of different types that are as follows:

a) Conceptual review – analysis of concepts or ideas to give you meaning to some national or world issues.
b) Critical review – focuses on theories or hypotheses and examines meanings and results of their application to situations.
c) State-of-the-Art review – makes the researcher deal with the latest research studies on the subject.
d) Expert review – encourages a well-known expert to do the RRL because of influence of a certain ideology, paradigm, or belief on
him/her.
e) Scoping review – prepares a situation for a future research work in the form of project making about community development,
government policies, and health services, among others.

II. Systematic Review of Literature – as indicated by its names, systematic, which means methodological, is a style of RRL that involves
sequential acts of a review of related literature. Unlike the traditional review that has no method, systematic review requires you to go
through the following RRL steps (Ridley, 2012):

a) Have a clear understanding of the research questions.

b) Plan your manner of obtaining the data.
c) Do the literature search.
d) Using a certain standard, determine which data, studies, or sources of knowledge are valuable or not.
e) Determine the methodological soundness of the research studies.
f) Summarize what you have gathered from various sources of data.

A systematic review of literature is a rigorous way of obtaining data from written works. It is a bias-free style that every researcher wanting
to be a research expert should experience. Limiting itself to peer-reviewed journals, academically written works, and quantitative
assessment of data through statistical methods, this style of literature review ensures objectivity in every stage of the research (Fraenbrell,
2012)

The following table shows the way several books on RRL compare the two styles of RRL.
STANDARDS TRADITIONAL REVIEW SYSTEMATIC REVIEW
To have a thorough and clear To meet a certain objective based on
PURPOSE
understanding of the field specific research questions
SCOPE Comprehensive, wide picture Restricted focus
Indefinite plan, permits creative and
REVIEW DESIGN Viewable process and paper trail
exploratory plan
Prepared standards for studies
CHOICE OF STUDIES Purposeful selection by the reviewer
selection
Inquiry-based techniques involving Wide and thorough search for all
NATURE OF STUDIES
several studies studies

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QUALITY APPRAISAL Reviewers’ views Assessment checklists
SUMMARY Narrative Graphical and short summary answers

Essential Elements of a Literature Review

The literature review serves as in-depth summary of the related literature of the study. It does not only restate facts but rather critique and
highlight their relevance to the research. In doing so, several elements should be observed in writing this section:

1. Overview of the subject or topic, issues, or theories to be considered.

2. Division of works such as those that support a particular position, those against, and those that offer other ideas.
3. Explanation of the comparison of the gathered literature.
4. Conclusion and the best arguments

Stages Observed in Writing the Literature Review

Since a literature review serves to preface the purpose of the study, the related literature cannot be evaluated without setting the
foundation for the review. A literature review, therefore, follows a systematic approach in writing its content. The premise of the review should be
clarified and the relation of the cited resource materials to the study should be established. Thus, different stages are observed when writing the
literature review:

1. Problem Formulation – the researcher must determine the research problem before the review of literature is conducted to fully understand the
variables considered in the study.
2. Literature search – any reading material that is related to the study must include discussion and explanation of at least one of the variables.
3. Data Evaluation – the indicators that are synthesized from various relevant sources must further build the researcher’s confidence as the
variables of his or her study are made clear.
4. Analysis and Interpretation – breaking the entire reading article into smaller parts will help the researcher correctly interpret the information in the
reviewed materials.

Format of a Literature Review

In writing the literature review, the researcher can be flexible in utilizing different related literature. However, as stated earlier, the literature
review is not merely a restatement of facts. Thus, the organization of thought should be duly considered when writing the review. The general format
of a literature review is as follows:

1. The Introduction
a. The general problem and the variables should be defined.
b. Every important data should be highlighted to effectively discuss the problem or the variables such as the theory, methodology,
evidence, conclusions, or even gaps.
c. The criteria in selecting the literature should be considered to assess which resources are pertinent and should be included, and
which are irrelevant and should be removed.

2. The Body
a. Chosen approaches, conclusion of authors, specific objectives, and the like should be included.
b. Studies and literature should be summarized. For the studies, primary consideration must be given to the result of the studies that
includes the variables. In choosing the literature, the following should be considered:
i. Provenance – this refers to the author’s credentials and the empirical basis of the article or literature.
ii. Objectivity – this refers to the rationality of every data or facts cited.
iii. Persuasiveness – this refers to the degree of credibility of the data.
iv. Value – this refers to the degree of the contributions of the literature to clarify variables.

3. The Conclusion
a. Major contributions of the studies or articles should be summarized.
b. Current developments and new information should be evaluated.

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c. The review should be concluded by relating the gathered data to the central theme or problem.

Practical Tips in Writing the Literature Review

1. Sources, scholarly works, references, and other materials that are refereed and indexed should be used. Electronic sources
should be properly scrutinized since the contained information are sometimes inaccurate or erroneous.
2. Each source should be selected based on its contribution to the topic under review.
3. The relationship of one source to another should described.
4. Interpretation should be done appropriately by looking into gaps of previous research.
5. Conflicts and contradictions should be resolved.
6. Areas of prior scholarship should be identified.
7. One’s original work should be placed in the context of existing literature.

Related Studies
The review of related studies is an essential part of the planning and research stage of the study. That is, determining if the research is
objective and empirically based entails the surveying of previous studies that involves similar variables. In doing so, it provides insight into the
methods through which validity of the results is to be established. The review of related studies serves as the basis for analysis of results because it
allows the researcher to compare his or her findings with those of past studies. The results of a study are verified by similar findings or negated by
different findings from other researchers. The studies can be in the form of theses, dissertation, or journal articles. The gathered studied are related
to the present study when they have the following similarities: (1) they use the same variables, sub-variables, concepts, or construct; and (2) they
have the same subject or topic.

The researcher should be reminded however, that even if a previous research used the same variables as his or her study, the two studies
may vary in the delimitation in terms of the sub-variables investigated or in terms of focus and purpose. In writing a review of related study, the
following data must be indicated: (1) The name of the author, the date, and the setting of the study; (2) The title; and (3) The salient findings, which
are the most important “ingredients” to include since the discussion of the variables and their relationship/s will be based on them

FOCUS 2: QUANTITATIVE RESEARCH

NOTE: Key concepts for both qualitative and quantitative research are almost the same, however, they vary in some circumstances.

Selecting the Topic and the Literature

1. PICK A TOPIC. It is a daunting and difficult task to select a certain topic. It is said that the main problem of a research paper is to identify
the problem. Therefore, it is best to read extensively on the topic, until the specific problem is discerned and finally chosen.

2. SELECTING THE LITERATURE. Once a topic is chosen, literature search follows. Any literature (theories, conceptual framework, related
studies) that carries topics, variables, and terms that are related to the chosen study can be selected. After thorough reading, the selection
of literature to use is finalized.

3. STRUCTURE OF LITERATURE REVIEW. A researcher should demonstrate his/her intellectual ability to recognize relevant information
and synthesize or evaluate it according to the tentative research questions.

4. CHARACTERISTICS A GOOD LITERATURE REVIEW.

a. Clearly delimits the subject matter to be reviewed.
b. Covers all important relevant literature.
c. Is up to date.
d. Provides an insightful analysis of the ideas and conclusions in the literature.
e. Points out similarities and differences, and strengths and weaknesses in the literature.
f. Identifies gaps in the literature for future research.
g. Clarifies the context for which the literature is important.

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Meta-analysis in Quantitative Research

What is meta-analysis in relation to RRL? Meta-analysis is a kind of review of related literature in which you reexamine and combine the
results of two or more statistical studies to come out with a grand total to indicate stronger effects of the research outcome. Putting the results
together and making them appear as one results work to strengthen whatever impact the independent variable has on the dependent variable.

Meta-analysis helps in guaranteeing the precision of the measuring method used in a quantitative research. However, this merging
statistical results is not applicable to all quantitative research studies. You resort to meta-analysis only if the statistics that you intend to combine
come from studies having several similarities like they are comparable in terms of research questions, research design, treatment, measuring
technique, and measurable outcome. Similar in many ways, these studies that are apt from combination purposes are called homogeneous studies.
Conversely, with several differences from other studies, they are called heterogeneous studies and are exempted from this type of systematic review
of related literature called meta-analysis.

The quantitative approach of narrative synthesis, which is a systematic review using written verbal language to explain or describe test
results, is the appropriate RRL method for heterogeneous studies. The meta-analysis systematic review prevails strongly in the field of medicine
where researcher must conduct studies to yield medicines that, supported by sufficient evidence, can reach their certainty level (Jesson et al., 2011;
Ridley, 2012)

Paradigm of the Study

The result of a clear understanding of the conceptual or theoretical framework is a diagrammatic presentation of the study called paradigm.
Merriam-Webster (2006) defined paradigm as a pattern, model, or set of forms which contains elements. It is the researcher’s scientific imagination
expressed graphically by drawing or sketches. In a scientific work, the symbols must be specific in meaning. The usual figures used are regular
shapes (rectangle, circles, and squares), lines, and arrows. Irregular shapes are sometimes utilized and there must be an acceptable rationale for
them. The paradigm is something like a visual representation of the entire thesis. It is considered as the heart of the research paper. A title is needed
to encapsulate the whole paradigm.

The common paradigms or models of the study are used as follows:

1. IPO Model (Input-Process-Output). This model is largely used when the research attempts to isolate the factor or major variable that causes the
problem, subject, or phenomenon under investigation. This model is used when the statements of the problem are all factor-isolating questions.

Figure 10.1 – Paradigm for Entrepreneurs’ Roles Toward Improved Work Performance

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2. IV-DV Model (Independent Variable-Dependent Variable Model). This model is used in experiment-based studies. The questions raised are higher
order and classified as situation-relating.
Level of performance of
Teaching methodology used by Grade 12 students
instructors
a. academic grades
a. computer-assisted instruction
b. practicum grades
b. demonstration method
c. parent's satisfaction

Figure 12.2 – Effects of Computer-assisted Instruction and Demonstration Method on the Level of Performance of Grade 12 Students

3. PC Model (Predictor-Criterion Model). This model is used when relating and assessing the influence between two or more variables. Studies that
focus on relationships, associations, differences, and impacts will benefit from this model.

Teaching competence of senior Level of performance of ABM

high school teachers students

a. knowledge level a. academic level

b. Pedagogical level b. behavioral attributes
c. Classroom management c. peer evaluation result

Figure 12.3 – Relationship of the Teaching Competence of Senior High School Teachers to the Level of
Performance of ABM Students

4. -P Model. This model is used in research studies that propose a program or any intervention measure. It fits the situation producing level of
questioning.

Proposed Intervention Program

Figure 12.4 – Proposed Program for Improved Quality Service of Entrepreneurs

5. POM (Proposed Original Model). This model is used when the researcher presents an original paradigm. The requirement is that it must be
scientific.

Infection control practices Extent of participation in the

Student respondent’s profile
Preparation of IV fluids infection control program
Preparation of IV medication
a. age
Assistance in the administration of CI’s assessment of the students’
b. gender
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d. hospital assignment control practices
Umbilical cord care
Eye care
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Figure 12.5 – Extent of Participation of the Nursing Students in Infection Control Practices: Basis
for Enhanced RLE Supervisory Program (Quizon, 2007)

THEORETICAL FRAMEWORK EXAMPLE

High School Classroom Climate Quality:

Basis for Creating Faculty Development Activities (Landar, 2008)

As cited by Jarvilehto (1999), environment is defined not as it is, but as it is perceived and experienced. This
phenomenological approach was expanded by Lewin’s (1936) field theory of life space as discussed by Smith (2001). Lewin
defined behavior not as a function of the objective physical properties of the stimulus environment, but as an environment
transformed into an “inner world” by a cognizing organism. Thus, it is the psychological environment rather than the physical
environment that determined the way an individual will respond.

Dorman (2002), in his review of the classroom environment research, described that on Lewin’s approach, Murray
(1938) developed a “need-press model.” Murray introduced the terms “alpha press” that describes the environment from the
point of view of an external observer and “meta-press” that describes the environment from the point of view of someone
involved in the experience.

In the need-press model, personal needs are motivated by personality characteristics representing tendencies to move
in the direction of certain goals. On the other hand, environment press provides an external situational counterpart that supports
or frustrates the expression of internalized personality needs. Furthermore, the theory holds that people have needs for human
fulfillment that include students’ needs for classroom involvement and the students’ needs for classroom affiliation. Building upon
the need-press theory, Knight and Waxman (1990) reasoned that student perceiving that their classroom environments are
fulfilling their needs for classroom involvement and classroom affiliation tend to be environmentally encouraged toward
developing positive academic self-concepts. While for Frazer, Fisher, and MacRobbie (1996), environmental measures were
rarely considered, but various numbers of measures of personality were developed from Murray’s need-press theory in early
studies. They argued that when the study of human environments was being established, researchers recognized that different
people bring different perspectives to research, which in turn may lead to different interpretations of results.

The prevailing model for assessing school climate involves the use of survey-type objective inventories in this present
study. This approach in assessing school climate is typically used by the researcher to also determine the present classroom
climate in study.

The assumed interplay of the student’s profile and classroom climate quality could influence the nature and the kind of
faculty development activities a school may create. Likewise, the faculty development activities, to some extent, may directly or
indirectly affect the classroom climate quality and aspects of the student’s profile. Recognizing the cognitive and affective needs
of the teacher in improving student performance in the classroom and enhancing the teacher’s ability to provide and adapt
instruction to meet the needs of each individual student is assumed to lead in establishing and maintaining a harmonious and

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dynamic classroom climate. Assessing the present classroom climate quality of high school students will help the school plan
and implement a feasible intervention program if a need warrants it.

Hypothesis of the Study

A hypothesis is a tentative prediction about the relationship between two or more variables in a population under study (Polit, 2007). It
translates a research question into a prediction of expected outcomes. It is commonly used in an experiment-type research, formulated particularly
before the conduct of an experimental-quantitative research. It is also considered an intelligent guess that occurs with at least 2 variables: one is
independent and the other is dependent. It is only after the experimentation that the researcher can finally assess of his/her guess is correct or not.
When the result of the experiment is the same as the hypothesis, then the hypothesis is accepted. When the result of the study is the exact opposite
of the hypothesis, then the hypothesis is rejected.

Kind of Hypothesis

1. Simple Hypothesis. It is a hypothesis formulated when predicting a relationship between an independent variable and a
dependent variable. E.g., The nature of teachers is related to the nature of students; there is a relationship between the
level of exercise and weight retention among elementary school children.

2. Complex Hypothesis. It is a hypothesis formulated when predicting the relationships of two or more independent variables to
two or more dependent variables. E.g., There is no significant relationship between the profile, classroom leadership, and
management skills and the school’s performance of Sunday school teachers; the intrapersonal and interpersonal
competencies of principals do not relate significantly to the performance of secondary schools.

3. Directional Hypothesis. It is a hypothesis that specifies not only the existence but also the expected direction of the
relationship between the independent and dependent variables. E.g., Lower levels of exercise are associated with greater
weight retention than higher levels of exercise; the types of promotional campaigns positively affect the level of patronage of
customers.

4. Non-directional Hypothesis. It is a hypothesis that does not stipulate the direction of the relationship between the
independent and dependent variables. E.g., Women with different levels of postpartum depression differ about weight
retention; the sources of stress are related to the different coping mechanisms among teachers.

5. Null Hypothesis. It is a hypothesis formulated for the purpose of statistical analysis. This kind is always expressed as a
negative statement. It is subjected to testing in which the decision is either to accept or reject it. E.g., There is no significant
relationship between the reasons for using alternative medicine and the level of comfort of the patients; the kind of teaching
methods used has no effect on the level of performance of students as shown in their academic grades and behavior in
class.

6. Research Hypothesis. It is a hypothesis which states the actual expected relationships between variables. It is always
expressed affirmatively and is called substantive or scientific hypothesis.

Guidelines in Formulating Hypotheses (Lapan et al., 2012; Mc Bride, 2013)

1. Express your hypotheses in a declarative sentence.

2. Support your hypotheses with ideas based on theories, known facts, previous studies, or your experience and wisdom.
3. Establish a logical relationship between the hypotheses and the research problem.

4. Have your hypotheses predict the nature of relationship between or among variables.

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5. Ascertain the possibility of having some means of testing, analyzing, and investigating your hypotheses.
6. Avoid wordiness by using clear, exact, or specific language in stating the hypotheses.

Assumptions of the Study

The study or research assumptions are propositions taken to be true based upon the presupposition without preponderance of the facts.
These propositions often refer to the different variables or sub-variables being studied.

ASSUMPTION OF THE STUDY EXAMPLE

The Relationship Between the Psychosocial Health Effects of Stress

and the Coping Mechanism of Nursing Student Mothers (Antero, et al., 2010)

The following assumptions are enumerated by the researchers:

1. Disorders can be acquired from abnormal stress response.

2. Different sources of stress can be managed through a healthy way of response.
3. Managing stress with exercise can prevent negative physical and mental health effects.
4. There are techniques and strategies to follow to be successful in coping.
5. Psychological health effects of stress can be prevented by effective coping mechanisms of nursing student mothers.

Definition of Terms
The most important terms used in the study must be defined clearly. Some of these terms appear in the thesis title, statement of the
problem, theoretical paradigm, and in the scope and delimitation of the study. Certain terms may refer to the respondents, subject, and the variables
and sub-variables. Defining the different terms may be done conceptually or operationally. When a term is defines using books and dictionaries then
it is defined conceptually. On the other hand, when the definition of the term is based on how it is used in the study, it is defined operationally. A
combination of the wo method is often helpful. Terms that are defined must be arranged alphabetically. Moreover, before defining the enumerated or
listed terms there must be an opening sentence or an introductory paragraph.

Examples:

A. Terms that are defined conceptually

Ethics. A branch of philosophy that addresses questions of right or wrong. It is a term that refers to
the various ways of understanding and examining moral life (Mappes, 2002).

Nursing process. It is a systematic process of assessment, planning, and validation in the practice
of nursing through evidence based on the scientific methods for observing, measuring, and
gathering data, and analyzing the findings (Doenges, 2006).

B. Terms that are defined operationally

Leadership approaches. This refers to the approaches employed by the dean and which are
categorized as strategies, human assets, expertise, box, or change, and reflected in the
respondents’ answers measured by a Likert scale.

Leadership attributes. These pertain to the rating of deans in a questionnaire as to what they
consider to be the most important attribute or function of their position: personal integrity,
willingness to accept responsibility, understanding people, communication, selflessness, intuition,
vision, decision-making ability, or ability to simplify situations.

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C. Terms that are defined conceptually and operationally

Primigravida. A woman in her first pregnancy (Pilliteri, 2004). Operationally, it pertains to a mother
who has given birth at the Bataan General Hospital in the first quarter of 2009.

Personality. It refers to the sum of the qualities and characteristics of a person as shown in his/her
manners such as walking, talking, dressing, acting, attitudes, interest, and ways of reacting to
other people, which are manifestations of his/her behavior thoughts, and emotions.

ASSIGNMENT #2: [TO BE SUBMITTED ON NOVEMBER 20, 2023]

Research and study the following:
a) Ethical Standards in Literature Review Writing
b) Characteristics of the Language of Research
c) Research Language Formation
d) Standard Styles in Related Literature Citations or References – Purposes, Styles, and Patterns of Citation

RESEARCH TASK:

Start crafting your Chapter II – Review of Related Literature and Related Studies which contains the following:

1. 5 – 10 International Level Literature and Studies related to your topic

2. 5 – 10 National Level Literature and Studies related to your topic
3. 5 – 10 Local level Literature and Studies related to your topic
4. Conceptual Framework
5. Theoretical Framework
6. Definition of Terms (with Technical and Working Definitions)

Chapter II draft will be submitted on November 24, 2023 via email.

References:

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Baraceros, E. (2019). Practical research 1. 2nd Ed. Rex Bookstore. Sampaloc, Manila
Baraceros, E. (2019). Practical research 2. 2nd Ed. Rex Bookstore. Sampaloc, Manila
Bueno, David. (2016). Practical quantitative research writing for Senior high school. Books Atbp. Publishing Corp. Mandaluyong City
Cristobal A., Jr. & De la Cruz-Cristobal, M.C. (2017). Practical research 1 for Senior high school. C & E Publishing. Quezon City
Cristobal A., Jr. & De la Cruz-Cristobal, M.C. (2017). Practical research 2 for Senior high school. C & E Publishing. Quezon City
Francisco, P.M., Francisco, V., & Arlos, A. (2016). Practical research 1: Qualitative research. MindShapers Co., Inc., Manila
Francisco, P.M., Francisco, V., & Arlos, A. (2016). Practical research 2: Quantitative research. MindShapers Co., Inc., Manila

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