CIV4101: TRAFFIC & TRANSPORTATION

ENGINEERING (3 CU)

Course Instructor:
Engr. Dr. Terseer AKO (Visiting Scholar)
Department of Civil Engineering,
Kabale University, Kabale, Uganda
+256776132465
tako@kab.ac.ug,
ako.terseer@yahoo.com

References/Reading Materials
1. Kadiyali, L. R. (2006), Principles and Practices of Highway Engineering (including
Expressways and Airport Engineering), 4th Edition. Khanna Publishers, New Delhi.
2. O’Flaherty, C.A. (2002), Transport Planning and Engineering, 3rd Edition. Butterworth-
Heinemann, London.
3. Salter R.J. (1983), Highway Traffic Analysis and Design, London and Basingstoke, the
Macmillan Press Ltd.
4. Asian Development Bank. (2003). Safe Planning and Design of Roads (Road Safety
Guidelines).
5. Rogers, M. (2003), Highway Engineering, Oxford, Blackwell Publishing Ltd

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 Course Contents

1. Introduction:
- Scope, transport administration, highway network, highway classification,
Uganda case
Traffic characteristics: vehicular, driver and road characteristics.
2. Highway traffic analysis:
- Capacity,
- Basic elements of traffic analysis
- intersections,
- Driver-vehicle relationship, parking, queuing processes in traffic flow.
3. Transport planning:
- Base year/present year inventories,
- Trip generation, trip distribution, modal split, traffic assignment.
- Public transport planning and management:
4. Traffic management:
- Highway traffic network management,
- urban traffic network management
5. Traffic regulations and control:
- Traffic regulations,
- rural and urban traffic control design:
6. Accidents and control:
- Causes of accidents,
- traffic restrictions including pedestrians only areas,
- use of traffic control elements
7. Environmental considerations:
- Noise, pollution, aesthetics, etc.

Mode of Assessment
Their relative contribution to the final grade is shown below:
Requirements Contribution
Individual or group assignments, 5%
Tests 10%
Language Studio work 25%
Final examination 60%
Total 100%

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 CHAPTER ONE

Introduction to Transportation System

Transportation System: May be defined as consisting of the fixed facilities, the flow entities
and the control system that permits people and goods to overcome the friction of geographical
space effectively in order to participate in a timely manner in some desired activities.

Fixed Facilities: These are the physical components of the system and are fixed in space and
constitute the network of links (e.g Roadway Segments, railway track and pipes, tunnel etc)
and nodes (e.g, intersections, interchanges, transits terminal, harbors and airports) of the
transportation system.

They are design, traditionally with the range of civil engineering, structural design, design of
drainage systems and geometry design which is concern with the physical proportioning of the
elements of fixed facilities, although related geometric design is different from other aspect of
design e.g, structural design which is concern with the strength of structures to withstand
efficiently the expected forces of loads as are covered elsewhere in a typical civil engineering
curriculum.

Flow Entities: The flow entities are the units that transverse the fixed facilities. They include
vehicles, container units, railroads, cars etc. In the case of highway system, the fixed facilities
are expected to accommodate a wide variety of vehicle types ranging from bicycle to a large
tractor-trailer combinations.

Control System: It consist of vehicular control and flow control.

Vehicular control: Refers to the technological way in which individual vehicles are guided on
the fixed facilities. Such control can be manual or automated. The proper geometric design of
the fixed facilities must in cooperate in addition to the characteristics of the vehicle, such as
the time the driver takes to perceive and reacts to various stimuli.
The flow control system: Consist of the means that permits the efficient and smooth operation
of streams of vehicles and the reduction of conflict among vehicles. This system includes,
signing, marking, and signal system and the underlying rules of operation.

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Transportation System Classification

Transportation System: Can be categorized in several ways for e.g, they may be classified
according to the type of technology they employ, the function or type of service they provide,
who owns or is responsible for their implementation and operation etc.

The transportation system is further categorized into four major sub-systems according to the
medium on which the flow elements are supported. These sub-systems are commonly referred
to as Modes. It should be understood that this term is also used to make final distinctions among
the various means of travel, for e.g, driving alone and forming car pools are sometimes
considered to be different modes.

The four major sub-system are:-

1. Land Transportation (a) Highway (b) Railway

2. Air Transportation (a) Domestic (b) International
3. Water Transportation (a) Inland (b) Coastal (c) Ocean
4. Pipelines (a) Oil (b) Gas (c) others

Private and Public Transportation

Transportation services are classified as either for higher or not for higher services. These
categories are also known respectively as public and private transportation, for these terms
refers to their availability to the general public and private parties respectively, not to their
ownership for e.g a city bus system may be own either privately or publically. In either case
the service provided is public transportation because the system is available for use by the
general public. For hire systems are further classified into contract carries and common carries,
the former stand ready the provide service to public while common carriers on the other hand
generally offer scheduled services and are open to all members of the public willing to pay the
posted fair.

The terms mass transportation or mass transits usually refers to the common carriage of
passengers. Taxes, cars rentals and certain other individually-arranged services belong to the
category of contract public transportation.

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Major Disciplines of Transportation
Transportation engineering can be broadly consisting of the four major parts:
1. Transportation Planning
2. Geometric Design
3. Pavement Materials and Design
4. Traffic Engineering

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 CHAPTER TWO

INTRODUCTION TO TRAFFIC ENGINEERING

The availability of highway transportation has provided several advantages that
contribute to a high standard of living. However, several problems related to the highway
mode of transportation exist. These problems include highway-related crashes, parking
difficulties, congestion, and delay. To reduce the negative impact of highways, it is
necessary to adequately collect information that describes the extent of the problems and
identifies their locations. Such information is usually collected by organizing and conducting
traffic surveys and studies. Traffic studies involve the collection of data under operational
conditions and include studies of speed, traffic volume, travel time and delay, parking, and
crashes.

Types of traffic facilities

▪ Uninterrupted Traffic facility- includes freeways where there are no intersections at grade,
no STOP and Yield signs, etc; some rural highways; and multilane highways.
▪ Interrupted Traffic facility- incorporate external interruptions such as traffic signals, Un-
signalized streets with STOP and YIELD signs, pedestrian walkways and transit lanes.

Study Areas of Traffic Engineering

Traffic studies may be grouped into three main categories:
✓ Inventories,

✓ Administrative studies, and

✓ Dynamic studies.
1. Inventories: provide a list or graphic display of existing information, such as:
 street widths,
 parking spaces
 transit routes,
 traffic regulations.

2. Administrative studies use existing engineering records, available in government

agencies and departments. include the results of surveys, which may involve:
 field measurements and/or

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  aerial photography.
3. Dynamic traffic studies involve the collection of data under operational conditions.
 include studies of:
 speed,
 traffic volume,
 travel time and delay,
 parking, and
 crashes.

Dynamic studies are carried out by the traffic engineer to evaluate current conditions and
develop solutions.

Traffic Characteristics: Vehicular, Driver and Road Characteristics

The four main components of the highway mode of transportation are the driver, the pedestrian,
the vehicle, and the road. The bicycle is also becoming an important component in the design
of urban highways and streets. To provide efficient and safe highway transportation, a
knowledge of the characteristics and limitations of each of these components is essential.

It is also important to be aware of the interrelationships that exist among these components in
order to determine the effects, if any, that they have on each other. Their characteristics are
also of primary importance when traffic engineering measures such as traffic control devices
are to be used in the highway mode. Knowing average limitations may not always be adequate;
it may be necessary to sometimes obtain information on the full range of limitations.

Consider, for example, the wide range of drivers’ ages which usually begins at 16 and can
exceed 80. It also should be noted that highway statistics provided by the Federal Highway
Administration indicate that 65 years and older drivers comprise over 14 percent of the driver
population. Sight and hearing vary considerably across age groups, with the ability to hear and
see usually decreasing after age 65. In addition, these can vary even among individuals of the
same age group.

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Driver Characteristics
One problem that faces traffic and transportation engineers when they consider driver
characteristics in the course of design is the varying skills and perceptual abilities of
drivers on the highway, demonstrated by a wide range of abilities to hear, see, evaluate,
and react to information. Studies have shown that these abilities may also vary in an
individual under different conditions, such as the influence of alcohol, fatigue, and the
time of day. Therefore, it is important that criteria used for design purposes be compatible with
the capabilities and limitations of most drivers on the highway. The use of
an average value, such as mean reaction time, may not be adequate for a large number
of drivers. Both the 85th percentile and the 95th percentile have been used to select
design criteria; in general, the higher the chosen percentile, the wider the range
covered.

The Human Response Process

Actions taken by drivers on a road result from their evaluation of and reaction to
information they obtain from certain stimuli that they see or hear. However, evaluation and
reaction must be carried out within a very short time, as the information being received along
the highways is continually changing. It has been suggested that most of the information
received by a driver is visual, implying that the ability to see is of fundamental importance in
the driving task. It is therefore important that highway and traffic engineers have some
fundamental knowledge of visual perception as well as of hearing perception.

Visual Reception
The principal characteristics of the eye are visual acuity, peripheral vision, color
vision, glare vision and recovery, and depth perception.

Visual Acuity. Visual acuity is the ability to see fine details of an object. It can be represented
by the visual angle, which is the reciprocal of the smallest pattern detail in minutes of arc that
can be resolved.

Peripheral Vision. Peripheral vision is the ability of people to see objects beyond the cone of
clearest vision. Although objects can be seen within this zone, details and color are not clear.
The cone for peripheral vision could be one subtending up to 160 degrees; this value is affected
by the speed of the vehicle. Age also influences peripheral vision.

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Color Vision. Color vision is the ability to differentiate one color from another, but deficiency
in this ability, usually referred to as color blindness, is not of great significance in highway
driving because other ways of recognizing traffic information devices (e.g., shape) can
compensate for it.

Glare Vision and Recovery. There are two types of glare vision: direct and specular. Rowland
and others have indicated that direct glare occurs when relatively bright light appears in the
individual’s field of vision and specular glare occurs when the image reflected by the relatively
bright light appears in the field of vision.

Depth Perception. Depth perception affects the ability of a person to estimate speed and
distance. It is particularly important on two-lane highways during passing maneuvers, when
head-on crashes may result from a lack of proper judgment of speed and distance.

Perception-Reaction Process
The process through which a driver, cyclist, or pedestrian evaluates and reacts to a stimulus
can be divided into four sub-processes:
1. Perception: the driver sees a control device, warning sign, or object on the road
2. Identification: the driver identifies the object or control device and thus understands the
stimulus.
3. Emotion: the driver decides what action to take in response to the stimulus; for example, to
step on the brake pedal, to pass, to swerve, or to change lanes
4. Reaction or volition: the driver actually executes the action decided on during the emotion
sub-process.

Triggs and Harris described this phenomenon in detail. They noted that the 85th-percentile
time to brake, obtained from several situations, varied from 1.26 to over 3 seconds. The reaction
time selected for design purposes should, however, be large enough to include reaction times
for most drivers using the highways. Recommendations made by the American Association of
State Highway and Transportation Officials (AASHTO) stipulate 2.5 seconds for stopping
sight distances. This encompasses the decision times for about 90 percent of drivers under most
highway conditions. Note, however, that a reaction time of 2.5 second may not be adequate for
unexpected conditions or for some very complex conditions, such as those at multiphase at

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grade intersections and ramp terminals. For example, when signals are unexpected, reaction
times can increase by 35 percent.

Example:
A driver with a perception-reaction time of 2.5 sec is driving at 65 mi/h when she observes that
an accident has blocked the road ahead. Determine the distance the vehicle would move before
the driver could activate the brakes. The vehicle will continue to move at 65 mi/h during the
perception-reaction time of 2.5 sec.

Solution:
• Convert mi/h to ft /sec:

65mi/hr = (65 × ) ft/sec.

= 65 ×1.47 = 95.55 ft/sec.

Find the distance traveled:
D = vt
95.55 x 2.5
= 238.9ft
where v = velocity and t = time.

Vehicle Characteristics
Criteria for the geometric design of highways are partly based on the static, kinematic,
and dynamic characteristics of vehicles. Static characteristics include the weight and
size of the vehicle, while kinematic characteristics involve the motion of the vehicle
without considering the forces that cause the motion. Dynamic characteristics involve
the forces that cause the motion of the vehicle. Since nearly all highways carry both
passenger-automobile and truck traffic, it is essential that design criteria take into
account the characteristics of different types of vehicles. A thorough knowledge of
these characteristics will aid the highway and/or traffic engineer in designing highways
and traffic-control systems that allow the safe and smooth operation of a moving
vehicle, particularly during the basic maneuvers of passing, stopping, and turning.

Therefore, designing a highway involves the selection of a design vehicle, whose

characteristics will encompass those of nearly all vehicles expected to use the highway. The

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characteristics of the design vehicle are then used to determine criteria for geometric
design, intersection design, and sight-distance requirements.

Road Characteristics
The characteristics of the highway discussed in this section are related to stopping and
passing because these have a more direct relationship to the characteristics of the driver and
the vehicle discussed earlier. This material, together with other characteristics of the highway,
will be used in Chapter 15, where geometric design of the highway is discussed.
Sight Distance
Sight distance is the length of the roadway a driver can see ahead at any particular
time. The sight distance available at each point of the highway must be such that, when a driver
is traveling at the highway’s design speed, adequate time is given after an object is observed in
the vehicle’s path to make the necessary evasive maneuvers without colliding with the object.

The two types of sight distance are (1) stopping sight distance and (2) passing sight distance.
Stopping Sight Distance: The stopping sight distance (SSD), for design purposes, is usually
taken as the minimum sight distance required for a driver to stop a vehicle after seeing an object
in the vehicle’s path without hitting that object. This distance is the sum of the distance traveled
during perception-reaction time and the distance traveled during braking.

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 CHAPTER THREE

HIGHWAY TRAFFIC ANALYSIS

Basic Elements of Traffic Engineering

Definition of Terms

The primary elements of traffic analysis are; flow, density and speed. Another element
associated with density gap or headway between two vehicles in a traffic stream.

The definition of these elements is as follow:

Flow (q): Is the equivalent hourly rate at which vehicles pass over given point of a roadway
during a given time interval in less than one hour, usually 15-minutes. It can be determine by:

×
𝑞= = 𝑣𝑒ℎ/ℎ

where;

n = the neither of vehicles passing a point on the roadway in T-seconds

q = the equivalent hourly flow.

Density (k) – The number of vehicles traveling over a unit length of highway at an instant in
time. In other words; it is q the number of vehicles (at a fixed time) occupying a unit length of
a roadway. The unit used is vehicles per unit distance 0 vehicles per kilometer (veh/km). i.e
K= n = no of vehicles l = unit length of road.

Speed (u): Is the distance traveled by a vehicle during a unit of time. It can be expressed in
miles per hour (mi/h), kilometers per hour (km/h), or feet per second (ft/sec).

The speed of every individual vehicle is almost impossible to track on a roadway, therefore, in
practice; average speed is based on sampling of vehicles over a period of time or area.

If speed is measured by keeping time as reference, it is called time mean speed, and if it is
measured by space reference, it is called space mean speed.

Time mean speed (ut) is the arithmetic mean of the speed of vehicles passing a point on a
highway during an interval of time.

It is obtained by:

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ū = ∑ 𝑢𝑖

where;

n = no of vehicles passing a point on the highway

μi = speed of the μth vehicles (ft/s) or (km/h)

space mean speed (μ𝑠) is the harmonic mean of the speeds of vehicles passing a point on a
highway during an interval of time. It is obtained by dividing the total distance travelled by
two or more vehicles on a section of highway by the total time required by these vehicles to
travel that distance. The space mean speed is fund by;

ū = ∑
∑

where

ū𝑠 = space mean speed (ft/sec) or (km/h)

n = number of vehicles

ti = the time it takes the ith vehicle to travel across a section of highway (sec)

ui = speed of the ith vehicles (ft/sec) or (km/h)

L = length of section of highway (ft/or (km)

It has been shown from field data that the relationship between time mean speed and space
mean speed can be given as;

ū = ū +
ū

NB: Time mean speed is always higher than the space mean speed.

Fundamental Diagram of Traffic Flow

The relationship between the density and the corresponding flow of traffic on a highway is
generally referred to as the fundamental diagram of traffic flow. The following theory has been
postulated with respect to the shape of the curve depicting this relationship;

i. When the density on the highway is 0, the flow is also 0 because there are no vehicles
on the highway.

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ii. As the density increases, the flow also increase.
iii. However, when the density reaches its maximum, generally referred to as the Jam
density (kj), the flow must be 0 because vehicles will tend to line up end to end.
iv. It follows that as density increases from 0, the flow will also initially increase from 0
to q maximum value. Further continuous increase in density will then result in
continuous reduction of the flow, which will eventually be 0 when the density is equal
to the jam density. The shape of the curve therefore thrives the form in Figure 2.

The functional effectiveness of a highway is measured in terms of its ability to assist and
accommodate the flow of vehicles with both safety and efficiency. In order to measure its level
of effectiveness, certain parameters associated with the highway must be measured and
analysed. These properties include:

1. The quantity of traffic

2. The type of vehicles within the traffic stream
3. The distribution of flow over a period of time (usually 24hours).
4. The average speed of the traffic stream
5. The density of the traffic-flow

Analysis of these parameters will directly influence the scale and layout of the proposed
highway, together with the type and quantity of materials used in its construction.

Speed, flow and density of a stream of traffic

The traffic flow q a measure of the volume of traffic on a highway, is defined as the number of
vehicles, n, passing some given point on the highway in a given time interval, t i.e.

𝑞= (1)

In general terms, q is expressed in vehicles per unit time

The number of vehicles on a given section of highway can also be computed in terms of the
density or concentration of traffic as follows.

𝐾= (2)

Where the traffic density, k, is a measure of the number of vehicles, n, occupying a length of
roadway, l.

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For a given section of road containing k vehicles per unit length l, the average speed of the k
vehicles is termed the space mean speed 𝑢 (the average speed for all vehicles in a given space
at a given discrete point in time).

𝑢= ∑ 𝑙𝑖 (3)

Where li is the length of road used for measuring the speed of the ith vehicle.

It can be seen that if the expression for q is divided by the expression for k, the expression for
𝑢 is obtained.

𝑞 ÷𝐾 = ÷ = 𝑥 = =𝑢 (4)

Thus, the three parameters u, k and q are directly related under stable traffic conditions.

𝑞 = 𝑢𝑘 (5)

This constitutes the basic relationship between traffic flow, space mean speed and density.

Speed – Density Relationship

In a situation where only one car is traveling along a stretch of highway, densities (in vehicles
per kilometer) will by definition be near to zero and the speed at which the car can be driven is
determined solely by the geometric design and layout of the road; such speed is termed free-
flow speed. As more vehicles use the section of highway, the density of the flow will increase
and their speed will decrease from their maximum free-flow value (𝑢 ) as they are increasingly
more inhibited by the driving manoeuvers of others. If traffic volume continue to increase, a
point is reached where traffic will be brought to a stop, thus speeds will equal zero (u = 0), with
the density at its maximum point as cars are jammed bumper to bumper (termed jam density,
kj).

Thus, the limiting values of the relationship between speed and density are as follows:
when k = 0, u = uf

when u = 0, k = kj

Various attempts have been made to describe the relationship between speed and density
between these two limiting points. Green shields (1934) proposed the simplest representation
between the two variables, assuming a linear relationship between the two.

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In mathematical terms, this linear relationship gives rise to the following equation.

𝑢=𝑢 1− (6)

𝑢
Fig 1: Illustration of speed
density relationship
Speed (𝑘𝑚/ℎ)

𝑘
Density (veh/km)

This linear relationship between speed and density, put forward by green shields (1934),
leads to a set of mathematical relationships between speed, flow and density. The general
form of green shield speed-density relationship can be expressed as:

𝑢=𝐶 + 𝐶 𝐾 (7)

Where 𝐶 and 𝐶 𝑎𝑟𝑒 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡𝑠

Researchers like (pipes, 1967; Green Berg 1959) have observed non-linear behaviour at each
extreme of the sped-density relationship, i.e near the free-flow and jam density conditions,
while Underwood (1961) proposed an exponential relationship of the following form:

𝑢 = 𝐶 exp(−𝐶 𝑘) (8)

Using this expression, the boundary conditions are:

1. When density equals zero, the free flow speed equals 𝐶

2. When speed equals zero, jam density equals infinity

The simple linear relationship between speed and density will be assumed in all the analyses
below:

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Flow – density relationship

Combining equations 5 and 6, the following direct relationship between flow and density is
derived.

𝑞 = 𝑢𝑘 = 𝑢 1− ×𝑘 ∴ 𝑞, = 𝑢 𝑘− (9)

This is a parabolic relationship and is illustrated below as Fig. 2.

In order to establish the density at which maximum flow occurs, equation 9 is differentiated
and set equal to zero as follows:

=𝑢 1− =0

Since 𝑢 ≠ 0, the term within the brackets must equal zero, therefore:

1− = 0, 𝑡ℎ𝑢𝑠

km= (10)
Flow (𝑣𝑒ℎ/ℎ𝑟)

0
0 𝐾 𝐾
𝐷𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑦(𝑣𝑒ℎ/𝑘𝑚)
Fig 2: Illustration of flow-density relationship

Speed-flow relationship

In order to derive this relationship, eqn – 6 is rearranged as:

𝑘 = 𝑘𝑗 1 − (11)

By combining this formula with eqn 5, the following relationship is derived;

𝑞 = 𝑘𝑗 𝑢 − (12)

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This relationship is again parabolic in nature. It is illustrated in Fig. 3.

Speed (𝑘𝑚/ℎ)

𝑄
𝐹𝑙𝑜𝑤( 𝑣𝑒ℎ/ℎ)
Fig. 3: Illustration of speed-flow relationship

In order to find the speed at maximum flow, eqn (12) is differentiated and put equal to zero:

= 𝑘𝑗 1 − =0

Since 𝑘𝑗 ≠ 0, the term within the brackets must equal zero, therefore;

1− = 0 𝑡ℎ𝑢𝑠

𝑢 = (13)

𝑢 , the speed at maximum flow, is thus equal to half of free-flow speed, uf its location is
shown in Fig 3.

Combining equations 10 and 13 the following expression for maximum flow is derived:

𝑞 =𝑢 𝑥𝑘 = 𝑥

⸫𝑞 = (14)

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Example 1: Two platoons of cars are timed over a distance of 0.5𝑘𝑚 their flows are recorded.

The first group is timed at 40 seconds, with the flow at 1350 vehicles per hour. The second
group takes 45 seconds, with a flow of 1800 vehicles per hour.

Determine the maximum flow of the traffic stream.

Solution

Group 1 has an average speed of 45𝑘𝑚/ℎ

Group 2 has an average speed of 40𝑘𝑚/ℎ

Group 1𝑘 value = 1350/45 = 30𝑣/𝑘𝑚

Group 2𝑘 value = 1800/40 = 45𝑣𝑒ℎ/𝑘𝑚

To get the consequent relationship between speed and density based on the above two results,
use co-ordinate geometry.

𝑦 − 𝑦, = 𝑚 (𝑥 − 𝑥 )

Where

𝑚=

𝑦 = 𝑠𝑝𝑒𝑒𝑑

𝑥 = 𝑑𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑦

The slope, m, of the line joining the above two results = - =−

𝑦 − 45 = − (𝑥 − 30)

𝑦 + = 45 + 10

𝑦 + = 55

Examining the boundary conditions:

(when x = 0);

Free flow speed = 55𝑘𝑚/ℎ

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(when y = 0);

Jam density = 165 𝑣𝑒ℎ/𝑘𝑚

Maximum flow = 55 × = 2269 𝑣𝑒ℎ/ℎ (from equation 14).

Mathematical Relationships Describing Traffic Flow

Mathematical Relationship Describing Traffic Flow can be classified into macroscopic and
microscopic, depending on the approach used in the development of these relationship. The
macroscopic approach considers flow density relationships whereas that microscopic approach
considers spacing between vehicles and speeds of individual vehicles.

Macroscopic Approach

The macroscopic approach considers traffic streams and develops algorithms that relate the
flow to the density and space mean speeds. The two most commonly used macroscopic models
are the Green Shields and Greenberg models.

Green Shields Model:

Green shields carried out one of the earliest recorded works in which he studied the relationship
between speed and density. He hypothesized that a linear relationship existed between speed
and density which he expressed as

ū = 𝑣𝑓 − 𝑘 (1)

Corresponding relationships for flow and density and for flow and speed can be developed
since 𝑞 = 𝑢 𝑘, 𝑠𝑢𝑏𝑠𝑡𝑖𝑡𝑢𝑖𝑛𝑔 for k in eqn. (1);
ū

ū = 𝑢𝑓ū − 𝑞 (2)

Also substituting 𝑓𝑜𝑟 ū 𝑖𝑛 𝑒𝑞(1);

q = uf k - 𝑘 (3)

Eqn (2) and (3) indicate that if a linear relationship in the form of equ (1) is assumed for speed
and density, then parabolic relationships are obtained between flow and density and between
flow and speed. The shape of the curve earlier shown will therefore be a parabola. Also eq (2)

20
and (3) can be used to determine the corresponding speed and the corresponding density for
maximum flow.

Consider eqn (2);

ū = 𝑢𝑓ū − 𝑞

Differentiating q with respect to ū , we obtained

2ū = 𝑢𝑓 −
ū

That is = 𝑢𝑓 − 2ū = 𝑘𝑗 − 2ū
ū

For maximum flow,

= 0 𝑘𝑗 = 2ū ū = (4)
ū

Thus, the space means speed ū at which the volume is maximum is equal to half the free
mean speed.

Consider eqn 3:

𝑞 = 𝑣𝑓𝑘 − 𝑘

Differentiating q with respect to k, we obtain = 𝑣𝑓 − 2𝑘

For maximum flow = 0 (8)

uf = 2𝑘 (5)

=𝑘

Thus at the maximum flow, the density 𝑘 is half the jam density. The maximum flow for
Green shields relationship can therefore be obtains from (𝑞 = 𝑘ū ), eq (4) and 95) as shown in
eqn 6:

𝑞 = (6)

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Greenberg Model: Several researchers have used the analogy of fluid flow to develop
macroscopic relationship for traffic flow. One of the major contributions using the fluid flow
analogy was developed by Greenberg in the form.

ū =𝑐 (7)

Multiplying each side of eqn (7) by k, we obtain;

ū 𝑘 = 𝑞 = 𝑐𝑘𝑙𝑛

Differentiating q with respect to k, we obtain;

= 𝑐𝑙𝑛 − 𝑐

For maximum flow,

=0

Giving

ln =1 (8)

Substituting 1 for 𝑖𝑛 𝑒𝑞𝑛 (7)𝑔𝑖𝑣𝑒𝑠;

𝑢 =𝑐

Thus the value of c is the speed at maximum flow.

Model Application

Use of these macroscopic models depends on whether they satisfy the boundary criteria of the
fundamental diagram of traffic flow at the region that describes the traffic conditions. The
Green Shields model satisfies the boundary conditions when the density k is approaching zero
as well as when the density is approaching the jam density kj. The Green Shields model can
therefore be used for light or dense traffic. The Greenberg model, on the other hand, satisfies
the boundary conditions when the density is approaching the jam density but it does not satisfy
the boundary conditions when k is approaching zero. The Greenberg model is therefore useful
only for dense traffic conditions.

22
Calibration of Macroscopic Traffic Flow Model

The traffic models discussed above can be used to determine specific characteristics, such as
speed and density at which maximum flow occurs, and the jam density of a facility. This
usually, involves collecting appropriate data in the particular facility of interest and fitting the
data points obtained to a suitable model.

The most common method of approach is regression analysis which may be linear or multiple
linear regression analysis.

Example: 1

Table 1

Speed, ū (km/h) Density, k (veh/km)

𝒚𝒊 𝒙𝒊
53.2 20
48.1 27
44.8 35
40.1 44
37.3 52
35.2 58
34.1 60
27.2 64
20.4 70
17.5 75
14.6 82
13.1 90
11.2 100
8.0 112
∑ 𝑦𝑖 = 404.8 ∑ 𝑥𝑖 892

Use data in Table 1: above to demonstrate the use of the method of regression analysis in
fitting speed and density data to the macroscopic models.

23
Solution
Speed, 𝒖𝒔 (km/h) Density, K (veh/km) 𝒙𝒊 𝒚𝒊 𝒙𝒊 𝟐
𝒚𝒊 𝒙𝒊
53.2 20 1064.0 400
45.1 27 1298.7 729
44.8 35 1568.0 1,225
40.1 44 1764.4 1,936
37.3 52 1939.6 2704
35.2 58 2041.6 3364
34.2 60 2046.0 3600
27.2 64 1740.8 4096
20.4 70 1428.0 4900
17.5 75 1312.5 5625
14.6 82 1197.2 6724
13.4 90 1189.0 8100
11.2 100 1120.0 10,000
8.0 115 920.0 3225
∑ = 404.8 ∑ = 892 ∑ = 20619.8 ∑ = 66628.0

𝑦 = 28.91

𝑥 = 63.71

i. Considering the Greenshields expression;

ū
ū =ū − 𝑘 (i)

Representing the speed ū in the expression to be 𝑦. Mean free speed ū by a, and the value
of mean free speed ū divided by the jam density 𝑘 represented by –b and k = x.
From Eqn (1).
𝑦 = 𝑎 − (−𝑏)𝑥
𝑦 = 𝑎 + 𝑏𝑥

But

𝑎= ∑ 𝑦 − ∑ 𝑥 𝑜𝑟

24
⇒ 𝑎 = 𝑦 - 𝑏𝑥

𝑎 = 28.91 − 63.71𝑏

but

∑ ∑ ∑
𝑏=
∑ ∑

Where;

𝑛 = 𝑛𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟 𝑜𝑓 𝑠𝑒𝑡𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑜𝑏𝑠𝑒𝑟𝑣𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛𝑠

𝑥 = 𝑖𝑡ℎ 𝑜𝑏𝑠𝑒𝑟𝑣𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑥

𝑦 = 𝑖𝑡ℎ 𝑜𝑏𝑠𝑒𝑟𝑣𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛𝑠 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑦

. ( )( . )
∴𝑏=
( , ) ( . )

. .
=
.

𝑏 = −0.53

but

𝑎 = 28.91 − 63.71𝑏

= 28.91 − (63.71) × (−0.53)

28.91 + 33.77

𝑎 = 62.68

𝑏 = −0.53

Therefore;

𝑢 = 62.68𝑘𝑚/ℎ

= 0.53

0.53𝑘 = 𝑢 , 𝑏𝑢𝑡 𝑢 = 62.68𝑘𝑚/ℎ

∴ 0.53𝑘 = 62.68

25
 .
𝑘 = = 118.27
.

𝑘 = 118𝑣𝑒ℎ/𝑘𝑚

From green shields expression

ū =𝑢 − 𝑘

ū = 62.68 − 0.53𝑘

Using

∑ ( Ӯ)
𝑅 =∑
( Ӯ)

𝑅 = (404.8 − 28. 91)

𝑅 = 0.95

i. To determine the maximum flow;

𝑞 =
× .
=
.
=

= 1849𝑘𝑚/ℎ
ii. To obtain the velocity at which flow is maximum, using;

𝑘 = 2ū

𝑢 =
.
𝑢 =

= 31.3𝑘𝑚/ℎ
iii. To obtain the density at which flow is maximum, we use;

𝑘 =

= = 59𝑣𝑒ℎ/𝑘𝑚 ∴ 𝑘 = 59𝑣𝑒ℎ/𝑘𝑚

26
Using the Greenberg model

ū = 𝑐𝑙𝑛 𝑘𝑗/𝑘

Which can be written as

ū = 𝑐𝑙𝑛 𝑘𝑗 − 𝑙𝑛𝑘

Comparing the equation to regression function we see that;

ū in the Greenberg expression is represented by y in the estimated regression function,
𝐶𝑙𝑛𝐾 is represented by a, c is represented –b, and lnk is represented by x.

We therefore obtain:

𝑎 = 145.06 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑏 = −28.68, the speed for maximum flow is c = 28.68 km/h. finally, since

𝐶𝑙𝑛 𝑘𝑗 = 145.06

.
𝑙𝑛 𝑘𝑗 = = 5.06
.

𝑘𝑗 = 157 𝑣𝑒ℎ/𝑘𝑚

Then;

ū = 28.68 ln

Obtaining ko, the density for maximum flow from Eq. 8, we then use 5 to determine the value
of the maximum flow.
From eqn 8.
𝑘𝑗
ln =1
𝑘
ln kj = 1 + ln ko
ln 157 = 1 + ln ko
5.06 = 1 + ln ko
58.0 = ko
From eqn.
q = k ūs
qmax = 58.0 ×28.68 veh/h
qmax = 1663 veh/h.

27
Example: 2

On a two-lane carriage way, road-works restrict the width of both traffic lanes forming a
bottleneck to traffic flow. The maximum flow per lane on the unobstructed carriageway is
2500 vehicles per hour whilst on the section under-repair the maximum flow per lane is 2000
vehicles per hour. When stationary, vehicles are spaced at average distance headways of 8m.
It may be assumed that there is linear relationship between speed and density.

When the traffic flow approaching the road works is 4500 veh/h, calculate;

i. The speed of the traffic stream a considerable distance in advance of the bottleneck
ii. The speed of the traffic stream immediately before the commencement of the bottleneck
iii. The speed of the shockwave formed by the bottleneck.

Solution:
When there is a linear relationship between speed and density then;

𝑄 = (1)

Where 𝑘 and 𝑣 are the jam density and the free speed respectively.
For the unobstructed section the jam density 𝑘 is;

2× = 250𝑣𝑒ℎ/𝑘𝑚

From eqn. (1);

𝑄 =

vf kj = 4 ×qmax
×
vf = but qmax = 2 ×2500 = 5000
×
𝑣 = = 80𝑘𝑚/ℎ

Also when there is a linear relationship between speed and density then;

𝑄=𝑣 𝑘− 𝑘

but; vf = 80km/h

kj = 250 veh/km

Therefore;

𝑄 = 80𝑘 − 𝑘2

28
When the flow is 4500 vehicles per hour then;

4500 = 80𝑘 − 𝑘

4500 = 80k – 0.32k2

0.32k2 – 80k + 4500 = 0

Using the formula method;

−𝑏 ± √𝑏 − 4𝑎𝑐
2𝑎

𝑘 = 85.5 𝑜𝑟 164.5 𝑣𝑒ℎ/𝑘𝑚

These former value is appropriate for the traffic conditions given (point A Fig below).

5000
A

B
Flow (veh/h)

4000

3000

2000

1000

0
0 50 100 150 200 250

Density (veh/km)

When the flow is 4000 𝑣𝑒ℎ/ℎ then;

𝑄=𝑣 𝑘− 𝑘 (1)

4000 = 80𝑘 − 𝑘

4000 = 80k – 0.32 𝑘

29
Using the formula;

−𝑏 ± √𝑏 − 4𝑎𝑐
2𝑎

𝑘 = 69.1 𝑜𝑟 180.9𝑣𝑒ℎ/𝑘𝑚

The latter value is appropriate for the traffic conditions given (point B)

Also when there is a linear relationship between speed and density then;

𝑣=𝑣 − 𝑘 (2)

i. When the flow is 4500 veh/h, then the speed of the traffic stream a considerable distance
in advance of the bottleneck is given by (Eqn.2);
𝑣 = 80 − 85.5 𝑘𝑚/ℎ

= 52.7 𝑘𝑚/ℎ
ii. When the flow is 4000 veh/h then the speed of the traffic stream immediately before
the commencement of the bottleneck is given by (eqn 2);
𝑣 = 80 − 180.9 𝑘𝑚/ℎ

= 22.1 𝑘𝑚/ℎ
iii. The speed of the shockwave formed by the bottleneck is given by the slope of the line
AB;

𝑣= 𝑘𝑚/ℎ
. .

= −5.2 𝑘𝑚/ℎ

30