Rob Krier Summary “The premise underying this article isthe canvcton that in our modem cities we have lst sight ofthe traditional understanding of| Urban space. OF sf, this assertion i of no great service to town planning research, What has to be clearly defined isthe term urban Space and what mearing it holds within the urban structure, so that fone can go on to examine whether the concept of urban space retains some validity in contemporary town planning and on what grounds. Space in ths context isan actively debated concept. The intention here fe not to generate a new definition but rather to bring its orginal meaning back into currency Key words bullding section, courtyard, facade, morphology, scale, street, square, town planning, taxonomy, typology urban space Elements of the concept of urben space Defi jon of the concept “urban space” esthetic cites, we are compelled to designate all types of space | £ we with to clay the concept of urban space withost imposing terween bl iin town and other localities as urban epace Thi space s geometrically bounded by a variety of elevations. 13s only the cleat legibility of tx geometrical characteristics and aesthetic qualities ‘which allows us consciously to perceive external space as urban space, The polarity of internal-external space i constantly in evidenee in this article, since both obey very simular ws not only in fauction bat alko in form, Internal space chielded from weather and environment is an effective symbol of privy; external space is veen as open, waiob= structed space for movement in the open ait, with publi, semipablie and private zones ‘The basie concepts underlying the aesthetic characterises of waban space wall be expounded below and systematically classified by type, In the process, an attempt will be made to draw a clear distinction bbeewoen precte aesthetic and conced emotional factors. very acs thetic analysis rane the risk of foundering on sibjective questions of taste Visual and sensory habits, which vary from one individual to the neat are augmented by a vist number of socio-political and culsural atatades, which ae taken to represent aesthetic tats. Accepted styles inant history—for example, baroque town plans, revolutionary archi- cecture, ete —ate both wsefl and necessary However, my observations indicate chat they are almost abvays identi= fied with the social structure prevailing atthe time in question. Cer- tainly it ean scarcely be proved that, because of the wishes ofthe ruling lasses and their artis, the stylistic canons of the period in European art history between 1600 and 1730 appeared almost to be determined by fate, Of course for the historian every period of history forms a unit ‘with is own internal logic, which cannot be feagmented and inter changed with clements of ether periods a wal, ‘The creative person, such as an ats may use 2 completely different method of approach. The decisions he makes in deploying, his aes- thet skills are not always based on asumptions which can be wn ‘equivocally explained. The artistic libido is of enormous importance hncre. The cultural contribution of an age develops on the bats of = highly complex pattern of related phenomena, which mast subse quently be the subject of laborious research on the part of historias ‘This example throws ws right into a complex problem which appears the same in whichever period of hitory we consider We mst discos this example exhaustively before we sart constructing our rational system Each period in at history develops gradually out ofthe asirni= laged functional and formal clements which precede The more con scious 4 society is ofits history the more effortlessly and thoroughly it handles historical clements om styles trust is important in as ie as it legitimize: the attis’s relationship with the universally accepted {Credits Th article an excerpt om “Iypologal nd Morphological Eemerts of he Concept of Urban Space,” Chapter 1 of Uron Design (Sradroun) pubes in ‘German (1975) and n Erlsh by Acacery Eons (1978), eprinteg hereby kd permission of the author Time-Saver Standards for Urban Design 3042aElements of the concept of urben space wealth of formal vocabulary ofall preceding ager-this i a applicable sn the 20th aan the 17th century 1 do not wish to rally support for eclecticism, but simply to warn against anall oo naive understanding of history, which has been guilty fof such misjudgments as representing urban architecture amongst the Romans as markedly inferior to that of the Grecks, which from an binorical point of view ie simply not trae.(The sane mistake persists ouay, as can be seen ftom atutudes to the azchicecture of the 15th century ‘Our age has a remarkably distorted sense of history, which ean only be characterized 4% srrational, Le Corbusier's apparent bate against LsAcademie was not so wsach a revolt agains an exhausted, aging school ss the astimption of a pioneering stn in which he adopted it ideals sod imbued them with a new and vigorous content, ‘This so-called “pioneering act” was a pretended break with history, but in reality was an artistic falsehood. The facts were these: he aban doned the tradition curzent until then that srt supported by the ruling classes enjoyed the samp oflegitimacy and, being atan advanced sage of development, materially shaped the periods which followed. It was a revolt atone remove, 20 to speak, for the Academie ved on, and indeed came itielf to shaze the same confsed historical sense a8 the followers ofthe evolution, Ian speaking here about the modern age in gener, and not about its exponents of genits who tower above the “image ofthe age.” Rather than be indebted to elitit currents in art the generation azound the turn of the century sought new models: They found them in part in the folk ar of other ages and continents, which iad hitherto attracted litle atention There began an unprecedented furry of discovery of anonymous painting, sulpture, architecture, song and music of those peoples who were considered undenteveloped, and their contribution to culture was for the Best time propery valued without regand vo their stage of civilization. Other aries sought their creative material inthe realm of pre theory and worked with the basic elements of visual form and its potential for transformation (the “abstracts”. Yet others found their snaterial in social eritcims and the denunciation of seal injustice and ‘atried out their mission using formally ample methods (the “expres- sions”). The break with the elitist artist tradition was identical to the artist's struggle for emancipation from his patron—the ruling class audits cultural dietatorship—-which had been brewing even belore the French revolution, ‘The example of the baroque town lyout has already been mentioned and the question raised of the identity of form, context and meaning, ‘We niust be more exact in aking: 1, Was the resulting from the free expression of the creative artist? 2 Alternatively, were the artistic wishes of the employing class Imposed on the artist, and wise forced to adopt their notions of | form? 3. Do contempormeots periods exist which on the basis of different cultural traditions in different countries or continents where si social conditions preval, produce the same artistic solutions? 4, Alternatively are there noncontemporancous periods which led to fandamentally diferent artiste solutions, each being 4 stage in the development of the same cultural tradition in the same countey ‘under the same conditioning social factor? Ins this series of permutations the following factors are relevant: 46s thetis, arts, patron, social environment, leeway given to artistic ex pression, formal restrictions imposed by the patron, formal restric~ ‘ions imposed by the socal environment, fishion, management, level of development, technology and its potential applications, general cultural conditions, scientific knowledge, enlightenment, natur landicape, and climate. We can conclude with 2 fur degiee of cer ‘ainty that none of these intereelated factors can be considered in inolation ‘With this brief outline of the problem, « word of caution might be added about an oversimplisic undisriminating outlook. Ise certainly worth teying to establish why certain kinds of urhan space were «re= ated in the 17th century which we now identify with that period. And st would be even more interesting to examine the seal reasons by 20th ‘century town plunsing has been impoverished and reduced to the lowest common denominator "The following clisificstion does not make any value judgment. It ‘cauinerates the basic forms which constitute urbsn space, witha it~ ited nmber of posable variations and combinations, The aesthetic quality of each element of urban space is characterized by the struc ‘ural ntertelation of detl.Ishall attempt to discern this quality wher ‘over we ate dealing with physical featares ofa spatial nature The two basic elements are the street and the square. the estegory of “inte= Hor space” ane would be talking about the corridor and the room, The geometrical characteristics of both spatial forms are the same ‘They are differentiated only by the dimensions of the walls that Bound them and by the patterns of fanetion and cirulation that characterize them (Figs Land 2), The square and the street Inall probability the squace was the Gist way man dicovered of wing urban spac. It is produced by the grouping of houwes around an open space This arrmngement afforded a high degree of control of the inner space, as wel as facitatinga ready defense against external aggression by minimizing the external ssiZice area luble to atack This kine of ‘courtyard fequently came to bear a symbole value and was therefore chosen as the model for the construction of numerous holy places (agore, forum, cloister mosque covrtyard), With the invention of houses built around a centeal ourtyaed or atium this spatial patterns became a model for the fie. Here rooms were arranged around a central ‘couryard like single housing units around a square (Figs. 3.4). ‘The set isa product ofthe spread of a settlement once houses have ‘been built on al swulable space around its central squase Tt provides « framework for the distribution of land and gives acces to individual plots Ithas amore pronowncedly functional character than the square, ‘which by virtve of its sue is 4 more attractive place to pass the time than the street, in whose confines one is involuntarily caught up in the Dude of trates architectural ackezop is only pesveaved in passing. ‘The set layouts which we have inherited in our towns were devised for quite diferent functional purpotes.They were planted to the scale of the human being the horve and the carsiage The streets anaitable for the Dow of motorized talc, whilst remaining appropriate vo = ‘man circulation and actinty It rarely operstes at an autonomous io lated space, as, for example, in the eae of villages bil slong. single street Its mainly to be pesceived as part of a network, Our historic 3.82 ‘Time Saver Standards for Urban Design‘owns have made us familiar with che inexhaustible diversity of spatial iationshipe produced by ach a complex avout Typical functions of urban spaces ‘The activities of «town take place in public and private spheres. The behavioral paterns of people are similar in both, So the result is that the way in which public apace has been organized has in all periods cexcerizd a power infacnce om the design of private houses ‘One might almost infer the exitence of a kind of social ritual, which produces a perfect match hetween individual and collective What con ‘eras above all ene are those activates whic take place in town inthe fie, actions which « pero performs outside che fair tr tory ofhis own home and or which he utbzes publi space, for exat~ ple, taveling to work, shopping sling goods, recreations et deliveries ct. Although the aphalt carpet riovement of car ital ealed 4 “ace, ‘orized tansporation of people and good is one ofthe primary fanctions ‘ofthe town, but it requires no scenery in the space around tei diferent movement of pedestrians o public transport vehicles which move ata moderate speed lke carriages Today we have boulevards ‘hat appatenly draw thei ie from the procession of ashy ats and pave ment cafes tat ae wsited despite the fac thatthe ari poluted by ex Jnnust fares Looking 2t planing schemes of the turn ofthe century. one ‘an appreciate that in cosmopolitan cities such a Pars, Rome o Bedi, the ar was polluted ina diferent way:by horse manure, inking sewage sand ancllectd reise, problem of whan hygiene, as old as the town ‘self the only diference being that people can be poisoned by carbon monoxide but scarcely by horse maste (On medical grounds we can no longer indulge in this kind of bo romanticism, Whale the automobile in its present form eon ues to occupy streets, it excludes al other users The square This spatial model i admirably sited t sphere it corresponds to the inner cour house i the oldest ype of townhouse. Insp tages, the courtyard house has now becoi casly subject to ideological misinterpretation, and people ar afraid tha this design may imply enforced confornsty toa comseuna ifestyle or particular philosophy. sidental use Tn the private dof atrium, The courtyard © ofits undisputed a chscredted. Iti all too A certain unease about one's neighbors has wndoubtedly led to the suppression of this building type. Yet in the same way a+ communal ving has puined in popalariey for a minority of young people with the disappearice ofthe extended family. the concept of neighborhood stad its accompanying building types wall most certainly be sadopted Is the public sphere the square has undergone the same developa Marketplaces, paride grosmals, ceremonial squares, squares in «churches and town halal res ofthe Middle Ages, have been robbed of their original finctions and their symbolic content and in many places are only ky wagh the activities of conservationists ‘The loss of symbolint in architecture was described and lamented by TLE Cl NV SCC NSS Fig. 2, The stool Fig. 3. House. Fig. 4, Urban structure, ‘Time Saver Standards for Urban Design 3.934Elements of the concept of urben space Fig. 5. The square as intersection of two roads, fixed point of orientation, and meeting plac. Giedion in Spare Time, Anhitecture Tae literary torch, which he carsied for Le Corbusier in the "30s and for Jorn Utzon in the “60s, expressed his hope that this loss would pechaps be compensated by 4 powerful impetts toward artistic expression. He hoped forthe same thing from new construction techaigies, have already stesed the importance of the poetic content and aesthetic quality of space and buildings. Te is not my wish to intioduce into this discussion the concept of symnbol sm, with ait ethical and religious overtones: and I would also like to warn agains the arbitrary confusion of aesthetic and symbolic eaego~ ries, IFT maintain that the Louvre, instead of being. museum, might equally well be housing, castle, oF an office building ete, Tam speak ing of space- or building-type, not of external detaling or historical and sociopolitical fctors which led so thie structural solution. The aesthetic value of the different spatial types isa independent of shor lived fimctional concerns as a of symbolic sncerpretations which say vary fom one age tothe next, Another example to clarify this argamentThe multstoried courtyard house, fom the Middle Ages up to modern times, was the building type which acted at the urting point forthe cule, the Renaissance and Baroque palace, etc'The Berlin tenements ofthe 19th century are alko courtyard houses, but nowhere near being palaces Anyone fas lar with the architecture of Palladio should deaw the right conclusion fiom this The lavish ase of materials certainly does not play the deci- sive role here, I that were the cate Palladio would long since have fallen into oblivion, So, even in the 20th century, one ean construct a building with an inner courtyard without remotely aiming to mitt the palace architecture of the 16th century and the social clase that produced it'There is no reason why the building types used by extinct ynastes to design their residences and show thei material wealth should not serve at a model for housing today. ‘The early Christians were not afraid to adopt the building eype of Roman judicial and commercial buildings the basics, as the proto type of their religious monuments. Le Corbusier took his cow of “redents” trom Baroque castle, No contemporary public squares have been lad out which could be compared with urban squates like the Crende Place in Brassels, the Place Stanislas in Nancy, the Piazza del Campo in. Siena, the Place Vendome sad the Pe des Voge in Paris, the Plaza Mayor in Maid, the Place Real in Barcelona and so forth, This spatial type await redis~ covery:This can only occur Sistly,when it ean be endowed with mean- ingful functions and, secondly, when planed in the right place with the appropriate approsches within the overall town layout (Fig. 5) What fanctions are appropriate to the square? Commercial activities certainly are, such asthe market, but above al, activities of 2 cultural nature, The establishment of public administrative offices, community halls, youth centers, brates, theaters and concert hal, cafes, bars, et ‘Whete posable in the cate of central squate, these should be fanc sions thit genenste activity twenty-four hours a day Residential wo should not be excluded in any ofthese cases The street In purely residential areas sects ate universally seen as azeas for public circulation and recteation, The distances at which houses are set back from the street, a regulations often demand, are so excessive that at tractive spatial stations can only be achiewed by gimmickry In most cases, there is armple space avilable for gandens in addition to the enier= ‘gency access required for public service vehicles. This sect space can ‘only fonction when ie part of a system in which pedestrian access leads off the street Fig 6) This system cat be unsetdled by the following planning errors 1, Tfsome houses and fats cannot be approached directly frors the street but only ffom the rear. In this way the street is deprived of 2 vital activity The resale ¢ a state of competition between internal snd external usban space, This characterzation of space refers #0 the degree of public activity which takes place in exch of there two 2, Ihe garages and parking spaces ae arranged in sch a way thatthe flow of human trafic between car and house does not impinge upon the street space, 4, Ifthe play spices are squeezed out into iolated areas with the sole {justification of preserving the intimacy ofthe residential 2one.The same neurotic attitude toward neighbors is experienced in Hts ‘The noise of cats outside the home s accepted, yet indoors children ae prevented from playing noialy. 3.84 ‘Time Saver Standards for Urban DesignElements of the concept of urben space #5 4. Ino money can be invested in public open spaces, on such ters as avenues of tres, paving and other sch street furniture, given that the fist priority ie the wintal appeal of space, 5. Iethe aethesie quality of adjacent houses is neglected, ifthe facing ostages ae out of harmony. if diferent sections ofthe street are inadequately demarcated orf the scale is unbalanced These factors fail a precise cultural zoe in the functional coherence ofthe steeet and square. The need ta meet the town’s function of “poetry of space” should be as self-evident as the aced to mect any technical requizements. Tn a purely objective sense it is just as bai, Can you imagine people no longer making music, painting, making pictures, dancing... Everybody would answer “no” co this. The role of schitecture on the other hand is aot apparently scon as 20 cscntil, “Architecture is something tangible, useful, practical” a far as most, people are concerned, In any case sts tole is still considered as the steation of coziness indoors and of satus symbols outdoors. Anything che is clasied as sing on the cake, which one can pesfectly well do without. stage in history when architecture is not granted ss fell significance shows a society in cultural crises, the tagedy of which can scarcely be described in words. Contemporary music expresses it ad quately, ‘The problems ofthe residential sect touched on here apply equally to the commercial sect. he separation of pedestrians and teffc car rice with it the dager ofthe iolation of the pedestrian zone. Solu tions mast be carefully worked out which will keep the irritation of trai noise an exhaust fumes away ftom the pedesieian, without com= pletely distancing one zone from the other: This means sn overlapping fof these fonctions to be achieved with considerable snvestment the technological sphere, a price which the motorized society must be prepared to pay'This problem will emain much the same even when the well-known technical shortcomings and acknowledged design fi sings of the individual car have been ifoned out. The number of cats, aut their speed, remains a source of aniety With the way things a going at the moment, there seem litle hope of either fctor being ‘ortected, On the contrary, nobody today can predict what catastrophic mensions these probleme will assume and what solutions will be needed to overcome them, Tis absurd to abor under the misapprehension that one day the grow= ing nced to adopt now modes of transport will leave our counteyside liered with gigantic and obsolete monuments of civil engineering ‘One is inelined to think that, considering the level of tavestment in the car and all that goes with i 4 fundamental change is no longer faible inthe long term. All this illustrates the cont of interests between investments for the demands of machine/car and investments for living creature/tan; it lio indicates that there is price to be paid for the restoration of ‘urban space, if our society is to continue to value fein is eis, Back to the problem ofthe commetsal street which hat already been cosrlined. It must be fishionod cifferently fiom the purely residential street, It must be relatively narrow The passerby mist be abe to east an eye overall the goods on display it the shops apposite without per peeually having to cross ftom one side of the street to the other At Teast, this what the shopper and cersinly the tradesman would ike to ce. Another spatial configuration ofthe shopping strect is provided by the old town center of Berne, in which pedestrians can exarsine the goods on display protected by arcades fiom the inclemency of the swoather This type of shopping strect hs rtsined ite charm and als its functional efficiency up to the present day The pedestrian i selatvely ‘untaoubled by the road, which lies on a lower level, This set space ‘can sorve as an example tows. ‘The same can be said of the gss-roofed arcades or passages which originated inthe 1%dh century Strangely enough, they have fallen out of favor today Prom the point of view of ventilation i was obviously sdisadvantageous then to lead the cet frontage into a pasageway With today’s filly air-conditioned commercial and office buildings, howe ever, this building type could come back into fashion, Protection against the elements isa financully justifable amenity for shopping sstects, developed by the Romans fiom the colonnades that surrowaded the Greck ages, has completely died out The remains of such formal streets can sil be found, inter ala, a Paleyra, Perge, Apameia, Sidon, Ephesus, Leptie Magna, and Timngad, "The appearance ofthis type of aret ies fscinating event inthe history of ‘town planing, With the snereased prosperity of Roman rule, a need arose for the uniform and schematic plan of the Greek colonial town to be modified, wath emphasis being placed on arterial roade within the homo- ‘geacous network of steers, and this was achieved by marking thera with parucuby splendid architectural features. They certainly had important functional connotations which today can no longer be clealy surmised. ‘Whatever these connotations were, they had an obviowly commercial 3s swell as symbolic character, in contrast tothe agor and the foram, which ‘were reserved primal for political and religious purposes ‘Weinbrenner, with his proposed scheme for the improveraent of the Katserstasein Karouhe, attempted to revive this idea The Konigehau in ‘Stuttgact designed by Leins could bea fragment of the arcade stvet of Ephesus. The Romane were astoundingly imaginative in perfecting this type of street space. So, for example, changes in the diretion of streets, dictated by existing festuces of the urban structure, were high lighted as cardinal points by having gateways built across them. In the (Galeries St. Huber iy Brassels, this problem has been solved on the same principle By this expedient, the street space is divided up into visually manageable sections, in contast to the seemingly infinite periepetive of the remaining network of seets. It should equally be noted that in sate cases sree broaden out unto squares directly with out their articulation being marked by buildings. The street and the square were conceived a largely independent and autonomous spaces Such devices, used by Roman and Greek town planners to spatial relationships lapsed into oblivion with the decline of the Roman Empire in Europe. olated building types auch asthe forumn and the ‘Time Saver Standards for Urban Design 3.854 uElements of the concept of urben space eta IG if iS @ 55 E a ERG ld Fig. 7. One iype of urban space on tree aierent sales boaica were adopted unchanged in the Middle Ages, for example, in sionuteries The forum wat no louger employed a a public space. Not so in North Aigics and the Near East snd to some extent in Span, weed icon methods. where these ancient types of urban space survived almost ancl vant the turn ofthe cenmury using traditional cons Typology of urban space In formulating a typology of urban space, spatial forms and their de~ Fivatives may be divided into three muin groups, according to the geo setrical pater oftheir ground plan: these groups derive from the square, he ciele oF the angle Without doubs the seale of an urban space is also related to its geo smetrical qualities Seale can only be mentioned i pasing i tis (y= pology. Scale and the significance of proportions in external space do pot affect the arrangement ofthe typology (Fig. 7). Modulation of a given spatial type ‘The plan typology matrix depicted in Fig. 8 shows, reading from top te bottom: 1. The bass clement. 2. The modification of the basic clement cevulting from the Fig. 8 Plan typology matrix. culargement of reduction of the angles contained witia it, where the external dimensions remain constant. 3, ‘The angles remain constant and the length of two sides changes the same proportion, 4, Angles and external dimensions are altered arbiteaily. Reading from left o right, the matrix illustrates the flowing stages of modulation: 41. Angled space. This indicates space that i a compound of two pars of the basic lensent with ewo parallel sides bent 2. This shows only «segment ofthe basic element 3. The basic element is added to, 4. The basic elements overlap or merge, 5, ‘The heading “distortion” inclodes spatial forme that are dificult or impossible to define This category is intended to cover those shapes which ean only with difficulty be taved back to their original geometric model. ‘These shapes may ako be described as species born ovt of chaos. Here the elevation of buildings may be cligorted or concealed to sich an extent that they cat ne longer be distinguished as clear demarcations of space, for example, a Gagade 3.86 ‘Time Saver Standards for Urban Designconcept of urben space «7 fr mirror glass or one completely obscured by advertisements, s0 that a cuckoo-clock a bg asa house stands ne «rears conc, of an advertisement for chewing gum st roam ouside ice phe fof the wal pierced fagade, v fei Even the diniensions ofa space can have a distorting indluence on its cffoct to sich an extent thats ceaesto bear any relation to the org nal The column headed “dirtortion” has not becn completed in snatex, as these shapes cannot be diagrammatically expressed All these ceves of change show regular and iregular configuration How building sections affect urban space The base elemes P stantily ltr the fox 9s can be modified by a great variety of building te twenty-four different section types that sub= of urban epace, as follows 1. Standatd traditional section with pitched roof, 2. With da roof devise roduces the height of the 5. With top oor set back. Th building visible to the eye 4. With a projection on pedestrian level in the form of an arcade of a solid This device distances the pedestrian from the real body of the building and creates pleasing human scale John Nash a his Park Crescent, London, applied this type of section with particular viewonty. Half way up the building, this allows for extensive accets balconies on the upper level, 1 section is reduced by half its depth loots on the lower level and ate with ev ielP eile i WAR 6, Random terracing 7. Slopping elevation wath vertical lower sad upper ie 7, 8. Sloping elevation with protruding ground floor, 9. Stepped section, 10, Sloping section with most of freestanding grown flor Standard section with moat 12, Building with ground floor arcades 15, Building on p 14, Building on plots, with an intermediate door simulaly supported. 5. Sloping ground in font of 6 ly i gir a 16. fice-standing low building placed in fiont ofa higher one, 17/18, Buildings with a very shallow inekine, as, for example, arenas 19 Bualling with arcade above groundlevel and accessto pedestrian level 20, Building with access balcony. 21. Tverted stepped section, 22, Building with pitched projections. Fig 8. Bulding sections. ‘Time Saver Standards for Urban Design 30-7nts of the concept of urben space BBB aaeq J Fig. 10. Flevatons 23. Building with 24. Building with free-stnding towers ach of these building types can be piven a fasade appropriate to its fonction aad method of construction, The sketches reproduced in Figs. 9 and 10 can only give some idea of the inexhaustible desig possibilities, Each of these structures inf ‘acular wy. 1c urban space in a par~ Elevations Notes sketches in Fig. 10 (eading let to righ) 1 Pierced fagade: the lowest love ie 16 generously ghized in exe sketch, reducing the solid area to a simple load-bearing s 2, The glazed aca within the load-bearing structure can be modified according to taste The following three pictures show a reverse of syed in 1.A solid base forces the glazed atea the design proces pe upwar 3. The window type ean be modified horizontally and vertically according to the imapination of the designer. 4, Faceless modular fagade a theoretical (abstract) way in which the building mught be enclosed. The modular fis \dapted all varuitions in the shape of the building. Solid sections of the building can be combined with the grid 5, Windowless buildings: windows are placed in niches, et. and the process starts again fom the begi 6, Exploration of diferent geometries: ath dl smooth the elevation: lowest level-heavy: susiows perforations: wpper part~light, sketches of squates shows 4 variation on this theme on tl of a square. Arcades are placed in front of houses, with diferent architectural styles juxtaposed Intersections of street and square All spatial types examined up to now can be casitied according tothe types of stect intersection laid out in Fig, 11.As an example. a set of permutation Tset up for up to four intersections at for posible points of entry This art should only be taken as an indication of ax almost unlimited range of posible permutations of these spatial forms. To attempt a comprehensive dplay here would condhct with the aims of| this typological ouline the vertical columns of this disgram show the umber of streets im- tersecting with an urban space, Horizontally. it shows four spossible ways in which one oF more assets may intersect with 4 square oF 1. Centrally and at right angles to one side. 2, Of-center and at 3. Mecting a corner a 4. Obligue, at any angle and a any point of entry. ‘Time Saver Standards for Urban Design== a Fig. 1 Intersections of sveet and square, 5. Spatial types and how they may be combined. The morphological clatification of urban spaces may be summarized as follows: Avthe same time the lage number of possible billing sections fla ences the quality of the space 2¢ all these stages of modulation. All sections are fondsmentily applicable to these spatial forms. To the accompanying sketches the intention is to make elear a realsteally 38 ect of individual spatial types so tha this typology can fad of practical wse tothe planer Fig. 12. Spatial ypes and how they mighl be combined The terms “closed” and “open” may be applied to all spatial forms described up to now: that is spaces which are completely or partlly sorrounded by buildings Finally many compound forms ean be crested st will fom the three spatial types and their modulations. In the cae ofall spatial forms, the dbigerentiation of wale phys a particulaly important rol effect of variows achitecraral tyes on the urban space (Fig. 13 and 18). 1 docs Design exercises can be “played on the keyboard” that has just bees described. Apart fiom this “Zorunal” proceduse, oth also have their effect on space, and this effet is not insignificant, These factor are the rules governing building construction, wihich make architec= tural design possible inthe first place, and above all eed we or fanction or a building, which isthe essential prerequisite f architocoril design. The logic of this procedure would therefore de= rand this sequence: fanction, construction and finally the revuleant design. « ‘Time Saver Standards for Urban Design 38-9Fig 18. Lower arcade Fig. 16. Low arcade, wide openings. Fig. 17, Combination of twee deren iapades, Fig. 18, Combination as in Fig, 17, but overgrown with plants, 3.910 ‘Time Saver Standards for Urban Design