Claire BOSC-TIESSE

Méliné MIGUIRDITCHIAN
Sigrid MIRABAUD
Raphaël ROIG

Spirit
and
Materials
of
Ethiopian
Icons

Journal of the Exhibition

 Claire BOSC-TIESSE
Méliné MIGUIRDITCHIAN
Sigrid MIRABAUD
Raphaël ROIG

Spirit
and
Materials
of
Ethiopian
Icons

Journal of the Exhibition

 Spirit and materials of Ethiopian icons
The Museum of the Institute of Ethiopian Studies (IES) today
possesses the largest collection of Ethiopian icons in the world. It counts more
than 300 icons and continues to increase thanks to the acquisitions made by
the Society of Friends which in this way makes possible the preservation of
Ethiopia’s heritage within her borders. Besides its numerical importance, this
collection covers a wide spectrum from the 15th century, the time from which
date the first known icons, until the early 20th century.

A project of analysis of the different materials which make up the

paints, and of the pictorial techniques began in 2009. Its aim is to identify the
materials used, to better understand the techniques employed, and to grasp the
events these paintings have encountered in the course of their multi-century
long existence. This technological study further allows one to understand the
networks of the commissioning of paintings, of their execution as well as their
evolution throughout the centuries, especially from the 15th century to the
18th. Finally, to comprehend how these paintings have been made and what
they are made of is an indispensable preliminary to appropriate restoration.

An Art historian, a painting restorer and a chemist have been working

together to select certain icons on the grounds of their historical import, to take
samples, analyse them and interpret the results of the analyses together with
the historical data in order to further our knowledge of ancient Ethiopian
painting.

A corpus of sixteen icons has thus been selected on the ground of their
importance for the history of ancient Ethiopian painting. The selected icons
first focus on what happened in the artistic circles gravitating around the royal
court in the 15th and early 16th centuries – comparing materials and techniques
of both the Ethiopian painters at the court and the Italian painters employed in
Ethiopia. The study further touches the artistic renewal which took place
around the court recently installed in the new city of Gonder during the first
half of the 17th century, as well as its developments in the 18th century.

This project of analysis of a series of key works in the history of

Ethiopian art is the first of this importance. It is the fruit of a collaboration
between Ethiopian and French institutions, namely the Institute of Ethiopian
Studies (IES), the Authority for Research and Conservation of Cultural
Heritage (ARCCH), the Centre Français des Études Éthiopiennes (CFEE –
French Centre for Ethiopian Studies, Addis Ababa), the Centre de Recherche et
de Restauration des Musées de France (C2RMF – Centre for Research and
Restoration of the French Museums, Paris), the Fondation Carnot (Carnot
Fondation) and the French Agence Nationale pour la Recherche (ANR,
programme « Cornafrique » - French National Agency for Research, Horn of
Africa programme).
 The beginnings of Ethiopian painting
With the conversion to Christianity of the King of Aksum in the 4th
century, Christian texts were progressively translated from Greek then Arabic
into Geez. It is very probable that from this time, the books, manuscripts on
parchment, were illuminated, in all likelihood modeled on the early Christian
manuscripts from Palestine. Witness the oldest preserved paintings, those
which illustrate the Gospels of the Tigrean church dedicated to the holy monk
Garima (Abba Garima) (1). The dating of these paintings is difficult to establish,
sometimes the 6th century is advanced. Anyway, these illuminations are
sometimes considered as witnessing an iconography from the beginnings of
Christianity, now disappeared and only known through its relic in certain
Oriental Churches, such as the Armenian and Ethiopian. 1

It is since the 12th century that paintings, whether in manuscripts or on

the walls of churches, are extent.
In the mountainous massifs of northern Ethiopia, numerous rock-hewn
churches or churches constructed in caves still preserve murals which it is
often difficult to date precisely. It is in the church dedicated to the saintly King
Yemrehanne Krestos that we find the oldest known today, dating to the time of
2 this king, the 12th century (2).

Ethiopian artists do not usually sign their work. On the other hand, the donor
has his/her name inscribed in the prayer formulas and blessings added to the text in
the manuscripts and, more exceptionally, ordered the painting of his/her portrait in a
manuscript or in a cycle of murals. It is the case of King Yekuno Amlak (1270-1285),
represented in the church of Guennete Maryam (“Paradise of Mary”), a few kilometers
from Lalibela (3).
በአኰቴተ፡ እግዚአብሔር፡ ዘአሕነጽኩ፡ አነ፡ ይኵኖ፡ አምላክ፡ ንጉሥ፡ ዘአንገሠኒ፡
እግዚአብሔር፡ በፈቃዱ፡ ንሕዮ፡ በክርስቶስ፡ አቡየ፡ ላእከ፡ ኮነኒ፡ ወአሕነጸ፡ ሊተ፡ ዘንተ፡ ቤተ፡
ክርስቲያን፡ በስመ፡ መጣዕ፡፡ ይምሐረኒ፡ እግዚአብሔር፡ በመንግሥተ፡ ስማያት፡ ምስለ፡ አቡዋንየ፡ 3
መሐሪ፡ አምላክ፡ ወንሕዮ፡ አሜን፡
“In giving thanks to God. It is I who has [this church] built, [I], Yekweno Amlak whom God made king by his [good]
will. My father, Nehyo Bekrestos, was an agent for me to have [and has] this church built in the name of Metta. May God
have mercy upon me in the Kingdom of Heaven with my fathers Meheri Amlak and Nehyo [Bekrestos]. Amen.”

The inscription indicates that the king, by divine will,

constructed or rather hewed this church in the rock.
The royal land endowments of this epoch, which
register the alliance of the king with the monastery
dedicated to the Stephen the martyr, on Lake Hayk
(Hayq Estifanos), are not strangers either to the
development of a workshop in that place. The images of
the abbots Iyesus Mo’a and Krestos Tesfane decorate the
gospels which they offered to their monastery (4). Thus,
the person who orders a work is more easily identified
than the artist. Between the 12th and 18th centuries, the
commissioners of works are, in general, sovereigns, high
ecclesiastics of the kingdom, then the governors of the
4 regions and a few highly placed members of the court.

Ethiopian Painting
 The art of icons in Ethiopia
Ethiopian painters painted icons, but none prior to the 15th century have
been preserved. At that time, the introduction of new rituals in the liturgy
required the production of a great number of icons.
King Dawit (1379/82-1412) had the habit of praying in front of an image of
the Virgin. This veneration that Dawit devoted to the Virgin is at the root of the
Marian policy of his son Zere Yaqob (1434-1468). During the 1440’s, in his
theological treatises and his ‘’Preliminary Rite’’ for the reading of the ‘’Miracles
of Mary’’ which he made obligatory for the thirty-two annual feasts of the
Virgin, he gave precise instructions on the presentation of images of Mary in
public, thus breathing life into a new dynamism to the cult of Mary.

The new rituals introduced into the office of Sunday mid-day and the
Marian feasts required that each church would have a painting of the Virgin on
wood (1). Failing that, the king recommended replacing it with a hand-cross.
The icon of the Virgin had to be carried in procession before being placed upon
a throne under a dais, with a cross to its right. It was incensed according to the
rhythm of hymns and the psalms accompanied by liturgical dances and
processions. 1

Over the last six centuries of Ethiopian Christianity, painters painted a

great number of mobile paintings of different formats and for various uses.
Starting in the 15th century, the texts and practice distinguished a number of
types of icon: large icons used in the liturgy and small icons carried on the
person (2), which do not have the same functions. Amongst the large icons, not
2 every one is invested with the same degree of sacredness.

Certain very rare images, called images of salvation (’’seʿele adheno’’), are
the object of exceptional veneration: taken out on the occasion of an annual
feast, they are handled with extreme care because their power is so feared. The
rest of the time they are guarded carefully in the central sanctuary of the church
(’’meqdes’’) or the treasury (’’eqe biet’’) and the faithful come to prostrate
themselves in front of the building on departing from the office.

The lives of the saints show the miracles accomplished by the Virgin when the
saints pray in front of her image. Thus, George of Segla prayed in front of an icon of
the Virgin, despairing of not being able to understand the teaching which had been
given to him; she appeared to him to give him the cure which enabled him to become
the greatest theologian of his time during the reign of King Dawit (1379/82-1412). In
the same way, in the 15th century, the abbot of Debre Libanos, Merhe Krestos, was
praying in church in front of a painting of the Virgin when the image appeared to him
“clothed in flesh”, leaned towards him and spoke to him.
ወእንዘ፡ ይጼሊ፡ ከመዝ፡ አስተርአየቶ፡ ሥዕል በልብሰተ፡ ሥጋ፡ ወደነነት፡ ሎቱ፡ ከመ፡
ዘትብሎ፡ ሖር፡፡
“When he was praying, the painting appears to him clothed in flesh and leant on
him as she was telling him: go!”

The Art of Icons

 Cross section of the icon

Varnish

Paint layer

Underdrawing

Ground layer

Canvas

Sizing layer
Type 1 (frequent) Type 2 (seldom)
Wood

Landmarks to read the strata

Varnish An organic fluid which becomes, after it has dried, a transparent protective film on the surface of the painting. It is
characterized by its transparency, its flexibility, its ease of application and its brilliance. It saturates the colours.

Paint layer It is made up of two types of elements: the pigment or the dye which gives the colour and the binder which permits to
use the colour as paint.

A pigment is an insoluble coloured material dispersed in a binding medium in order to create a colour. Pigments are mostly inorganic
(minerals, metals) but can also be produced from organic materials (charcoal, lacquer). They can be natural or artificial. Certain
pigments which are found in nature have been artificially recreated. It is case of the orpiment and of realgar which both come in natural
and artificial form. Another example, cinnabar is a natural pigment while its artificial copy is vermilion.
Certain colours are not obtained from pigments but from dyes. Dyes are organic in nature and are extracted from plants. Indigo is one
such example. Dyes are soluble in the binder.

Binders are film-forming substances that bind and congregate pigments or dyes and fix them to the ground layer. Binders are often
organic. They can be of different types: oil; distemper (made of glue or casein); tempera (made of egg); encaustic (made of wax).

Underdrawing Icon painters first draw a preparatory sketch with fine dark lines on the ground layer before painting. It is sometimes
possible to discern the underdrawing through the paint layer.

Ground layer The first stratum of the paint layer is composed of both a pigment (white in the case of the Ethiopian icons)
and a binder. Its role is to make the support (wood or canvas) suitable for painting. It can be either white or coloured, applied
in one or more layers and contributes fully to the colour effect of the painting. The making of the ground layer requires much
care for its role is crucial in the painting process.

Canvas Most of Ethiopian icons are painted directly on wood but, in a number of cases, a piece of cloth is glued onto wood and used
as a support for painting.

Sizing layer In exceptional cases, a sizing layer is laid onto wood to insure the adherence between the canvas and the wooden
support. This sizing layer is an adhesive, whether natural or synthetic. Most are of organic origin and may contain various additives.
Natural adhesives can be obtained using animal bones, beeswax, fish, starch…

Icon: Strata
 n Calcium
milio Sulp
Ver hat
e
I

nd
t
en

igo
im

Blu
Orp

e
Iron Oxide
Minium

rid e
L ea

hlo
dW

rC

e
h it

pe

p
Co
Gre
en E s h
a r th Varni

Colours & Materials

 Calcium sulphate It is a natural mineral white pigment widespread all
around the world. In the Ethiopian as in Southern European paintings (where
it is called gesso), calcium sulphate is the most common mineral used for
ground layers.

Indigo Known for a long time, it is a dye extracted from plants containing
indigotin. When indigo is solved in an oil binder, it takes the shape of nodules
visible in the strata with a microscope. This colour is called ‘’nil’’ in Ethiopia.

Iron oxide This cheap mineral pigment is one of the most abundant on
the earth. Iron oxide pigments produce a wide range of colours, from black
through shades of purple and red to yellow, orange and brown. On our
example, a red one has been mixed with lead white.

Copper chloride It is a natural pigment belonging to the atacamite

family. It is mostly found in arid environments. It can also be produced
artificially by corroding copper. It is usually identified in mural paintings.

Varnish There are different ways of making a varnish. On these icons, the
varnish was made of a drying oil, probably cooked with a drier (lead or cobalt
salts) and applied onto the paint layer. This specific type of icon varnish is
called olifa. It darkens much through time.

Green earth It is a common name for iron coloured clays. According to

the origin of the clay, the colour of this natural pigment can draw towards
yellow or blue. It has little colouring power but it is a very stable pigment.
Prepared by crushing and grinding, it is inexpensive.

Lead white This basic lead carbonate has been one of the first known
artificial mineral pigments and is one of the most used white pigments.
Obtained from lead metal, and therefore quite toxic, it is often blended with
coloured pigments.

Minium Early used in Art, the mineral minium is found in small amounts
in many localities. It is a lead tetraoxide made artificially and is bright red, with
an orange hue. It is sometimes used instead of cinnabar, which is more
expensive.

Orpiment Used since Antiquity, it is a rare, fibrous, bright yellow

mineral. It may be natural and found with red realgar, or artificial. It is highly
toxic for it contains arsenic. In Ethiopia, it is the most frequently used yellow
pigment.

Vermilion Bright red mineral pigment, either natural (cinnabar) or

artificial, it owes its intense red colour to mercury sulphide. One of the main
natural deposits known from Antiquity is Ethiopia. Its manufacture has been
known for very long.

Colours & Materials

 Sampling
After a careful observation of the whole icon, one gets a closer look at it
through a magnifying glass in order to select the most relevant elements to
analyse according to each icon. Analyses require microscopic samples of
material which are taken from already-damaged areas of the painting and then
analysed in the laboratory.

The examination of the organic elements (on the right) explores first the
different strata of the painting (varnish, paint layer, ground layer etc.) by optical
microscopy. Thereafter, their mineral constituents are identified by electronic
microscopy. Therefore a microflake of the edge of a damaged area is removed
with a scalpel.

The analysis of the organic elements (on the left) deals with the chemical
composition of the organic compounds (varnish, binder, adhesive). A tiny
sample of the selected area is scrapped out of the painting with great care.

Preparation
0rganic analysis

After having been scrapped,

the powder, or the microflake, is
solubilised in a solvent. It contains
a chemical reagent that ensures a
chemical reaction to prepare the
molecules for their analysis. This
step is crucial to complete the
compounds identification.

GC - MS

Gas Chromatography - Mass Spectrometry is an analytical technique comprising a gas

chromatograph coupled to a mass spectrometer, whereby complex mixtures of organic
chemicals are separated and identified. In order to be analyzed by GC - MS, molecules must be
volatile and thermally stable.

Chromatogram Samples are analyzed as solutions, so materials of interest (e.g. binders, varnishes, adhesives
etc.) need to be solvent extracted from the paint sample. The extract is injected into the G.C.
inlet where it is vaporized and swept onto a chromatographic column by the carrier gas. The
sample flows through the column and the compounds are separated by virtue of their relative
interaction with the coating of the column (stationary phase) and the carrier gas (mobile phase).
Mass spectra
From the identification of the sample, one can deduce its composition.

The end part of the column passes through a heated transfer line and ends at the ion source of the mass spectrometer.
Molecules are converted to ions by a beam of electrons, giving rise to molecular ions. Due to the high energy imparted to
molecular ions, they are fragmented producing further smaller ions with characteristic relative abundance that provide a
‘’fingerprint’’ for each molecule, hence its identification.

The Processes
 Binocular

Mineral analysis
The analysis starts with an
observation of the sample through a
binocular. If no scientific conclusion
can be drawn, this step is all the
same crucial. It is the best way to
select among all the samples the one
which is worth the whole inorganic
analysis.

Inclusion Optical microscope

The sample is then sealed
in a resin block. It is first put
on a dried resin layer. A
second resin layer is then
layed over it. Thereafter, the
resin block is cut and
polished till the surface of the
sample (dashed line) is
reached.
Once cut and polished, the resin block is observed
through an optical microscope. The microscope enlarges
the picture of the sample (50, 100 or 200 times, as on
our example) and allows viewing its details. Normal light
upper (up right picture) or UV rays (down right picture) can
resin layer be used. A camera is fixed onto the microscope and the
pictures are directly transfered to a computer. Note that
lower
resin layer these pictures do not exactly match the colours that one
can see on the painting.

This step of the analysis gives the scientist the first

clues regarding the pigmentary composition of the paint
layer. Above all, it shows the number of strata, their size
and their location (blending, superimposition etc).
Besides, UV rays can indicate particular areas or coats
invisible through normal light. This information will
help performing the Scanning Electron Microscopy
(SEM) study.

Scanning Electron Microscopy (SEM) is a technique using the

SEM interaction between an electron beam and the atom nuclei of the
sample. This interaction gives birth to back-scattered electrons
1 = EDS detector
(secondary electrons), which provide major information about the
1 atomic composition and homogeneity of the mineral compounds of
2 = Electron source
2 3 = Column the sample. On the picture thus obtained, the scientist observes the
4 = Sample holder
5 = Secondary electron detector
shape and the brightness of the grains on each area. They are the clues
3 of the chemical composition of the layers.

5 Thereafter, the most interesting areas are selected to carry out an

4
Energy Dispersion Spectroscopy (EDS). It will perform the elementary
analysis of the sample by providing the chemical composition of each
layer and/or selected grain. Different spectra are extrapolated. This
final step ensures the identification of the pigments of the paint layer.

of Analysis
 The Icon The palette

If one looks at the icon with the
naked eye, and then through UV
rays, one can see how it has been
composed and establish a list of
the colours used and the manner
they were applied.
This particular icon was
executed by the Italian painter
Nicolo Brancaleon, from Venice.
We do not know how old he was
when he landed in Ethiopia in the
beginning of the 1480’s, or what his
training had been in Italy. However,
there is reason to believe that he
came when he was young because
he worked at the Ethiopian king’s
court for a solid forty years. The
study of this icon permits one to
distinguish what came from his
Italian training and what came
from his acculturation to Ethiopia.
Addis
As it appears to the naked eye, the painter used primary colours, that is yellow
(1), blue (3) and red, and complemented his palette with green (4), orange (6),
deep red (7), white and black. However, the oxidised varnish (5) caused blisters to
appear on the surface of the painting, thereby hindering the reading of the work. In
fact, certain colours seem to have been mixed. For example, in the case of the
mantles of the apostles (3, 4), it is difficult to distinguish blue from green. Does this
effect come from the painter’s technique or from the weathering of the materials?
To render the folds of the drapes, the painter superimposed the coloured layers:
strokes of blue on the red cloth (2). On the front of the icon, the coloured layer is
covered with a thick coat of varnish (5). This varnish is not present in the lacunae,
which may indicate that it could be original. It is heavily oxidised. Small circular
blisters, brown in colour, are visible. This type of damage evokes a particular type
of varnish found on Russian icons, the oil-based olifa.
On the painting, we can also observe moisture developing (8). Has it reached the
coloured layer or is it located in the varnish only? Examination with a microscope
will answer this question. Besides, the penetration of the varnish into the coloured
layer may make it difficult to identify the binder. Since the backs of the panels are
not varnished, a sample was taken from the coloured layer of the left panel to
determine the nature of the binder.
3
4
6 7
1 5
8

Paris

x S03 x S10
The mineral analysis

Yellow is always orpiment (S03). Red is principally obtained from vermillion

(S01). To make orange, the painter takes vermilion and lightens it with
orpiment (S02). Flesh tones are made from vermillion lightened with lead
x S01 white (S14). On the other hand, to make deep red there is a different mixture: x S11
lead white and iron oxide (S10).
Red is often laid down in two layers. The sample taken from the cloak of one
of the apostles shows that this piece of clothing is made with a first thin layer
of vermillion followed by a second layer composed of titanium-iron oxide
(S04). This second layer was a way of brightening a fold of the cloak.
x S02 Other results reveal the use of pigments which presents both Ethiopian and x S13
Italian particularities. In fact, like Ethiopian painters, Brancaleon mixed
orpiment with green earth to make green (S13), doubtless to make the green
earth, which could be dull, more luminous.
He made the blue in a very ordinary way, mixing some lead white with an
organic dye (S11). Less ordinary was the way he laid down the blue in two layers
x S14 of different colours (S04), blue over red. It seems that was an intentional x S04
superimposition, such as one could find in Italian painting of that time. The
presence of red under blue enables one to warm the colour by giving it a violet
tint. This technique is often found in Italian painting of that time (particularly
in Raphael and his workshop).

From Addis Ababa

 The sampling

The work of observation has allowed us to identify the different constituent Different samples were taken, depending
materials and to select those which it is interesting to sample for scientific on the aim envisaged:
analysis in the laboratory. However, we have to be sure to sample the original - The first sample reveals the stratigraphy of
material. For that, the paint must first of all be examined under UV to locate the work from the varnish to the wood in
possible areas of repainting and therefore not to sample the restoration order to identify the different layers and
materials. their thickness. The cross-section of the
strata (sample S03) enables one to
understand the general structure of the
x S03
x S14 work.
- A series of samples will be done to identify
the organic materials: the nature of the
varnish (S08, 10), the binding agent on the
x S10
back and front (S16) and the dye.
- Another series of samples is done to
x S04 analyze the inorganic materials, primarily
the pigments which are most often minerals:
x S13 o S01: to identify the red pigment;
o S02: to identify the orange pigment;
x S08 o S04: to identify the blue pigment;
o S10: to identify the black and deep red
x S02 pigments;
o S11: to identify the red pigment of the
x S01 Virgin’s cloth and its blue highlights;
x S16 x S11 o S13: to identify the bluish green pigment;
o S14: to identify the colour of the flesh areas.

The organic analysis

The layer of varnish is present in all the cross-sections. We

can see it here through binocular (down left picture) and
optical microscope (down right picture). It fluoresces strongly
under UV rays. It is covered with a fine layer of encrustation, in
which are found the elements making up the earth. The
varnish is not made only of oil. It could in fact be olifa, a layer
of cooked oil with a drying agent, placed on icons to fill in the
porosity of the pictorial layer and protect it. It is applied once
the icon has dried completely (a few months after being
completed therefore). This varnish has the characteristic of
oxidising very fast and becoming almost black. Brancaleon was
Venetian and it is possible that he had been exposed to the
creation of icons, considering the strong links which united
Venice and Byzantium before the fall of the latter (1453).

The binder of the painting is neither composed of oil nor of

resin, it is therefore a binder with a protein base. The
stratigraphy below shows that the moisture is only developing
in the varnish and could be removed without touching the
coloured layer.

to Paris
 The work of the painter Fere Seyon under the patronage of King Zere Yaqob
The work of Merqoryos - Brancaleon
In the beginning of the 15th century, King Dawit (1379/80-1412) is the
most influential patron. He commissioned the writing, the translation and the
illustration of texts. One of them is the book of the “Miracles of Mary”
translated from Arabic to Geez. This book was destined to be given an
outstanding place in the Ethiopian liturgy. To the original corpus of miracles, a
number of local events which involved Ethiopian kings and nobles were added
1
in the course of time. In the first copy of this collection, kept in Amba Geshen,
Dawit had himself represented in prayer in front of the Virgin. Exceptionally, in this manuscript, Mary’s name and
nimbo are highlighted with gold (1).
King Zere Yaqob (1434-1468) inherited from his father, Dawit, his devotion to Mary as intercessor between
God and people. Zere Yaqob composed a large number of homilies in which he defined the creed and practice of
the Ethiopian Church.

In the 15th century therefore, the new religious policy and the
multiplication of feasts in honour of Mary necessitated the production of many
icons. Only one of the painters at the service of Zere Yaqob is known by name
because he signed of his works, a large icon (1.77 meter high) kept at the
monastery of Daga Estifanos on Lake Tana (2). It reads : [ዛ]ቲ፡ ሥዕል፡ ተገብረ[ት፡]
በመዋእሊሁ፡ (ለ)ንጉሥነ፡ ዘርአ፡ ያዕቆብ፡፡ ወአበ፡ ምኔትነ፡ ይስሐቅ፡ ዘዳጋ፡ ወሠአሊ[ሃ]፡
ፍሬ፡ ጽዮን፡ ነዳይ[፡ ወኃ]ጥእ፡ ዘደብረ፡ ጕጕቤን፡፡ ዝክሩኒ፡ በጸሎ[ት]ክ[ሙ፡] ደቂቀ፡ [ዛቲ፡
መ]ካን፡ ለዓለም፡ ወዓለም፡ አሜን፡ ወአሜን፡፡ “This painting has been done during
the days of King Zere Yaqob and of our abbot Yeshaq of Daga. I am the painter,
Fere Seyon, poor sinner from Debre Gwegweben. Remember me in your
prayers, you children of this place, forever and ever, amen, amen.”
This inscription is exceptional because of the information it provides: the
time, the patronage, the destination of the work, the painter’s identity and
2 monastic origin.

Fere Seyon was not the only painter to have worked in such
circumstances. Nevertheless he did contribute to develop a distinct style which
influenced the Marian pictures of the second half of the 15th century. The flesh
tones are painted in flat tints, faces are oval, noses and brows are drawn with
one continuous line. Drapes result from the juxtaposition of hues of the same
colour suggesting the folds. There are no ornamental patterns (3). 3

In the 15th century’s second half, Italian craftsmen, among whom painters, came to work at the court at the
request of Ethiopian kings. Only the work of Venetian Nicolo Brancaleon is identified. He signed his paintings
either with this Italian name or with his Ethiopian name, Merqoryos. He reached Ethiopia in the 1480’s and
worked at the court particularly Lebne Dengel’s (1508-1526) who entrusted him with the decoration of royal
churches. Later on, Ethiopian painters such as a certain Afnin painted in the same style called Italianate. This style
is characterized by the somewhat naturalistic rendering of the human bodies.
Their shapes are slightly plump and the flesh tones more realistic in style.
Brancaleon highlights the folds of the drapes in black and sometimes in yellow.
The veil of the Virgin is transparent. Angels who flank Mary are rendered in an
Italian style. Flowers and stars adorn the clothes. Like in the paintings from Fere
Seyon’s circle, the backgrounds are also painted with plain colours but the
4 painter often draws a piece of furniture on them (4).

The History
 17th and 18th century development of painting in the royal capital
The First and Second Gonder Schools
In the second half of the 16th century, the centre of the Christian kingdom
moved westwards into the Lake Tana region. This new geopolitical
configuration was consolidated during the 17th century by the setting up of a
new capital at Gonder, some 60 km northwards, and the building of royal
residences on the eastern and southern shores of the lake, in the regions of
Begemder and Gojjam, where the 17th and 18th centuries monarchs spent time.
In 1636-1637, King Fasiledes established himself in Gonder, where he built
a palace and churches in stone and lime mortar. Under his successors, city
development continued and each sovereign added his own structures. Some
civilian buildings used to display murals both outside and inside, as
documented by texts and some rare traces depicting animal and geometric
patterns on the walls of King Susenyos’ residence of Denqez.
Kings, nobles and Church dignitaries commissioned murals for the
churches, which at that time were regularly built on a circular plan, as well as
new cycles of illuminations in manuscripts. A new artistic form developed,
rooted in 15th century art and renewed through the inspiration brought about
by Western engravings, which provoked the rulers’ enthusiasm.
By reference to the capital city and assuming that it was the centre of the
art production, this new form of art was called “Gondarine.” Developed over a
period of two centuries, Gonder art comprises two successive phases clearly
distinguished by stylistic and iconographic criteria. Features, facial modelling,
the use of colour and decorative patterns dramatically changed from one to the
other.

The First Gonder style appeared in the 17th century. It is characterised by

the predominance of blue, red and yellow colours. In icons, the background is
painted in flat tints, plain or bi-coloured, but each neatly separated. The shades
on the face are marked in a schematic manner like red masks on flesh tones. The
ornamental patterns are sober and follow geometrical lines: parallel colour
strokes form bands filled with a series of strokes or oblique dots. The drapes of
the Virgin’s mantle are drawn like hairpins. The highlights of the folds look like
those on 15th century paintings (1). 1

It is during the last decade of the 17th century, under the reign of Iyasu 1st
(1682-1706), that the changes began which brought about the Second Gonder
style. In development during the 18th century, this style is known for its palette
of lively and varied colours, from the use of yellow, green and red (deep, intense,
saturated red and green) backgrounds, using the technique of graduated
colours, and from a general plumpness, especially in the rendering of the faces,
rounded with a careful distribution of soft shading in brown. The ornamental
patterns, borrowing from floral motifs, are more exuberant. The blue cape of
Mary suggests a patterned cut-velvet fabric (2). Light and shade were
introduced, as well as the use of graduated colours. In the background, a bright
yellow colour is juxtaposed with dark red and green, while colours blend in the
2 adjacent areas, creating the effect of softness and luminosity.

In the 18th century, the illustrated themes multiply. For example, the
miracle of the Apparition of the Virgin Mary at Debre Metmaq, told in the
“Miracles of Mary” and the “Synaxary,” is depicted.

of Painting
 Techniques and colour effects

Ground layer
Through the lacunae of the coloured layer, we can see the white
ground layer (1), made of calcium sulphate. This ground layer was applied
directly onto wood. Not only was it applied onto the face of the board but
also onto its sides and back, which indicates a careful preparation of the
whole object.

Underdrawings and modelling

By transparency, we observe black lines underneath the coloured layer in the flesh areas (faces and
hands). These black lines represent either underdrawings or shades rendering modelling. In both cases,
these lines were drawn with a brush.
Underdrawings: a preparatory sketch
Drawn with black lines, the preparatory sketch was normally covered over with paint. However, in
some cases (2), we can still discern the sketch when looking carefully at the contours of clothes and
nimbi.
Underdrawings to create modelling
Wide black lines appear underneath the paint layer to mark the folds of the neck of the Virgin, and
again under the mouth and between the nose and the eyes (3). That could be a trial-drawing.
Nonetheless, the shades created by such lines under the paint layer mould the face.

Choosing and applying colours

While flesh tones and background are painted in flat tints, drapes result from the juxtaposition of
hues of the same colour suggesting the folds. In other words, it is the scale of hues that renders the
drape. In the case of yellow drapes, however, the folds are green, which may suggest a different
principle.
The painter of this icon generally applied one paint layer only, but the latter may be made of several
pigments. However, the blend in this case is quite simple. The painter adds to an expensive pigment an
inexpensive earth within the same colour scale: addition of ochre to orpiment, of red earth to minium,
of green earth to copper chloride. The earth works as load giving more substance to the matter.
In some cases, the paint is produced from mixing pigments of two different colours: the green of
Jesus’ mantle (4) is a blend of yellow orpiment and green earth. Spots of orpiment are clearly visible
in the green.
The case of the dark blue folds of the Virgin’s mantle is exceptional (5). There, two paint layers are
superimposed: one made of a blue dye and lead white, the other a light yellow made of orpiment and
lead white. The yellow layer, precisely, although invisible to the naked eye, does have a visual impact: it
produces a luminous effect which, in turn, gives an impression of volume to the folds of the mantle.

Decoration of the back

There are icons, like this one, whose back is also decorated. On the back of one panel, the outlines
of the arabesques were not drawn but incised in the ground layer (6).
A vertical and a horizontal line cross each other in the middle of the panel. They must have been
helpful to distribute the patterns.

A layer of beeswax applied later

A layer of beeswax as applied all over the surface of the paint layer, including over the lacunae and
the two late inscriptions. It is therefore an even fresher layer. Beeswax was often used to restore
paintings in order either to protect the paint layer or to consolidate it.
In oblique illumination (7), we note the horizontal traces of a wide brush which reveal how this
layer was applied. It gives a smooth aspect to this very well preserved icon which has needed only
infrequent repaintings throughout the centuries.

Observing
 Inscriptions

Three types of inscriptions were written on the painting. These

inscriptions are of three different styles and epochs. Their contents tell of
three different moments in the history of the icon.

ጴጥሮስ፡ ወጳውሎስ፡ ‘’Peter and Paul’’ ያዕቆብ፡ ወዮሐንስ፡ ‘’Jack and John’’
The red inscriptions on the frame, as well on the painting itself, are the oldest. They give the name of each person
represented. The writing is typical of the 15th century. Therefore, it is contemporary with the elaboration of the painting.
In black on the frame of Under Saint George’s horse, in the
the left panel, the second bottom right, the third inscription, also
inscription is very incomplete. written in black, is a late legal act ordering
It is a deed of property or a the occupation of a certain territory by an
donation. According to the army.
writing, it may date back to
the 17th or 18th century.

Making and uses

The wooden board was hollowed
out, the reserved edges being the frame.
The edges were carved and painted with
an imitation of inlaid gems.
Holes were pierced in the frame in
order to have a cord pass through,
binding the two panels together and
allowing opening or closing of the
The two panels were pierced in the
diptych.
corners in order to hang the icon.

The enigma of the crown

After having finished the painting of the veil and the nimbus of the Virgin,
the painter decided to add a crown around the head of the Virgin, but he did not
complete his task. This crown is drawn with a double light red and black line but
is not painted. The line passes over the veil of the Virgin, over her nimbus and
even over the wings of the archangels. Thus, the painter changed his mind twice:
a first time while wishing to transform the aureoled Virgin into a crowned
Virgin, a second time when he discontinued the drawing. The examination with
UV rays confirms that the drawing of the crown is of the same period as the rest
of the icon.
The theme of the crowned Virgin, Queen of Heaven, appears discretely in
Ethiopia in the 15th century. It will develop during the 18th century.
This is an example of Crowned Virgin painted in the same period of time.
(icon of the IES collection, IESMus n°4117).

an Icon
 Layers upon layers, the evolution of an icon through time
Ethiopian icons have long and complex histories. A number of
paintings, as we see them today, are made of different layers
accumulated on top of one another throughout the centuries. The
colours are refreshed or even changed, contours are drawn again,
pieces of cloth are patched over older layers of paint, inscriptions
are either added, erased or hidden. Through this process, the life
of an icon may be prolonged.
The icon of Saint George, a triptych signed by an Italian painter
living in Ethiopia, Brancaleon, is a perfect example of the different
phases an icon can undergo through time. On the central panel,
Saint George is killing the dragon while the lateral panels show his
martyrdom.
By analysing this painting, we come across the major retouching
methods: repaints within lacunae (see the explanatory cleared
areas), repaints on cloth patched onto the icon (white dashed
outlines) and contours drawn again on the coloured layers (white
outlines). Both by microscoping the stratigraphy of the icon and
looking at it through UV rays enable one to complement the
naked-eye observation of the techniques used and the information
provided by stylistic and palaeographical studies. Although it is
difficult to draw up a complete chronology of the different
retouchings, we are able to discern the following sequence:
The icon was painted by a painter named Merqoryos, i.e.
Brancaleon, active between the years 1480 and 1520. He wrote his
name under the rear hooves of Saint George’s horse. All the
captions (yellow outlines) have been written by Brancaleon at the
same time.
Repainting over lacunae
Saint George's triptych by Brancaleon has been severely
damaged through time. In many places, the original paint
layer as well as the varnish layer has totally disappeared.
The three examples given here clearly show the extent
of the damages affecting the painting. The wood has been
directly repainted, without any ground layer. It is a work of
maintenance which does not aim at creating new patterns.
The repainted lacunae are represented by the cleared
areas on the central picture. The top left picture shows
how UV rays permit their localization. They appear as
dark and opaque areas.
It is difficult then to tell in what order the following
developments took place. The damaged painting has been
retouched in different ways and at different times:
- At a given time, the caption naming the subject-matter of the
painting (se‘ela qeddus giyorgis, "Image of Saint George") was
covered by a new paint layer.
- In certain areas, the superimposition of several colours indicates
that the original colour was replaced.
- A varnish layer was then applied over the whole icon, and
particularly over the two previous coloured layers. It is therefore
not original. Nevertheless, it was not applied over the repainted
areas, whether on lacunae or cloth.
It is after varnishing that the icon was retouched in the three
following ways, possibly at different times:
- Lacunae were painted over.
- Pieces of cloth were patched up in order to repair certain
damaged areas. Saint George's head was repainted on cloth during
the 17th century.
- In some cases, fresher outlines in red and black were redrawn
over the varnish layer.
Generations of wear and retouching and subsequent wear all
may be part of the icon's meaning and aesthetic. Although most
repainted areas have been treated rather roughly, the overall
impression is that the icon has preserved its integrity.
Inscriptions
Captions systematically give the names of the depicted
characters and comment on all the scenes of Saint
George’s martyrdom. According to their form, they were
all written by the same person, most likely Nicolo
Brancaleon himself, called Merqoryos in Ethiopia.
Therefore, they are original.
Written in yellow ink, they are sometimes barely
readable. In addition to weathering, they also suffered
from restoration campaigns. Captions were sometimes
hidden under touched-up areas. Missing letters have been
thrown into oblivion.
Located under the rear hooves of the horse, in the
lower-left hand corner, the following caption provides us
with the name of the painter:
ለዝንቱ፡ ሥዕል፡ ሰአልክዎ፡ አነ፡ መርቆርዮስ፡ አፍርንጊ
“I, Merqoryos (Mercurius) the Faranji (the Frank), I have
painted this painting.”
Archaeology

Piece of cloth
Hidden
inscription
Repainting over lacunae
The picture above is a good example of how UV
analysis makes easier the localization of the
different changes the icon had underwent.
This icon was originally directly painted on a white
ground layer made of calcium sulphate (or gesso).
The icon has been restored several times century
after century. During one of these operations, pieces
of cloth were patched directly onto the wood in order
to hide some damage. The elements which had
disappeared have been repainted on the cloth
without a ground layer.
There are five such cloth patches on the icon (their
locations are indicated by the white dashed outlines):
- Two small strips are located on the top left and top
right of the painting. They may hide the captions of
the two matching scenes which happen to be the only
scenes without captions.
of an Icon
Retouching the outlines
If we look closely at the painting, we
may discern original drawings under an
organic varnish layer: the faded outlines
of the original faces, loincloths and
shield.
Through time, the varnish became
opaque, therefore progressively
screening these drawings. It may be for
this reason that someone drew new
outlines on the varnish, creating other
features for the old characters and
objects. This painter also added blue and
especially red touches in order to
underline the bloody aspect of George's
martyrdom.
Repainting on cloth
- On the edge of Saint Kiros' nimbo, one may see the naked cloth,
stripped of paint.
- A larger piece of cloth is patched between Saint Ewotastewos and
Saint Kiros. Saint Ewotastewos' mantle was originally green (as we see
on the left) whereas the restorer painted it blue (on the right).
- The most impressive patch is the one that covers an area which
suffered a lot of damage and where a new head was painted for Saint
George. The red mask, which renders the shades of the face, is
characteristic of the First Gonder Style which developed during the 17th
century. The original painting is likely to have been completely erased
when the cloth was glued. Therefore, nobody will ever know what the
original face of the saint looked like.
- These restorations are very weathered.
 The life of an icon: Uses and re-uses
From the moment when they were commissioned, icons have crossed the centuries and survived for generations: people who
commissioned them, those who prepared the boards, hollowing the frames, those who painted them, those who contemplated them in
prayer, those who bequeathed and inherited them… These people, whether anonymous or not, have left traces on the icons. They had
their names, or prayers, even deeds of ownership, written on them.
The icons have been incensed at church, illuminated with wax tapers and melted wax occasionally smeared them. In their making or
maintenance, elements of older objects may have been incorporated. And so, the icon does not witness to the time of their creation only
but also of all the ages they have crossed right up to the present.

The donors

By and large, donors remain anonymous. Sometimes, inscriptions on the icon itself
offer clues even if they do not provide complete information about the painter, the donor,
the owner, the occasion for which it was made...

For example, the inscription on the top right of the icon IESMus n°3789 (down left
picture) reads:
ዝንቱ፡ ሥዕል፡ ዘፍቁረ፡ ድንግል፡ ዘአጥረዮ፡ በንዋዩ፡
‘’This icon belongs to Fequra-Dengel; he has acquired it with his ressources.’’

Although Fequra-Dengel is the owner of the icon, the inscription does not tell whether
it is he who ordered it. It seems to have been written by the same hand as the captions. We
can therefore expect they may belong to the same period of time. He paid for it either in
kind or with a monetary equivalent like salt-bars. Did he acquire it for his home or in order
to present it to a church as a token of his involvement in the community?
During the course of the 18th
century, donors are more and more
represented, whether lying down
or standing up, arms crossed over
their chest in a posture denoting
humility and prayer (IESMus
n°3524, on the top).

The re-use of materials

On the back of the icon IESMus n°3789, a drawing was incised in the wood. It depicts the Virgin
with the Child, flanked by the archangels Michael and Gabriel, whose wings form a canopy above the
Virgin.
In its original condition, the panel was larger by a few centimetres. As a matter of fact, one letter
belonging to the name of each archangel has been severed as were their feet. Furthermore, a
fragmentary pattern which may have been an angle ornament remains on the top left corner.
From its proportions, we can deduce that it may originally have been a side panel of a mediaeval
altar (’’menbere tabot’’), as found in Lalibala for example. Damaged, the altar may not be utilised any
longer and, therefore, the boards could be used for another religious purpose.

The Life of
 The re-appropriations of the object

The three inscriptions written on icon IESMus n°3980 tell of three different moments in the history of the icon.

The first inscriptions (in red) name the individuals represented in the painting and are contemporary with its elaboration.
The second inscription, in black on the frame of the left-hand panel is very incomplete and one of the fragments of text that we
can read says: ወሰበኩ፡ ዘንተ፡ ሥዕለ፡ ለ…. ‘’And they made this image of...’’, making allusion to the history of the making of the
image. The text ends with a formula of excommunication and indicates anyway a physical or symbolic re-appropriation of the
object by someone or a community of thos epoch.
The third inscription, also black but much later, is of totally different nature. ወሰራአነ፡ አዲ፡ ከመ፡ ይኩን፡ ሃራ፡ ምድረ፡ ወዳድ፡ ዘሃሎ፡
በገጠባ፡ ወለጕና፡ ወከመ ኢይግብኡ፡ ስዩማነ፡ ምድር፡ አውገዝነ፡ ‘’Again, we have established an army on the territory of Wadād which is
found at Gatabā and Lagwenā and, so that the chiefs of the territory do not enter there, we have threatened with
excommunication.’’

Thus we have inscriptions with three different natures:

- Inscriptions which name individuals represented and in this way ‘’make’’ their portrait.
- An inscription too incomplete to extract much information but which refers to the painting and the threat of excommunication
of those who touch it. There is therefore a good bet that this inscription indicates a moment where some individuals
appropriates or re-appropriates the painting, eventually interfering with it and uttering threats of excommunication against
anyone who in his turn appropriates it.
- The third inscription is of a different nature: it is a legal deed which does not concern the painting but is written on the painting
like it would be in a manuscript, as if the value of the painting protected the deed and confirmed its validity. The painting is a
safe place where the deed is protected.

The liturgical use

Inside the churches, paintings are leaning against the walls, whether laid on the
floor or sitting on a bed (’’alga’’). With the murals, they contribute to the visual
atmosphere which pervades the church. Certain icons, pierced with holes, must have
been hung after the wall of the church or of another building in the church
compound (right picture, IESMus n°3980).
In fact, the ‘’Life of SaintMerha-Krestos’’, a 15th century abbot of the monastery
of Debre Libanos, alludes to an icon of the Virgin that was hung on the door of the
construction were the Eucharistic bread and wine are prepared (’’biete-lehem’’).

During Mass when the church is open, the faitful may come and prostate before
images, place a candle there or an offering of incense. On that occasion or during the
processions, tears of candle grease sometimes fall on the objects (here on the icon
IESMus n°3980).

an Icon
 This journal summarizes the panels presented in the exhibition held
at the Institute of Ethiopian Studies (IES, Addis Ababa). The whole results of
the analysis done by the C2RMF (Centre de recherche et de restauration des
musées de France – Centre for Research and Restoration of the French
Museums) will be published in a specific book. The analysed icons are the
following: IESMus 3980, 4053, 10249, 4191, 4325, 3789, 5093, 7071, 4126, 7132,
4232, 6793, 6967, 3524, 4144, 4494.

Selective bibliography
‘’African Zion, the sacred art of Ethiopia’’, 1993, catalogue of the exhibition,
Roderick GRIERSON ed., Catalogue by Marilyn HELDMAN with Stuart C.
MUNRO-HAY, New Haven – London, Yale University Press.

BOSC-TIESSE Claire & WION Anaïs, 2005 : ‘’Peintures sacrées d’Éthiopie.

Collection de la mission Dakar-Djibouti’’, Paris, Sépia.

CAMPBELL Ian, June 2004: ‘’A Historical Note on Nicolò Brancaleon as

Revealed by an Iconographic Inscription’’, Journal of Ethiopian Studies,
XXXVII/1, 83-102.

CHOJNACKI Stanislaw, 2000: ‘’Ethiopian Icons. Catalogue of the Collection of

the Institute of Ethiopian Studies’’, Addis Ababa University, Milan, Skira.

HELDMAN Marilyn E., 1994: ‘’The Marian icons of the painter Fre Seyon. A
Study in Fifteenth Century Ethiopian Art’’, Patronage and Spirituality,
Wiesbaden, Harrassowitz.

Photo credits
© Méliné Miguirditchian
© Marilyn Heldman
© Michael Gervers - Mäzgäbä Səəlat – Treasury of Ethiopian Images
 FONDATION CARNOT
AGENCE NATIONALE DE LA RECHERCHE

ISBN 978 99944 808 74