WETLANDS IN URBAN ENVIRONMENTS

Wetlands in the urban context

The study examines the survival of wetlands in urban settings by analyzing data from
the National Wetlands Inventory. The study focused on five major cities and found
that three of them have more wetland area than nearby rural areas, potentially due to
intensive agriculture in non-urban areas. However, New York City and Chicago had
less wetland area than nearby rural areas. The study also found that all large cities
with coastal locations retained large areas of coastal wetlands, while riverine wetlands
were poorly represented within most cities. The findings suggest that urban regions
may actually support more wetland areas than nearby rural regions and that the
representation of different wetland types varies among cities and between cities and
their adjacent rural areas, likely reflecting regional geology and historical land-use
patterns. Overall, the study highlights the complex relationships between wetland
distribution, urbanization, and regional characteristics.

Hydrology

The study discusses how urban development alters land surfaces, which consequently
affects the partitioning of precipitation between infiltration and surface run-off. This
impact on hydrologic forcing factors has significant implications for wetland structure
and function. Notably, the direct channeling of urban stormwater runoff from
impervious surfaces to streams results in rapid peak flows, higher discharge levels,
swift recessions, decreased base flow, larger discharge variations, changes in seasonal
patterns, and an alteration of channel morphology. Additionally, infrastructure such as
ditches, berms, and drainage for mosquito and flood control modify water tables and
surface flow patterns, creating novel hydrologic regimes. These alterations lead to
lower water tables in wetlands, causing extended dry periods and 'flashy,' rapidly
changing hydrographs. Moreover, wastewater and storm runoff inputs contribute to
altering stream flow and the loading of nutrients and pollutants. Overall, the paper
emphasizes the significant impact of urban development on hydrological processes,
particularly on wetland ecosystems, and highlights the need for sustainable urban
planning and stormwater management to mitigate these effects.

Nutrients and pollutants in urban wetland environments

Urban wetlands face contamination from various sources, including nutrients, heavy
metals, sediment, pathogens, pesticides, and pharmaceuticals. While urban wetlands
are presumed to enhance water quality by removing or sequestering pollutants, there
is limited specific research on their pollutant removal capacity. Most attention has
been on nitrogen removal, which is impeded by hydrologic changes that lead to
aerobic soil conditions inhibiting denitrification. Changes in wetland nitrogen

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processing can also occur due to alterations in soil properties, such as pH and sand
content. Phosphorus concentrations in urban wetland soils and plant tissues are often
elevated, with sediment trapping and infiltration being the most effective removal
mechanisms. Urban-associated metals and organic contaminants accumulate in
wetlands receiving high sediment inputs, potentially impacting the food web. Root-
associated microbes in coastal urban wetlands have demonstrated dehalogenation
capability, offering potential mitigation of toxic pollution. However, there is a limited
understanding of toxic substances in freshwater urban wetlands, with most research
focusing on estuarine wetlands. Overall, there is a need for a more comprehensive
study of pollutant removal and management in urban wetland environments.

Plant communities

The paper discusses the impact of urbanization on wetland plant communities and the
invasion of nonnative species. It highlights that urban wetlands are often invaded by
exotic species due to physical and anthropogenic disturbances. However, there are
varying levels of invasion, and different types of urban land use may affect invasion
rates differently. Additionally, the paper emphasizes that the presence of exotic
species in wetlands can be influenced by factors such as soil characteristics, adjacent
land use, nutrient availability, and disturbances associated with human activities. The
study also explores the variability in vegetation structure and diversity in urban
wetlands compared to non-urban wetlands. It notes that wetland size is strongly
correlated with overall plant diversity, and fragmentation is characteristic of urban
wetlands. The paper highlights the need for further examination of urban wetland
vegetation in relation to biogeochemical and ecosystem functions, as well as the role
of plant community characteristics and functions in determining wetland values.
Overall, the paper emphasizes the complex nature of urban land use and its impact on
plant communities in wetlands, calling for further exploration in this field.

Animal communities of urban wetlands

The animal communities in urban wetlands exhibit similar patterns to plant

communities, showing an increased presence of exotic, cosmopolitan, and tolerant
species and a decrease in native species dependent on intact natural habitats. These
changes are influenced by alterations in the wetland's physical environment, including
habitat patches, water quality, and the loss of surrounding upland habitat. Bird
communities are also impacted by urbanization, with factors like plant community
structure and connectivity to other habitats affecting their composition and
abundance. Studies in Ohio, the Pacific Northwest, and the semi-arid mid-west have
shown that the composition of breeding bird communities is strongly related to the
amount of forested land and roads within a 1 km radius. Individual bird species and
guilds respond uniquely to vegetation and landscape structure, with some species

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being more abundant in urban-affected wetlands. Disturbance-intolerant species are
less common in urban wetlands, while exotic species are more prevalent. Urban
wetlands may provide poor nesting habitat for some species but are important as stop-
over sites during migrations. The presence of exotic and disturbance-tolerant bird
species correlates with the abundance of exotic plant species, highlighting linkages
among different components of the wetland ecosystem. Overall, the findings suggest
that urbanization significantly influences the composition and abundance of animal
communities in wetlands, with implications for conservation and management
strategies.

Wetland management in urban landscapes

Large wetland complexes are increasingly recognized for their ecosystem services and
non-use values, leading to growing efforts to preserve and restore urban wetlands. In
the New York area, the Hackensack Meadowlands of New Jersey have been heavily
impacted by drainage for agriculture, infrastructure development, and resource
extraction. Despite degradation and invasive species, the area supports high plant,
bird, fish, and mammal diversity. The region is now the focus of a comprehensive
restoration and protection effort, despite the challenges of invasive species and
contamination with nutrients, heavy metals, PCBs, and dioxins. In China, the
government has established national urban wetland parks, such as the XiXi National
Wetland Park in Hangzhou, covering nearly 10 km2. The park integrates historic
buildings with conservation areas and offers educational programming on wetland
functions and values, receiving thousands of visitors annually. These examples
highlight the increasing attention and investment in urban wetland preservation and
restoration, despite the challenges of degradation, invasive species, and
contamination.

Research directions

The research paper discusses the lack of research on the functions and services of
wetlands in urban areas, which creates a challenge for managers in maintaining these
areas. The paper highlights the need for research on wetland and urban ecology
across a greater range of wetland types, climates, hydrologic regimes, urban land uses,
and socioeconomic systems than currently exists. Additionally, there is a call for more
research on the hydrologic responses of non-riparian, groundwater, and precipitation-
fed wetlands to urbanization. Understanding nutrient and pollutant retention
mechanisms in urban wetlands other than riparian sites is also identified as a critical
research need. Furthermore, the paper emphasizes the importance of quantifying a
wide range of ecosystem services in urban regions to support wetland management in
providing these services. Ultimately, the paper underscores the need for clear
documentation of the conditions under which specific ecosystem services are

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provided, at what rates, and the means to protect the integrity of these ecosystems in a
market environment. Overall, the research directions proposed in the paper aim to
improve the conservation, management, and restoration of wetlands in urban
environments.