BIOLOGICAL APPROACH

Main assumptions of the biological approach:

• Behaviour, cognitions and emotions can be explained in terms of the working of the brain and the
effect of hormones, genetics and evolution.
• Similarities and differences between people can be understood in terms of biological factors and their
interaction with other factors.

Biological approach delves into the fact that our thinking and behavior are strongly determined by
biological factors: structure and functioning of the nervous system. This, in turn, is influenced by genetic
and evolutionary factors.

In other words, biological approach in psychology examines how our genes, brain, hormones, and
nervous system influence our behavior and cognition. It also helps to explain individual differences in
personality, intelligence, and emotions by studying the effects of genes and environment on brain
development and function.

The biological approach provides insight into how our biology and physiology impact our behavior and
mental processes, and helps us understand how different factors interact to influence our thoughts,
feelings, and actions.

Genetics and Behavior

Heredity is the passing of characteristics from one generation to the next via genes. Each individual
possesses a unique combination of genetic instructions meaning that we differ from each other in terms
of personality, intelligence, abilities, etc.

Genes code for characteristics such as eye color but also for the structure of the nervous system and for
the functioning of the nervous system, i.e., neurochemistry, the number of neurotransmitters produced,
and the way they are used.

The understanding of the role of neurotransmitters has led to the development of drugs that are
effective in the treatment of mental disorders such as schizophrenia and depression. This enables many
of the sufferers to lead fairly normal lives.
However, these drugs are not effective for all patients, and they can have serious side effects. They do
not cure the disorders, and if the patients stop taking the drug, the symptoms reappear.

Genetics can be used to study behavioural characteristics such as, Intelligence. Twin studies are used to
determine the likelihood that certain traits have a genetic basis, they compare the concordance rates
between pairs of twins to see the extent to which both twins share the same characteristics.
Monozygotic twins share 100% of each other’s genes
Dizygotic twins share about 50% of each other’s genes.

Evolution and Behavior

Charles Darwin proposed the theory of natural selection. He argued that genetically determined
characteristics or behavior that enhance our chances of survival and reproduction would be passed on to
the next generation and become more common in a population, whereas traits that do not enhance
survival will gradually disappear.

Nature Vs. nurture

The biological approach is firmly on the nature side of the debate; however, it does recognize that our
brain is a plastic organ that changes with experience in our social world, so it does not entirely deny the
influence of nurture.

CORE STUDY 1 DEMENT AND KLEITMAN (1957)

The psychology being investigated includes: sleep; dreaming; ultradian rhythms.
Aim
General: To investigate the relationship between eye movements and dreaming.
Specific:
1. Does dream recall differ between REM and NREM stages of sleep?
2. Is there a positive correlation between estimated dream duration and REM period length?
3. Are eye movements related to the dream content?
Research Hypothesis
1. There will be a significant association between REM sleep and dreaming.
2. There will be a positive correlation between estimated dream duration and REM period length.
3. There will be a significant association between eye movement patterns and dream content.

Materials/Psychometrics used in the study:

EEG (electroencephalogram) = traces cyclical changes that occur in brain activity during sleep. Electrodes
are placed around the skull to analyse brain waves.
EOG (electrooculogram) = traces eye movements during sleep. Uses electrodes placed around the eye
region to analyze eye movement.
REM ➜ Rapid Eye Movement is when dreaming occurs.
NREM ➜ Non-Rapid Eye Movement.

Aserinsky (1955) (a student of Kleitman) revealed that participants who were woken from REM sleep
were more likely to report a vivid, visual dream than participants that woke up from NREM. They also
showed that we have several sleep stages alternating between REM and NREM.

Research Method: A laboratory experiment, but different methods to test each aim.

Research Design
Approach 1: natural experiment; repeated measures design;
Independent Variable - whether they woke up from REM or NREM;
Dependent Variable - whether they recalled a dream or not.

Approach 2: True experiment using correlational study; repeated measures design;

Independent Variable - waking participants after 5 or 15 minutes into REM sleep;
Dependent Variable - participants guess on dream duration (5 or 15 minutes);
 Correlational analysis used to cross-check participants' estimate dream duration and the word count of
their respective dream narrative.

Approach 3: natural experiment; repeated measures design;

IV - eye movement patterns;
DV - dream content.

Sample (Characteristics)
1. 7 males and 2 females were recruited through opportunity sampling.
2. 5 studied in detail and 4 used to confirm the results of the first 5.
3. 5 main participants spent between 6 - 17 nights in the lab. Approximately 50 - 77 times
awakening.
4. 4 spent only 1 - 2 nights. 4 - 10 times awakening.
5. Participants were identified by their initials.

Procedure
 Participants reported to the lab before their personal bedtime.
 They ate their normal diet but were asked to avoid caffeine (alertness) and alcohol (drowsiness)
on the day of the study.
 They slept in a dark, quiet room.
 They had 2 EOG electrodes near their eye and 2/3 EEG electrodes to the scalp.
 A doorbell (for standardisation) had been used to wake participants up at random from REM or
NREM.
 All participants were woken up when an eye movement pattern lasted for at least a minute.
 Everyone returned to sleep in less than 5 minutes.

Procedure 1 - They were woken up at various times to test their dream recall (during REM and NREM).
Dream narrative recorded on a tape recorder (to prevent researcher bias). They were asked if they had a
dream or not, and if they did, then they recorded it. Dream only counted if the recall was clear.

Procedure 2 - Participants were woken up after either 5 or 15 minutes into their REM sleep. Participants
guessed the duration they had dreamt for. The number of words in the dream narrative was counted
after the participants reported their dream.

Procedure 3 - Participants’ eye movement direction was detected with the EOG. Participants were woken
up and they reported their dream.

Results
1. All subjects showed REM every night.
2. REM patterns varied per individual but each individual had a regular REM pattern.
3. 92 minutes was the average time gap between different dreams. The range was 70 - 104
minutes.
4. The average REM length was 20 minutes and the range was 3 - 50 minutes. It was longer later in
the night. Bursts of 2 - 100 rapid eye movements.
 5. Those woken in NREM returned to NREM. Those woken in REM went to NREM (but sometimes
went to REM to complete the final phase).
Results 1:
 Awakenings from REM produced a dream recall of 79.6%, and from NREM produced a dream
recall of 7%.
 Waking participants under 8 minutes of completing their REM period resulted in 5/17 dreams
being recalled.
 However, waking participants after 8 minutes resulted in only 6/132 dreams being recalled.

Results 2:
 The estimation of REM duration was accurate and very high. 88% for 5 mins; 78% for 15 minutes.
 There was a positive correlation between REM duration and words in the recall. The narratives of
152 dreams were collected, but 26 were omitted due to poor recording thus, there were 126.

Results 3:
1. Vertical eye movement - standing at the bottom of a tall cliff and operating a hoist.
2. Horizontal - 2 people throwing tomatoes at each other.
3. Vertical and horizontal - talking to people standing close to them.
4. Little or no movement - watching something in the distance or staring at an object.

Conclusions
 Dreams occur during REM sleep only. Dreams reported from NREM sleep are from previous REM
episodes.
 Estimated dream duration and REM period lengths are very similar, thus it shows that dreams
are not instantaneous events but rather experienced in real-time.
 Eye movements correspond to where, and what the dreamer is looking at in the dream, hence, it
explains that they are not random events.

Strengths and Weaknesses

 Reliability is high as it was a lab experiment with many controls. For example, the doorbell made
people instantly wake up so that dreams wouldn't be forgotten by slow-woken people.
 Demand characteristics were avoided as participants were not told whether they were in REM or
not as otherwise, they would try recalling harder.
 High validity as the details recorded focused on dreaming; the definition of a 'dream' had been
operationalized. Asking participants to choose between 5 or 15 mins helped reduce participant
variables such as the ability to guess.
 Quantitative data such as brain waves, eye movement patterns, and REM sleep duration was
collected through the EEG and EOG.
 Qualitative data such as the dream content was collected, but it's subjective and can affect the
validity since the narrative length is not only dependent on the REM phase length, but also on
the participant's expressiveness.
 Both genders were included thus, there's generalisability. However, the sample size is too small,
therefore limiting generalisability.
  Deception of participant WD being woken up in the wrong sleep stage can cause distress as
they'd try recalling dreams harder. Context: Participant WD had been told they'd be woken up in
their REM stage of sleep, but was actually woken up randomly during their REM or NREM stages
of sleep.
 Lacks ecological validity as people who are used to taking alcohol & caffeine may experience
atypical dreams. Sleeping in a lab connected to electrodes would be unusual, and this may
tamper with their sleeping behaviour.

Nature vs. Nurture

Dream content relates to our experience, so it is a product of nurture. However, the ability to dream is a
product of nature.

CORE STUDY 2 HASSET ET AL (MONKEY TOY PREFERENCES 2008)

The psychology being investigated: sex differences; socialization, play, animal play, the role of
hormones.
Play- Pleasure gained in self-expression.
Animal play- An activity/action voluntarily and repeatedly done by animals as a form of enjoyment and
self-expression.
Play may be adaptive, and it can help individuals practice skills required for adulthood. Aim
AIM
1. To test if sex differences in children's toy preferences are due to biological factors (i.e. exposure
to high levels of prenatal androgen) rather than socialisation.
2. To investigate whether male and female rhesus monkeys have similar toy preferences to human
children despite having no experience socialising with human toys.
Background
Professor Wallen has worked with monkeys for over 50 years, at Emory University and the Yerkes
National Primate Research Centre (YNPRC).
Hines and Alexander found that male vervet monkeys played more with stereotypical male than female
toys.
Wallen investigated whether monkeys showed a preference for sex-typed toys when given a choice
between stereotypical male and female toys. He found that the behaviour of monkeys paralleled that of
children using a toy-preference task, suggesting that toy preferences are not primarily a result of
socialisation, but rather are due to biological differences.

The Role of Nature in sex differences

The sex of mammals is determined by sex chromosomes which affect their levels of sex hormones. This
causes differences in the development of male and female brains, and consequently, their cognitive
processes.
In a nursery, boys are more likely to be seen playing with cars, and girls with dolls. However, this doesn’t
mean that girls don’t like playing with cars; in fact, research found that girls like playing with trucks more
than boys like playing with dolls.
Nature vs Nurture Debate on Toy Preferences
Nurture debate: Children learn about gender and societal norms through socialisation, leading them to
conform to stereotypical gender roles, and seek out sex-typed toys.
Hassett et al., however, reject the socialisation explanation for toy preferences and believe in the
biological explanation.
Nature debate: Boys and girls play with toys which suit their cognitive abilities, and these depend on
each child’s sex hormone levels. Hence, toys are selected due to the play activities they promote, not
due to societal norms on ‘gender-appropriate’ toys.

Congenital Adrenal Hyperplasia (CAH) - An inherited condition where the foetus is exposed to high levels
of prenatal androgens (male sex hormones).

Hassett et al. were influenced by research on children with Congenital Adrenal Hyperplasia (CAH). This
further supported their opinion that the toy preferences are initially shaped by hormones and not
socialisation. Research shows that girls with CAH show a preference for male-stereotyped toys when
compared to girls without CAH. Additionally, Pasterski et al. (2005) found that even when females with
CAH were encouraged to play with female-stereotyped toys, they still preferred playing with male-
stereotyped toys.

Previous Research on Monkeys done by Alexander and Hines (2002) found the following;
1. More male vervet monkeys than females played with stereotypically male toys.
2. Unlike humans, male monkeys spent an equal time interacting with male and female toys.
3. Female monkeys showed a strong preference for stereotypical female toys rather than male toys.

Research Method
Research Method- Field experiment involving a controlled observation, and a correlational study using a
behavioural checklist.
Research Design- Independent measures design.
Variable
Independent Variable ➜ The sex of the monkey (male or female).
Dependent Variable ➜ Whether the monkeys interacted more with the plush toys or the wheeled toys.

Sample:
 Originally, 135 monkeys were from the Yerkes National Primate Research Center Field Station,
but 53 were excluded, hence only 82 took part ➜ 61 females and 21 males.
 There were infant and adult monkeys.
 34 monkeys (23 females & 11 males) interacted with the toys on more than 5 occasions,
therefore, their data was included in the analysis.

Reasons for excluding the 53 monkeys:

 14 had previously participated in research on prenatal hormones so they weren’t included in the
current study (to reduce demand characteristics and order effects).
  39 were excluded since they were too young, and it was hard to tell their sex.

Procedure
 Seven 25-minute trials were completed in the outdoor enclosure, each with a different pair of
toys.
 Before each observation, observers placed a pair of toys (1 wheeled, 1 plush) outside while the
monkeys waited inside.
 Toys were placed 10 metres apart and their positions were counterbalanced (to ensure the
monkeys didn’t prefer a certain area of the enclosure).

The toys varied in shape, size, and colour, and were selected on what you could ‘do’ with them. There
were:
• 6 wheeled toys, including a wagon, truck, and car.
• 7 Plush toys, including a Winnie-the-Pooh, Raggedy Ann, and Scooby Doo doll.

Data Collection –
1. A video camera was focused on each toy to record interactions.
2. 2 observers watched the videos and used a behavioural checklist to categorise the behaviour of
the monkeys.
3. They recorded the data using the app Handobs on their palm pilots (a device similar to mobile
phones).

Data recorded by observers:

1. The start and finish time of each interaction, and from this they calculated the duration.
2. The monkey’s age, sex, and rank.

Behavioural checklist included: extended touching, holding, sitting on, dragging, carrying, etc.
Examples of operationalised behaviours:
• Extended touch – Placing a hand or foot on the toy.
• Sit on – Seated on the toy or a part of the toy.

Results
1. Most monkeys didn’t interact with the toys. Only very few interacted frequently and for long.
Data of (17) monkeys who showed less than 5 behaviours were excluded. 2.
2. Male monkeys played with wheeled toys for a longer time than female monkeys. However, the
standard deviation was high, meaning that some males played for longer than others.
3. Female monkeys played with plush toys for a longer time than male monkeys. There wasn’t a
significant difference in time spent playing with wheeled or plush toys.
Social Rank – A significant positive correlation between social rank (dominance of monkeys) and
frequency of interaction was found.
- Higher-ranking monkeys interacted more with the toys. Female monkeys who preferred plush toys had
a higher rank than those who had no preference.
Results - Male Monkeys
 Male monkeys preferred wheeled toys (mean = 9.77), compared to plush toys (mean = 2.06).
Males played with plush toys less than females.
 73% of males preferred wheeled toys and only 9% preferred plush toys.
 18% showed no significant preference. These preferences were not affected by age or rank.
Results - Female Monkeys
 Female monkeys showed no preference, other than an insignificant preference for plush toys.
Mean plush toys preference = 7.97. Mean wheeled toys preference = 6.96.
 Only 30% of females preferred plush toys, whereas 39% preferred wheeled toys, and 30%
showed no significant preference.

Conclusions
 Sex-typed preferences in humans may be due to biological differences because even without
differences in socialisation, monkeys showed preferences similar to human infants.
 Male monkeys similar to boys, have a strong preference for masculine-type toys. Whereas,
female monkeys are more variable in their toy preferences.
 Toy preferences reflect behavioural and cognitive biases which have been influenced by
hormones.

Strengths
1. Ethical guidelines on treating lab animals were followed by researchers when caring for the
monkeys. They had constant access to water, they were fed monkey chow twice a day, and fruits
and vegetables every day.
2. Using the operationalised behavioural checklist increased the validity and reliability of results, as
it guided researchers on how to record observations in the same way. For example, the
behaviour ‘sit on’ was described as sitting on or part of a toy.
3. Different pairs of toys were used on each trial, and this increased the validity as we can
determine that males were drawn to wheeled toys in general, and not just a specific wheeled
toy.
4. Using video cameras increased the validity of the data recorded because the monkeys were used
to the cameras. If a researcher recorded data in person instead, the monkeys might show
demand characteristics by playing more or less with the toys.
5. Quantitative data collected on toy interaction duration allowed for the objective calculations of
the average time the monkeys spent with the toys. This removes room for subjective
interpretations.

Weaknesses
1. The standardised procedure was abandoned for a trial because a monkey tore a plush toy
causing the trial to be stopped 7 minutes early. This reduces the reliability of results.
2. There is a chance observer bias may have increased subjectivity. The researchers who analysed
the tapes were familiar with the monkeys and their gender and this could have led them to
unintentionally code the behaviour of the monkeys differently to their actual behaviour.
 3. There was a lack of adult males in the sample, hence reducing the generalisability of results. The
only one high-ranking male didn’t interact with any toys, hence, findings can only be generalised
to lower-ranking, non-adult male monkeys.
4. Ecological validity is low because the sample consisted of monkeys in captivity, and they might
be more likely to show interest in new objects in their environment. Therefore, we can’t entirely
generalise results to explain if wild monkeys behave in the same way.
5. Validity is low because, in each trial, a group of monkeys were sent out. So if one monkey
occupied the wheeled toy, another monkey wanting to play with a toy would go to the plush toy
regardless of their personal preference.

ISSUES AND DEBATES

Nature vs Nurture explanation
Hassett believed that toy preferences in humans are due to nature because male monkeys prefer
wheeled toys over plush toys, whereas females show no clear preference.
Findings supported the nurture (Socialisation) debate that interactions were affected by social rank.
Female monkeys' social rank was positively correlated with the time spent interacting with both toys.
However, female dominance is influenced by testosterones which is a biological effect.

Applications to everyday life

Findings are helpful when choosing toys for children. Results suggest that boys like moving toys, so if
a parent wants to develop their empathy, toy vehicles with expressive faces can be bought.
As girls like plush toys with faces, their visuospatial skills can be improved by using toys with moving
parts but in a context where dolls are included. For example, playing a scene with toy school buses
and dolls.

CORE STUDY 3 HOLZEL ET AL (MINDFULNESS AND BRAIN SCANS 2011)

The psychology being investigated: mindfulness, localisation of function.
The study delved into the effects of mindfulness on brain structure.
Aim of the Study:
The primary objective was to identify changes in specific regions of the brain and the whole brain. This
was achieved by comparing grey matter before and after participants underwent an 8-week
Mindfulness-Based Stress Reduction (MBSR) course1.
o Investigate whether participation in an 8-week Mindfulness-Based Stress Reduction course
(MBSR) could lead to changes in gray matter concentration in the brain.
o Identify brain regions that changed in association with participation in the MBSR course.
Psychology Investigated:
Mindfulness: A state achieved through meditation, where individuals are fully present in the moment. It
allows for self-awareness and a compassionate, non-judgmental view of oneself.
Localization of Function: Investigating how different brain regions perform specific functions. For
instance, the hippocampus is associated with emotional regulation. The study used MRI scans to explore
which brain areas are linked to mindfulness, attention, and self-awareness1.
Research Methods:
Longitudinal Experiment: The study followed participants over time to observe changes.
Research Design: Independent measures design.
Variables:
Independent Variable (IV): Participation in the 8-week MBSR course.
Dependent Variable (DV): Changes in grey matter, measured using MRI scans.
MBSR Sessions:
 Duration: 2.5 hours per week for 8 weeks.
 Additional Session: A full-day session during the 6th week.
 Location: The sessions took place at the Center for Mindfulness at the University of
Massachusetts Medical School.
Exercises Taught to Participants:
o Sitting Meditation: Focused on sensations of breathing, sounds, sights, taste, thoughts, and
emotions.
o Mindful Yoga: Gentle stretching, slow movement, and breathing exercises to enhance moment-
to-moment awareness.
o Body Scan: Guided attention through the entire body, culminating in perceiving the body as a
"complete whole"1.
This study sheds light on the impact of mindfulness practices on brain structure, providing valuable
insights for psychology and well-being.

Sample
1. The study included 18 healthy, right-handed individuals who were enrolled in the MBSR
program.
2. The participants were recruited from four MBSR courses held at the Center for Mindfulness at
the University of Massachusetts Medical School. The courses included physician- and self-
referred individuals from across New England who were seeking stress reduction. 3.
3. The participants were included in the study if they self-reported as physically and psychologically
healthy and not taking any medications.
Further inclusion criteria were as follows:
 no meditation classes in the past 6 months,
 no more than four classes in the past 5 years, or 10 classes in their lifetime;
 25 to 55 years old
 no contraindications for MRI scanning (i.e., metallic implants, claustrophobia)
 commitment to attend all eight classes and perform the prescribed daily homework.

Methodology
1. The study used a pre-post design, meaning that the researchers measured gray matter
concentration in the participants’ brains before and after they completed the MBSR program. 2.
2. The researchers also compared the participants’ brain scans to a control group of 17 individuals
who did not complete the MBSR program.
3. The researchers used a variety of controls to ensure that any changes in gray matter
concentration were due to the MBSR program and not other factors. For example, they made
sure that the participants did not have any metallic implants or claustrophobia, which could
affect the MRI scans.
4. They also made sure that the participants did not have any other meditation experience in the
past 6 months, no more than four classes in the past 5 years, or 10 classes in their lifetime.
 5. The researchers collected data using MRI scans to measure gray matter concentration in the
participants’ brains.
6. They also collected demographic information about the participants, including age, gender,
ethnicity, and education level.
Results
1. Increase in Gray Matter Concentration in the Left Hippocampus: The MBSR group showed a
significant increase in gray matter concentration in the left hippocampus compared to the
control group.
2. Whole Brain Analysis: Exploratory whole brain analysis revealed four clusters with significantly
greater gray matter concentration at the post time-point compared to the pre time-point in the
MBSR group.
These regions include:
 Posterior Cingulate Cortex (PCC)
 Left Temporo-Parietal Junction (TPJ)
 Two clusters in the cerebellum (one in the cerebellar vermis and brainstem, and the other in the
lateral parts of the posterior and flocculonodular lobe)
3. Control Group Analysis: No significant changes in gray matter concentration were observed in
the control group for these regions, except for a decrease in the PCC cluster.

Key Observations
MBSR Group
There were significant increases in gray matter concentration in all measured brain regions, including the
left hippocampus, posterior cingulate cortex (PCC), left temporo-parietal junction (TPJ), cerebellar
vermis/brainstem, and lateral cerebellum.
Control Group
No significant changes were observed in most regions, except for a decrease in gray matter
concentration in the PCC.

Conclusion
Participation in an 8-week mindfulness-based stress reduction (MBSR) program was associated with
changes in gray matter concentration in brain regions involved in learning and memory processes,
emotion regulation, self-referential processing, and perspective taking. The study provides evidence that
mindfulness practice can lead to changes in the brain that may have important implications for mental
health and well-being. The study also suggests that mindfulness practice can lead to improvements in
mindfulness subscales, such as acting with awareness, observing, and non-judging.

Strengths
1. Use of a control group – One strength of the study is the use of a control group. The study
included a control group of individuals who did not participate in the mindfulness-based stress
reduction (MBSR) program. This allowed the researchers to compare changes in gray matter
concentration between the MBSR group and the control group. The use of a control group
strengthens the internal validity of the study by ruling out alternative explanations for the
observed changes in gray matter concentration.
 2. Use of voxel-based morphometry – Another strength of the study is the use of voxel-based
morphometry (VBM) to measure changes in gray matter concentration in the brain. VBM is a
well-established method for measuring changes in gray matter concentration and has been used
in numerous studies of mindfulness and meditation. The use of VBM strengthens the validity of
the study’s findings by providing a reliable and objective measure of changes in gray matter
concentration.
3. Use of a standardized mindfulness program – A third strength of the study is the use of a
standardized mindfulness program. The study used the mindfulness-based stress reduction
(MBSR) program, which is a well-established and widely used mindfulness program. The use of a
standardized program strengthens the external validity of the study by increasing the
generalizability of the findings to other populations and settings. Additionally, the use of a
standardized program allows for replication of the study’s findings by other researchers.
Weaknesses
1. Small sample size – One weakness of the study is the small sample size. The study included only
18 participants who completed the mindfulness-based stress reduction (MBSR) program and 17
individuals in the control group. A small sample size reduces the generalizability of the study’s
findings and increases the risk of Type II errors (i.e., failing to detect a true effect). A larger
sample size would increase the statistical power of the study and improve the generalizability of
the findings.
2. Lack of randomisation – Another weakness of the study is the lack of randomization. The study
did not use random assignment to assign participants to the MBSR group or the control group.
Instead, participants were self-selected into the groups. This increases the risk of selection bias,
which occurs when participants in one group differ systematically from participants in another
group. A randomized design would have reduced the risk of selection bias and increased the
internal validity of the study.
3. Lack of blinding – A third weakness of the study is the lack of blinding. The researchers who
conducted the study were not blinded to the group assignment of the participants. This
increases the risk of experimenter bias, which occurs when the researchers’ expectations or
beliefs influence the outcome of the study. Blinding the researchers to the group assignment of
the participants would have reduced the risk of experimenter bias and increased the internal
validity of the study.