​ ​

Faculty of Engineering and Materials Sciences

German University in Cairo

INDUSTRIAL PRODUCTION LINE AUTOMATION

USING PLC SYSTEMs

Bachelor Thesis

Author: Abdelrahman Eltokhye

Supervisor: Hesham El-Sherif
Reviewer: Waleed Omran
Submission Date: 01, 06, 2023
​ Acknowledgments

I would like to gratitude to the great god for all physical support he gives to me
during the project processes.

Also, I would like to thank Dr Hesham El-Sherif and Dr Walid Omran for their
patience, support and helpful advices. Thanks to my partner Abdelrahman
Elkinawy for his faith and encouragement.

Thanks to my family for all what they do for me among my previous life, and I
wish to reward them as soon as I can.

Abstract
General Electric, an American business, created the programmable logic
controllers (PLC) as a replacement to the intricate relay control system in the late
1960s so that it could be used in its automobile assembly lines. These controllers
demonstrated extremely high control system efficiency as well as greater
dependability in protecting the components under control. Additionally, the latter
enhanced properties make PLCs the most widely used control system in
manufacturing processes. The purpose of this project is to demonstrate how PLCs
can be used to automate production lines and how to take advantage of their great
processing power while processing input signals from various sensors. This is
done by implementing a small model of a color sorting production line as an
application in addition to programming eight Festo stations of a prototype
production line using sequential flow chart programming language. Here several
processes work in a sequential fashion, in this stage PLCs are used to maintain
this sequence.

This is to certify that:

(i) the thesis comprises only my original work towards the Bachelor Degree

(ii) due acknowledgement has been made in the text to all other material used

Abdelrahman Mohamed Mounir

​ ​
Contents
Chapter
1 ​Introduction………………………………….………………………………………1
1.1 ​Industrial
Revolutions……..........................….………………………………………..1
1.2 ​Motivation
........................................……….………………………………………….1
1.3 Objective of The Thesis.…………………….……………………………………....….1
1.4 Thesis Organization........................................…………………………………………1

Chapter 2 ​Literature Review ​2

2.1 ​Definition of production lines ​2
2.2 ​ oncept
C of Production
Line..........………….................................................................2 2.3
Simple Example of Production Line Usage .....................................................................2 2.4
Categories of Production
Lines..........................................................................................2 ​2.4.1 Types of
Assemble Line Methods............................................................................2 ​2.4.2 Types of
Production Lines ......................................................................................2
2.5 Anatomy of Production
Lines...........................................................................................2 2.6 Sociological
problems of production lines........................................................................2 2.7 The PLC in
automation technology………………………………………………………2 2.8
Methodology……………………………………………………………………………..2 2.9
How a PLC Operates …………………………………………………………………….2

Chapter 3 ​Production Line Design and

Implementation...............................................................3 ​3.1
Introduction............................................................................................................3 ​ ​
​ 3.1.1 Sequential Explaination ​3 ​ ​ 3.1.2Sequence
Flowchart ​3 ​ ​3.2 Design, Fabrication And
Manufacturing................................................................3 ​ 3.2.1 Design
Process..............................................................................................3 ​ ​ ​
3.2.2 Fabrication And
Manufacturing....................................................................3 ​ ​3.3 Sensor Placement
and Implementtation ................................................................3 ​ ​ ​ 3.3.1
Proximity Sensor ​3 ​ ​ 3.3.2 Sensitivity of Proximity
Detector ​3 ​ ​ 3.3.3 Photo-electric
Sensor....................................................................................3 ​3.4 Robotic
Arm.......................................................................................................3 ​ ​3.5
Exploded View......................................................................................................3

Chapter 4 ​Programming of Eight Festo Station ​4 ​4.1 Distribution

Station ​4 ​ ​4.2 Testing
Station........................................................................................................4 ​4.3 Procesing
Station....................................................................................................4 ​4.4 Handling
Station.....................................................................................................4 ​4.5 Buffer
Station.........................................................................................................4 ​ ​ ​
4.6 Pick and
Place........................................................................................................4 ​ ​ ​4.7
Fluid Muscle...........................................................................................................4 ​4.8
Sorting Station........................................................................................................4

Chapter 5 Conclusion ........................................................................................... ​5

References ​5

​ ​

List of Figures
Figure 1.1: The four industrial
revolutions………………………………………………………………………………………1 Figure 2.1:
Audi’s automotive production line ……………………………………………………………………………………………….………...2
Figure 2.2:Henry
Ford…………………………………………………………………………….……………………………………….
2
Figure2.3: Hyundai's car assembly line........................................................................................................2
Figure2.4: An Airbus A321 on final assembly line 3 in the Airbus Hamburg-

Finkenwerder plant................2 ​
Figure2.5: PLC diagram.................................................................................................................................2
Figure2.5: PLC Working principle.........................................................................................................2

Figure3.1: Color Sorting

Machine....................................................................................................3
Figure3.2: proximity sensor.............................................................................................................3
Figure3.3: how to adjust proximity sensor sensitivity ...........................................................................3
Figure3.4: photoelectric sensor
circuit............................................................................................................3
Figure3.5: Robotic
Arm..................................................................................................................................3
Figure3.5:Wiring of The Robotic
Arm...........................................................................................................3

Figure4.1: Distribution Station ​4

Figure4.2: Testing Station................................................................................................................4
Figure4.3: Procesing Station..........................................................................................................4
Figure4.4: Handling
Station.............................................................................................................4 ​ Figure4.5:
Buffer Station..................................................................................................................4
Figure4.6: Pick and
Place.................................................................................................................4 Figure4.7: Fluid
Muscle..................................................................................................................4 ​
Figure4.8:Sortiong Station .............................................................................................................4
 ​ ​

List of Tables
Table1 Exploded view

​ ​

List of Terms

PLC ​ ​programmable logical control

PWM Pulse width modulation​

​ ​

​ ​
Chapter 1 Introduction

1.1 Industrial Revolution

Industry is part of the economy in charge of producing physical goods which are highly mech-
anized and automized. Since the beginning of the industrial era there have been technological
leaps that have led to huge changes which are now called “Industrial Revolutions”. It started
with the leap in the field of mechanization (1st industrial revolution). Then came the inten-
sive use of electrical energy (2nd industrial revolution)[1]. After that we had the spreading of
digitalization in the industry (3rd industrial revolution). The combination of internet technol-
ogy and future-oriented technology in the field called “Smart” objects is resulting in a new
paradigm shift in the industrial section. What the future holds for us is production technology
that contains more modular and efficient manufacturing systems[2]. This will help to
manufacture
individual products in a batch size of one while still keeping the economic conditions of mass
production. This leap was therefore given the name “Industrie 4.0” as the use of software and
producing “Smart” objects has increased (4th industrial revolution).[3]
The German government was very enthusiastic about the fast spread of the term and was also
picked up by the Ministry of Education and Research. The term “Industrie 4.0” has become
the future project of their high-tech strategy for 2020. An industrial platform that consists of 3
industry associations are highly associated with the spreading of the term. However, outside of
the German speaking area, the term is not that well known.
Industrie 4.0 can be defined in two major directions. On the one hand there is an application-
pull, which means that there is a huge need for change in the operative conditions such as[4]:

• Short development periods: the development period needs to be shortened since high
innovation is an important factor for lots of companies.
• Individualization on demand: The market has changed over the past decades from being
a seller’s market to being a buyer’s market which means that this will lead to producing
more individual products. This is also known as “Batch size one”.
• Flexibility: higher flexibility is needed in production due to the new requirements of the
industry and the market.
• Decentralization: The fast-changing market requires that decisions are to be taken faster
so, the hierarchy needs to be reduced.
• Resource efficiency: resources are becoming scarce more and more everyday which is
making the prices of products increase so the industrial market needs to focus more on
sustainable production techniques.
On the other hand, there is a tremendous technology-push which is already influencing our
everyday lives. However, in the industrial section innovative technologies are not widely used.
Therefore, approaches of technology push are:
• Further increase of mechanization and automation: more technological aid will be used
in the work space to reduce the physical work that humans need to do. Manufacturing
cells are becoming more and more autonomous so they work independently without the
need of human interaction.
• Digitalization and networking: manufacturing is becoming more digital every day. The
digital process is evolving as a result of the increased networking of technical
components
 in the manufacturing process.

• Miniaturization: there is also a trend towards making everything smaller (Miniaturiza-

tion). Computers were huge in the past, but now they are tiny in comparison and have
higher performance rates. This is opening new fields of application when it comes to
Figure 1.1: The four industrial revolutions

production and manufacturing

[1].

1.2 Motivation

An automated production line is comprised of a series of workstations linked by a transfer

system and an electrical control system. Each station performs a specific operation and the
product is processed step by step as it moves along the line in a pre-defined production sequence.
A fully automated production line does not need people directly involved in the operation, and
mechanical equipment and automated systems complete all or a portion of the production
process. As a result, rather than directly running a system in an automated environment, human
tasks are more likely to shift to system design, adjustment, supervision, and monitoring. The fast,
stable and accurate production flow contributes to the reduction of production times and the cost
of the manufactured products. The use of automated production lines significantly reduces
production costs and labour costs, and minimizes human errors, ensuring output consistency and
quality. On the other hand, PLC is selected for its numerous advantages, as PLC-automated
systems ensure a dependable output by minimising human error and producing items of uniform
quality. Less faults will occur, and when they do, they can be rectified faster than in systems
without PLCs. Additionally, they can shorten lead times, allowing teams to finish projects more
rapidly. PLCs have the additional benefit of being small and having a far smaller footprint than
conventional, hard-wired control systems for firms who are worried about space. If necessary,
you may easily facilitate specialisation and modification with the aid of the appropriate PLC
system, allowing you to expand your production capacity. [2]

1.3 Objective OF The Thesis

The project’s aim is to illustrate the concept of industrial automation through a designing,
manufacturing and assembling a simple color sorting production line, in addition to
programming eight station of an assembled Festo color sorting production line.

The design of the color sorting machine should include all the necessary steps taken by a control
system engineer to implement the automated system, the steps are listed below:

1. Studying the process to be automated

2. Developing an algorithm for the system to operate with
3. Proper selection of control equipment such as sensors and controllers
4. Connecting and placing these selected items properly in the system to meet optimum
system performance
The programming requirements of the eight stations are:

1. Start manually by external switch

2. Manipulate actions on the process according to the sensor readings as desired
3. Be able to automatically deal with abnormal situations that may occur in the
process 4. Different processes in the system should be synchronized together
5. System should shutdown either manually by the external switch or
automatically due to predetermined cause

1.4 Thesis Organization

This thesis consists of five chapters:

Chapter1: Introduces the project by explaining the motivation and addressing the advantages of
using automated production lines and its effects on labour and economy .

Chapter2: Includes a literature survey that explores various types of automated production line
and explains how a PLC work.

Chapter3: The methodology we adopted when designing, controlling and fabricating the color
sorting production line is discussed in details.

Chapter4: In this chapter each station will be explained in details using the help of figures and
flowchart.

Chapter5: The conclusion reached and possible future works are discussed throughout the fifth
chapter.
1

​ ​

Chapter 2 Literature Review

2.1 Definition of production lines

An assembly line is a manufacturing procedure (sometimes referred to as a progressive

assembly) in which pieces (often interchangeable parts) are added as the partially finished
assembly is transported from workstation to workstation, where the parts are added in order until
the full assembly is produced. A final product can be assembled more quickly and with less
labour by mechanically moving the pieces to the assembly task and moving the partially
completed assembly from work station to work station. This is in contrast to having people
transport the parts to a stationary piece for assembly.

Assembly lines are used to assemble a variety of complex items, such as electrical products,
home appliances, automobiles, and other modes of transportation. [5]

Figure 2.1: Audi’s automotive production line

2.2 Concept of Production Lines ​
​ ​ ​
For the sequential arrangement of personnel, tools or equipment, and parts, assembly lines are
created. To the greatest extent possible, workers' movement is minimised. There is no manual
hauling involved; all parts or assemblies are handled either by conveyors, motorised equipment
like fork lifts, or gravity. Machines like forklifts or overhead cranes are used to perform heavy
lifting. If job rotation tactics aren't used, each worker usually only does one straightforward task.
According to Henry Ford:
The principles of assembly are these:
(1) Arrange the workers and the tools in the process so that each component part travels the
shortest distance possible while being completed.
(2) Use work slides or another type of carrier so that when a worker is done, he always drops
the component in the same location, which must always be closest to his hand, and if possible,
allow gravity transfer the part to the following worker for his use.
(3) Implement sliding assembly lines to supply the components at practical distances. [6]

Figure2.2: Henry Ford

An assembly line balance problem is a well-known mathematical problem that deals with
designing assembly lines[7]. The goal of the basic assembly line balance problem is to allocate
a number of workstations to a variety of tasks that must be carried out on the workpiece. Each
task has a time limit that it must be accomplished within. When assigning jobs to stations, two
constraints are frequently present: (1) a precedence graph, which shows which tasks must be
finished before a given task can be started (for example, drilling a hole before inserting a
screw), and (2) a cycle time, which limits the total amount of task processing time that can be
completed at each workstation before the workpiece is transferred to the next station by the
conveyor belt. Supply chain integration, inventory management, and production scheduling are
three of the main planning issues faced by assembly line operators. [8]

2.3 Simple Example of Production Line Usage

Consider the assembly of an automobile. Assume that some phases need the installation of the
engine, hood, and wheels (in that sequence, with arbitrary interstitial steps); only one of these
processes can be completed at a time. The assembly of one car at a time was the norm in
conventional manufacturing. If installing the engine takes 20 minutes, installing the hood 5
minutes, and installing the wheels 10 minutes, a car can be built every 35 minutes.
Car assembly is divided up into multiple stations on an assembly line, all of which are
operational at the same time. A station transfers an automobile to the following one when it is
done with it. Three stations allow for the simultaneous operation of three automobiles, each in a
distinct stage of assembly.
The engine installation team can start
​ working on the second automobile after

it has finished its job on the first one. The first car can be taken to the hood station and fitted
with a hood while the crew installing the second car's engine works on the second car, and then
it can be moved to the wheels station and supplied with wheels. The second car moves on to
the hood assembly once the engine has been mounted. The third vehicle goes to the engine
assembly at the same moment. The third car can be moved to the hood station after its engine
has been installed, and any more cars (if any) can be transported to the engine installation
station in the interim.
​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​
​
Figure2.4: An Airbus A321 on final assembly line
3 inFigure2.3:
the AirbusHyundai's car assembly line
Hamburg-Finkenwerder plant

The longest stage on the assembly line sets the

throughput (20 minutes for the engine installation), therefore once the first car requiring 35
minutes has been manufactured, a car can be produced every 20 minutes, assuming no time is
lost when transporting a car from one station to another.

2.4 Categories of Production lines

2.4.1 Types of Assembly Line Methods

There are various assembly line manufacturing procedures, depending on the set up, design,
stages, production needs, etc. Among them are:

1. Modular process
In this method, numerous smaller goods are produced simultaneously on parallel assembly lines.
All lines or smaller items are combined to create the finished product at the end of each assembly
line.

2. Cell Manufacturing
Instead of having a separate stage for each step needed, this assembly line method uses machines
that can complete numerous jobs at a single stage.

3. Team production
Teams had to participate in each stage and the final quality check in order for the technique to
guarantee a high-quality final output.
The several teams each have their own set of tasks to complete inside a stage, which they then
turn over to the following team.

4. U Shape Assembly Line

Workers in this method stand between the curves of a U-shaped or curved production line, which
replaces the traditional straight production line. Better communication between related
production phases is ensured as a result.

2.4.2 Types of Production line

By segmenting the manufacturing process into a number of discrete processes, production lines
are utilized to swiftly and effectively produce items. A variety of production lines exist,
including the following:
1. Continuous production line: This kind of production line is built to run continuously and
nonstop, producing just one product. Raw materials are continuously fed into the production line,
while at the other end, the finished product is continuously manufactured. Chemical facilities and
oil refineries are two instances of continuous manufacturing lines.[12]

2. Batch production line: This kind of line creates a certain amount of a product at once. The line
is fed with raw materials, and after producing a predetermined quantity of completed goods, the
line is stopped for cleaning or maintenance. Breweries and bakeries are two instances of batch
production lines.
3. Mass production line: This kind of production line is made to produce standardized goods in
large quantities. A lot of things may be produced swiftly and effectively on the production line.
Electronics assembly lines and auto assembly lines are a few of examples of mass production
lines.

4. Just-in-time production line: Rather of generating vast amounts of goods in advance, this kind
of production line is intended to create goods when they are required. To make sure that the
required raw materials are available when needed, careful cooperation with suppliers is required.
A few different food production lines and a few different manufacturing lines are examples of
just-in-time production lines.

5. Cellular production line: This kind of production line is divided into cells, each of which is in
charge of a certain step in the production process. The cells are self-contained entities that can
function on their own and are intended to generate a particular part or good. This kind of
assembly line is frequently utilized in sectors like aerospace and auto manufacturing.

6. Flexible production line: This kind of assembly line is made to be able to produce a variety of
items with little reconfiguration. Modular parts that may be added or deleted as needed to fit
various products and production techniques are used to set up the production line. Electronics
and consumer products manufacturing are two industries that frequently use this kind of
production line.

7. Lean production line: By eliminating non-value-added operations and streamlining the

manufacturing process, this sort of production line is intended to minimize waste and maximize
efficiency. The production line is set up to only create what is required, when required, and in the
required amounts. This kind of production line is frequently utilized in sectors like aerospace and
automobile manufacture.

2.5 Anatomy of Production Lines

A production line is a system created to manufacture goods quickly through a sequence of
operations. The many parts of a production line often work together to generate the intended
result. Some of the essential elements of a production line are listed below[13]:

1. Machines and equipment: The main elements of a manufacturing line are machines and
equipment. They carry out particular duties like cutting, welding, assembling, and packaging.
Based on the type of product being created and the amount of production, the machinery and
equipment utilized in a production line are chosen.

2. Workstations: During the production process, operators or machines perform specialised jobs
at workstations. To guarantee that the production process runs well, workstations are often set up
in a consecutive order.

3. Conveyors: Materials and goods are moved between workstations via conveyors. They may be
made to move objects and materials horizontally, vertically, or both. Depending on the demands
of the production process, conveyors can be propelled by gravity or electricity.

4. Control Systems: To monitor and manage the production process, control systems are used.
They can be used to control the temperature of equipment, modify the speed of machines, and
guarantee a smooth production process. Depending on the demands of the production process,
control systems can be either automated or human.

5. Quality Control Systems: Quality control systems are employed to guarantee that the goods
produced on the assembly line adhere to the desired standards of quality. Visual inspections,
testing, and statistical process control are all possible components of quality control systems.

6. Safety Systems: Operator protection and safe operation of the manufacturing line are
guaranteed by the deployment of safety systems. Safety measures may include warning lights,
emergency stop buttons, and safety barriers.

7. Maintenance Systems: Systems for ensuring adequate upkeep and repair of machinery and
equipment are used. The lifespan of machines and equipment can be increased and malfunctions
can be avoided with routine maintenance.

8. Inventory Management Systems: Raw materials, work-in-progress, and finished goods

inventories are managed using inventory management systems. These systems can aid in
ensuring that the production line has the products and supplies required for effective operation.

2.6 Sociological problems of production lines

The social alienation and boredom that many workers experience as a result of repeating the
same specialized task all day have been explored in sociological study.[10]
Karl Marx, one of capitalism's most well-known critics, put forth the idea in his
Entfremdung thesis that in order for employees to be happy at their jobs, they must
recognise themselves in the things they have produced, and that goods should be
"mirrors in which employees see their reflected essential nature." Marx saw work as an
opportunity for people to express different aspects of their personalities. Marxists
contend that doing repetitive, specialised work makes it feel as though a worker's day
job is disconnected from who they really are and what they may most effectively provide
society. Marx also sees these specialty professions as unstable since the worker is
disposable the moment expenses rise and technology can take the place of more
expensive human labour[11].
Repetitive stress injuries are a potential occupational safety pathology because workers
must repeatedly perform the same motions while standing still for hours at a time.
Furthermore, industrial noise was hazardous. When it wasn't too high, discussion by
employees was frequently forbidden. A competent employee at the LIP factory named
Charles Piaget recalled that the semi-skilled workers had barely 25 centimetres of
space to walk in addition to being forbidden from speaking. Later, industrial ergonomics
sought to reduce bodily harm.

2.7 The PLC in automation technology

Over time, control engineering has changed. In the past, the primary means of system control
used to be people. Electricity has been employed for control more recently, and early electrical
control relied on relays. These relays make it possible to turn on and off power without using a
mechanical switch. Relays are frequently used to implement straightforward logical control
choices. The Programmable Logic Controller (PLC), the most recent revolution, was made
possible by the emergence of low-cost computers. The PLC became widely used in the 1970s
and is now the preferred option for factory controls. [14]
On the production floor, PLCs are becoming more and more common and are likely to continue
doing so for some time. The benefits they provide account for the majority of this.
• Cost effective for controlling complex systems.
• Flexible and can be reapplied to control other systems quickly and easily.
• Computational abilities allow more sophisticated control.
• Trouble shooting aids make programming easier and reduce downtime.
• Reliable components make these likely to operate for years before failure.
 Figure2.5: PLC diagram

2.8 Methodology
PLCs offer advantages over conventional computers since they were created for the abrasive
industrial environment and have the ability for several input/output (I/O) configurations. These
link actuators and sensors to the PLC. PLCs can read limit switches, analogue process variables
(such pressure and temperature), and the positions of sophisticated positioning systems. Some
employ machine vision. On the actuator side, PLCs control analogue outputs, magnetic relays,
solenoids, hydraulic or pneumatic cylinders, and electric motors. The PLC may have external I/O
modules connected to a computer network that plug into it, or the input/output arrangements may
be incorporated within a basic PLC.

2.9 How a PLC Operates

PLCs are made up of input modules or points, a central processing unit (CPU), and output
modules or points. An input receives a range of digital or analogue signals from various field
devices (sensors), converting them into a logic signal that the CPU can use. Based on
programme instructions stored in memory, the CPU takes actions and carries out control
instructions. Output modules transform CPU control instructions into a digital or analogue
signal that can be used to operate a variety of field devices (actuators). The desired instructions
are entered into a programming device. What the PLC will do in response to a particular input is
determined by these instructions. New control parameters can be entered and processing
formation can be displayed thanks to an operator interface device[15].
Figure2.6: PLC Working principle

Chapter 3
Production Line Design Implementation

3.1 Introduction

In order to gain a comprehensive understanding of the automated processes involved in color

sorting production lines, several industrial production lines were studied and investigated. One of
the most notable examples of this was the Festo color sorting production line, which served as a
valuable case study in understanding the nature of automated processes and the challenges
associated with their implementation. Through this investigation, it became clear that a number
of factors play a critical role in the successful design and implementation of automated color
sorting systems. These factors include the proper selection of required automation equipment
such as sensors and controllers, the required sequencing and timing of the inter-process
operations, and the integration of all of these aspects into one coherent system. By studying
industrial production lines like the Festo color sorting line, it became possible to gain valuable
insights into the best practices for designing and implementing automated color sorting systems
that are efficient, reliable, and cost-effective.

3.1
Figure3.1: Color sorting machine

Operation of The Machine

3.1.1 Sequence Explanation

The color sorting machine, depicted in Figure 3.1, is composed of four vertical levels. The first
level functions as the base and features two vertical pneumatic cylinders that are firmly attached
to it. The three upper levels each have a single conveyor, resting on slabs, that is connected to a
coupler. The coupler, in turn, is linked to a DC motor that powers the conveyors on every level.
Additionally, the machine is equipped with fixed sensors and pneumatic cylinders.

The sequence begins with the manual addition of objects, regardless of whether they are black or
white, to the object pathway. This pathway is welded to a pneumatic cylinder, which serves as
the initial handling mechanism. As the object moves down the pathway, a proximity sensor
detects its presence and sends a signal to cylinder 1, which then extends and pushes the object
onto the conveyor. The conveyor is activated and begins to transport the object to the next stage
of the sorting process.

Once an object reaches the end of the first conveyor, a fixed proximity sensor detects its presence
and triggers a signal to the pneumatic cylinder. The cylinder then pushes the object onto the
second object pathway, which is connected to a second vertical cylinder. This cylinder extends
and delivers the object to the second level of the color sorting machine, ensuring that the object
is efficiently and accurately transported to the next stage of the sorting process.
Upon reaching level 2, the sorting process commences with the use of two sensors - a proximity
sensor to detect the presence of the object and a photoelectric sensor to determine its color. If
both sensors detect the object, signaling that it is white, the system sends a signal to sensor 3.
This signal prompts cylinder 3 to extend, pushing the object onto the second conveyor for further
processing.

In contrast, if only one sensor detects the object, indicating that it is black, a robotic arm
stationed on the second level becomes activated. The robotic arm then grabs the object and
proceeds to deliver it to the third level by placing it onto the third conveyor. This process ensures
that objects are sorted with precision based on their color.

Once a white object is pushed onto the second level conveyor, the conveyor starts moving and
transports the object to the end of the conveyor. At the end of the conveyor, a proximity sensor,
which is fixed on the resting slab, detects the object's presence and sends a signal to extend the
vertical cylinder connected to object pathway 1 to reach level 2. This signal prompts cylinder 4
to extend, allowing the white object to be delivered back to the first level.

As cylinder 4 extends, the vertical cylinder on level 2 retracts, and the object is detected and
pushed again onto the first conveyor. This process creates an infinite closed loop, allowing the
color sorting machine to handle a continuous stream of objects with optimal efficiency.

In the case of a black object, once the robotic arm delivers it from the second level to the third
level, a proximity sensor detects its presence at the beginning of the conveyor. The conveyor is
then activated and runs until the object reaches the end of the conveyor and starts falling onto the
first slider. The object then slides onto the second slider and finally onto the third slider. All three
sliders have narrow pneumatic tubes that use the flow of air to force the object to slide until it
reaches the starting point, which is object pathway one.

Once the object reaches object pathway one, the same steps that were performed on level one are
repeated. The object moves in a closed loop in the color sorting machine, ensuring that it is
efficiently and accurately transported to the next stage of the sorting process.

If only two objects are used in the color sorting machine, synchronization can be achieved
without any overload on the starting point between the black and white objects. This is because
the sorting process is designed to handle a continuous stream of objects, so the machine is
capable of efficiently and accurately sorting a large volume of objects.

The use of pneumatic tubes in the sliders allows for a smooth and efficient movement of objects,
minimizing the risk of damage or other issues during the sorting process.

3.1.2 Sequence Flowchart

Throughout the previous sections in this chapter every part of the process was explained.
Although some hints may have been shown earlier to how some parts are related to others, in this
section it is shown how all these parts are grouped together to form the whole process. The
algorithm on figure 3.2 shows the whole process.
3.2 Design, Fabrication and Manufacturing

3.2.1 Design Process

In the project, I utilized the SolidWorks application for designing and drawing the assembly of the
color sorting machine. SolidWorks is a 3D modelling software commonly used in engineering and design
applications. Utilizing SolidWorks allowed you to create a detailed and accurate model of the color
sorting machine, which facilitated the assembly process and ensured that all components fit together
correctly.

In addition to designing the assembly, I also used SolidWorks to draw the 2D parts of each shape. This
involved creating detailed drawings of each component of the color sorting machine, including adding
dimensions to ensure that each part is manufactured to precise specifications. These drawings serve as a
valuable reference during the manufacturing stage, helping to ensure that each part is accurately produced
and assembled.
For 2D sketches see Appendix A

3.2.2 Fabrication and Manufacturing

For the manufacturing of your color sorting machine, I chose metal sheets as the primary material. Metal
sheets are a popular choice for manufacturing due to their durability, strength, and resistance to wear and
tear. The use of laser cutter machine for the manufacturing process allowed you to produce parts with
 precision and accuracy, ensuring that each component fit together flawlessly.

By using 2D sketches with added dimensions, I Was able to create a detailed plan for the machine's parts,
which could then be fed into the laser cutter machine. The machine then cut each component according to
the precise dimensions, ensuring that each part was identical and consistent. This level of precision is
essential in manufacturing, as it helps to minimize errors and reduce waste.

I employed a bending machine in addition to a laser cutter to bend several components of the machine to
the required lengths and angles. With the use of this, I was able to manufacture intricate shapes and forms
that would have been difficult to produce by hand, proving the effectiveness of contemporary
manufacturing technology.

But for the exterior part of your machine, I've chosen to employ V-Slots for a number of reasons. First off,
the V-Slot is a desirable alternative for creating a machine with distinct and particular requirements due to
its modular construction, which facilitates easy customization. You may easily link and combine them
with one another using V-Slots to give your machine the precise size and shape you want.

Additionally, V-Slots offer a strong and lightweight method for constructing your machine's exterior. V-
Slots' aluminium design offers a solid and durable structure while minimising the machine's total weight.
This is crucial in applications like robotics or automation systems where weight is an essential
consideration.

in addition the V-shaped groove design of the V-Slot enables quick and accurate attachment of linear
motion parts including wheels, bearings, and rails. As a result, it is the best material to use when
constructing linear motion systems, such as CNC machines and 3D printers.

Finally, V-Slots are a cost-effective solution for building the outer part of your machine. The modular
design, aluminium construction, and ease of customization make V-Slots an attractive option for reducing
manufacturing costs while maintaining a high level of quality.

3.3 Sensor selection and placement

Proper selection and installment of condition sensing equipment are a critical task to enhance
optimum system performance. This section gives an insight to the how the used sensors were
designed to indicate all necessary information required by each stage.
3.3.1 Proximity Sensor
Proximity detectors operate by remote control without physical contact with the
object detected. They are thus a common feature of automated systems in all sectors
of industry (mechanical, foodstuff and chemistry). There are two main types of
proximity sensors, inductive and capacitive.

Figure3.2: proximity sensor

3.3.2 Sensitivity Of Proximity Detectors

The sensitivity of the proximity sensors may be adjusted in order to read objects within a
specified range. This adjustment is done by changing the potentiometers’ value as shown
in next figure
Figure3.3: how to adjust proximity sensor sensitivity
3.3.3 Photoelectric Sensors
These are the best-known sensors: their possibilities (large range, detection without
contact and of all kinds, diversity of mounting and accessibility thanks to fiber optics,
etc....) make them the most popular sensors at present in a wide variety of areas.
Composition
-
Figure3.4: photoelectric sensor circuit

These detectors are made up of a

light emitter, often of a light emitting diode (LED) which is able to emit
radiation invisible to the human eye. Moreover, its modulated emission
guarantees a high degree of immunity to stray light as well as a virtually
unlimited lifetime.
- These detectors are made up of a light emitter, often of a light emitting diode
(LED) which is able to emit radiation invisible to the human eye. Moreover,
its modulated emission guarantees a high degree of immunity to stray light as
well as a virtually unlimited lifetime.

They are also fitted with a light receiver, in many cases a phototransistor which is a transistor
switching due to the presence of light.
The light emitter and receiver can be housed in the same box or in two separate boxes
according to which detection technique is used.
-Shaping and amplification of the informational image is the task of electronic
components either built into or separate from the sensor (Schmitt trigger and
operational amplifiers). The object is detected when it causes the intensity of the light
beam to vary on the receiver or when it interrupts this beam.

3.3
Figure3.5: Robotic Arm
Robotic Arm

For the color sorting machine, I have incorporated a 3D printed pick and place robotic arm,
which is an autonomous component of the production line. This robotic arm is designed to
operate with 6 degrees of freedom, meaning that it can move in six different directions. The arm
is powered by six servo motors, which are controlled by a servo driver.

A 3D printed pick and place robotic arm has various advantages for my colour sorting machine.
To begin with, 3D printing enables the production of complicated and elaborate patterns that
would be difficult to make using standard manufacturing methods. This enables for increased
design flexibility and customization of the robotic arm.

Second, using a pick-and-place robotic arm allows for precise and efficient object movement in
the colour sorting system. The arm's six degrees of flexibility allow it to reach and move things
in a variety of positions, enhancing overall accuracy and speed.
Thirdly, the use of servo motors and a servo driver provides precise control over the movement
of the robotic arm, ensuring that each movement is accurate and consistent. This level of
precision is essential in industrial applications, where even small deviations can have significant
consequences.

Finally, the use of a 3D printed pick-and-place robotic arm with six degrees of freedom and six
servo motors proves the capability of modern technology to manufacture accurate and effective
machinery. By employing cutting-edge technology and techniques, businesses may optimise their
manufacturing processes, save costs, and increase overall efficiency and productivity. The
introduction of autonomous components, such as the pick and place robotic arm, which provides
a higher level of automation and control, results in a more streamlined and effective
manufacturing process..
See Appendix B for the Arduino source code.
The control circuit was designed on Fritzing software and tested to show that the system is
working as required before implementing the circuit using the hardware. We made sure the
whole circuit is working well and there is no shortage in current. The control circuit is shown
in figure 3.5.

Figure3.6: wiring or the robotic arm

9 3 2 1

3.5 Exploded View

8

5 7

4 6
1 First Conveyor
2 Second Conveyor
3 Third Conveyor
4 Robotic Arm
5 Resting slabs
6 v-slot
7 First slider
8 Second slider
9 Third Slider

Chapter 4

Programming OF Eight Festo Station

This chapter will focus on a Festo color sorting production line, which has eight connected
stations that sorts colored objects as it moves through them. The manufacturing line is made to
sort items according to color, and each station has a distinct job to do during the sorting process.
We'll go into great depth about how each station serves its purpose, and we'll also show you the
manufacturing line's sequential flow chart.
4.1 Distribution station
Figure4.1: Distribution Station

A) Function
Workpieces are separated from the Stack magazine module by the Distributing station. The
stack magazine's magazine barrel may accommodate up to 8 workpieces. Using a through-beam
sensor, the stack magazine's fill level is tracked. The workpieces are each individually pushed
out by a double action cylinder. The separated-out workpiece is held in place by the Changer
module's suction cup. A hoover switch determines if a piece of work has been picked up. The
workpiece is transported to the downstream station's transfer point by the arm of the transfer
unit, which is propelled by a rotary motor

B) Sequence description

Start prerequisites
Magazine is filled with workpieces
Initial position
Ejecting cylinder is extended
Rotary drive is in position “magazine”
Vacuum is off

Sequence
1. If workpieces are found in the magazine and the START button is pressed, the rotary drive
pivots to the "downstream station" position.
2. The workpieces are pushed out of the magazine by the ejecting cylinder retracting.
3. The rotary drive pivots to the "magazine" position.
4. The hoover is turned on. A hoover switch turns on when the workpiece is firmly grasped.
5. The workpiece is released once the ejecting cylinder moves.
6. The rotary drive rotates to the "downstream station" position.
7. The vacuum is turned off.
8. The rotary drive pivots to the "magazine" position.

c) Sequential flowchart
4.2 Testing station

Figure4.2: Testing Station

 A) Function
The Inserted Workpiece Characteristics are determined by the Testing Station. No matter what hue a workpiece is,
the Sensing module can identify it thanks to a capacitive sensor. Metallic and crimson workpieces are recognised by
a diffuse sensor. The diffuse sensor cannot detect black workpieces. Before the workpiece is lifted by the Lifting
module, a retroreflective sensor checks to see if the working space above the workpiece retainer is clear.
The measurement module's analogue sensor uses this information to calculate the workpiece's height. The output
signal can be sent to a PLC using analogue signal processing via a connection block, or it can be digitalized using a
comparator with a programmable threshold value.
Through the upper air-cushioned portion, a linear cylinder directs the appropriate workpieces to the downstream
station slide. Other workpiece are sorted on the lower slide.

B) Sequence
description ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​
​
Starting prerequisites
• Workpiece is in workpiece retainer
• Working area free

Initial position
• ​Ejecting cylinder is retracted
• ​Lifting cylinder is lowered
• ​Air cushioned slide is turned off

Sequence
1. Ascertain the workpiece's hue and substance
2. Raising lifting cylinder
3. determining the workpiece's height

Testing result OK

4. Turn on the slide with the air cushion.

5. Ejecting the cylinder to move
6. Retracting the ejecting cylinder
7. Turn off the slide's air cushion.
8. Lowering of the lifting cylinder
9. Starting place

Testing result not OK

10. Lowering the lifting cylinder
11. Advance ejecting cylinder
12. retracting the cylinder by ejection

13.
Starting place

c) Sequential Flowchart
4.3
Figure4.3: processing station

processing station
 A) Function
Workpieces are examined and processed on a rotary indexing table in the processing station. A
DC motor powers the rotary indexing table. An inductive sensor is used to determine the location
of the table, which is moved by a relay circuit. The workpieces are tested and drilled in two
parallel processes on the rotary indexing table. An inductive sensor-equipped solenoid actuator
verifies that the workpieces are inserted correctly. A solenoid actuator clamps the workpiece
while drilling is taking place.
The electrical ejector is used to transfer completed workpieces.

B) Sequence description

Starting prerequisites
• Workpiece is in the workpiece retainer material input

Initial position
• Rotary indexing table in place
• Checking solenoid plunger raised
• Drilling machine raised
• Drilling machine motor turned off
• Clamping device retracted
• Electrical branch not triggered

Sequence
1. When the START pushbutton is pressed and a workpiece is recognised in the workpiece
retainer the rotary indexing table rotates by 60 degrees.
2. The solenoid plunger descends and moves up and down to see if the workpiece is introduced
with the opening facing up. If the outcome of the check is satisfactory, the rotary indexing table
is rotated by 60°.
3. The clamping tool holds the workpiece in place. The drilling machine's motor is now running.
The drilling apparatus is lowered by the linear axis.
4. The linear axis moves the drilling machine back to its upper stop after it has reached its lower
position.
5. The clamping device is withdrawn and the drilling machine's motor is turned off. A 60°
rotation is made on the rotary indexing table.
6. The workpiece is transferred to the next station by the electrical sorting gate.

C) Sequential Flowchart ​
 ​
3

​ ​
 4.4 Handling Station
Figure4.4: Handling station

A) Function
An optical reflex light sensor in the retention device detects the presence of workpieces.
The handling device uses a pneumatic gripper that has an optical sensor attached to remove the
workpieces from the retention device. Workpieces that are "black" and "non-black" are
distinguished by the sensor. Based on these requirements, the workpieces can be deposited on
various slides.
If the station is integrated with other stations, several more sorting criteria can be established.
Transferring workpieces to a different station is also possible by adjusting the mechanical
end stop settings.

B) Sequence description

Starting prerequisites
• Workpiece in the receptacle
Initial position

•Linear axis in position “upstream station”

•Lifting cylinder retracted (gripper is raised)
•Gripper is open

Sequence
1. ​When a workpiece is identified in the receptacle and the Start pushbutton is pressed, the
lifting cylinder advances.
2. The grasper is shut. "Workpiece black" or "workpiece non-black" colour designation is used.
3. Retraction of the lifting cylinder..

Workpiece black, deposit on inner slide

4. The linear axis is moving near to the "slide 1" position.
5. The lift cylinder moves forward.
6. The workpiece is deposited on the slide once the gripper is opened.
7. Retraction of the lifting cylinder.
8. The axis shifts into the "upstream station" position.

Workpiece red/silver, deposit on outer slide 9. The linear axis approaches the position “slide 2”.
10. The lifting cylinder moves forward.
11. The workpiece is placed on the slide after opening the gripper.
12. Retraction of the lifting cylinder.
13. The linear axis switches to the "upstream station" setting
C) Sequential flow chart
 Figure4.5: Buffer station

4.5 Buffer
Station
A) Function
Prior to the separator, the buffer station can buffer up to 5 workpieces. A diffuse sensor at the
conveyor's beginning recognises the workpiece that has been inserted. The subsequent process
flow is managed by through-beam sensors that are placed in front and behind the separator. If the
pick-up point after the separator is open, a workpiece is transferred there.
A short-stroke cylinder with a reversing mechanism operates the separator. End position sensors
are used to find the short-stroke cylinder's end positions.

B)Sequence description

Start prerequisites
• No workpiece at start of conveyor

B) Sequence
1. Upon the detection of a workpiece, the conveyor motor turns on. To the separator is
transported the workpiece.
2. If the workpiece is identified by the throughbeam sensor in front of the separator, the conveyor
motor is turned off.
3. If the pick-up point is empty and the conveyor motor is turned on, the separator is reversed.
The work item is moved to the pickup location.
4. When the workpiece reaches the pick-up point and the indicator light "workpiece at pick-up
point" turns on, the conveyor motor is turned off.
-stroke cylinder. Workpieces at the start of the conveyor, prior to the separator and at the
conveyor end are detected by means of optical proximity sensors with fibre-optic cables.
The conveyor belt is driven by a DC gear motor.

C) Sequential Flow Chart

​
4.6
Figure4.6: Pick and place station
 Pick
and Place Station

A) Function
A two-axis Pick and Place module is included with the Pick and Place station. The diffuse sensor
picks up workpiece housings that are placed on the conveyor. A second diffuse sensor locates the
workpiece as it is carried by the conveyor belt to the pneumatic separator.
A workpiece insert is removed from the slide by the Pick and Place module and set on the
workpiece housing. The separator releases the entire workpiece (housing and insert), which is
then moved to the conveyor belt's terminus. The workpiece is found at the end of the conveyor
belt thanks to a light barrier.
Additionally, the station is capable of doing the following tasks:
•Separately placing the workpieces (housings or bodies) on the slide
•A different method of feeding workpieces (housings or bodies) from the slide

B) Sequence description

Start prerequisites

• No workpieces at the start of the conveyor belt

• Slide filled with workpiece inserts

Initial position
• ​Separator extended
• ​Belt drive switched off
• ​Mini slide up
• ​Mini slide retracted
• ​Vacuum off

Sequence
1. ​In the event that a workpiece is identified, the conveyor belt motor turns on. To the
separator is transported the workpiece.
2. If the workpiece is detected by the diffuse sensor in front of the separator, the conveyor belt
motor is turned off.
3. The slide is used to take up and insert a workpiece insert.
4. The conveyor belt motor is turned on while the separator is reversed.
5. At the end of the conveyor line, the entire workpiece is discovered. The motor for the
conveyor belt is turned off.

c) Sequential Flow Chart

4.7
Figure4.7: Fluid Muscle station

Fluid
Muscle Station
 A) Function
Workpiece inserts are pressed into housings at the Fluidic Muscle Press station. The housing is
placed by the rotary-linear changer with the insert placed on top and below the press. The
pressing action is performed by the fluidic muscle. The completed workpiece is subsequently
moved to the transfer position by the rotary-linear changer.
The changer arm is equipped with a diffuse sensor for workpiece interrogation.
An analogue pressure sensor measures and displays the pushing force. Both manually (using a
flow control valve and pressure regulator) and electronically (using a proportional pressure
regulator) can be used to adjust the pressing speed and depth.

B) Sequential description

Start prerequisites
• No workpiece gripped

Initial position
• ​Linear drive retracted
• ​Rotary drive in position „upstream station“
• ​Fluidic muscle up

Sequence
1. The workpiece is clamped by the clamping cylinder if a workpiece is detected in the gripper
and the START button is pressed.
2. The workpiece is moved 90 degrees to the press.
3. The housing is forced into place with the workpiece insert.
4. The workpiece is rotated 180 degrees.
5. The workpiece is in the "downstream station" position as the linear drive extends.
6. The workpiece is released by the clamping cylinder.
7. Retraction of the linear drive.
8. The gripper is turned to the "upstream station" position.

c) Sequential Flow chart

 Figure4.8: Sorting Station

4.8 Sorting
Station
A) Function
at the beginning of the conveyor, workpieces are inserted.
In front of the stopper, sensors identify the different workpiece qualities (black, red, and silver),
and then branches arrange the workpieces onto the proper slides. A reversing mechanism is used
to move the branches with short-stroke cylinders.
The fill level of the slides is tracked by a retroreflective sensor.

B)Sequence Description

Start prerequisites
• Workpiece at start of conveyor

Initial position
• ​Stopper advanced
• ​Branch 1 retracted
• ​Branch 2 retracted
• ​Conveyor motor off

Sequence
1. Workpiece found
Conveyor motor is on 2.
3. Material and color identification

Black workpiece detected, deposit on slide at end of conveyor

4. ​Stopper retracted
5. ​Workpiece ejected
6. ​Idle step

Silver workpiece detected, deposit on slide at center of conveyor

7. ​Branch 2 to advance
8. ​Stopper to retract
9. ​Workpiece ejected
10. ​Idle step

Red workpiece detected, deposit on slide at start of conveyor

11. ​Branch 1 to advance
12. ​Stopper to retract
13. ​Workpiece ejected
14. ​Idle step
15. ​Conveyor motor Off Stopper to advance
Branch 1 to retract Branch 2 to retract
C) Sequential Flow Chart
Chapter 5 Conclusion

conclusion
After the project was fulfilled in all stages (design-Manufacturing-Assembling-Programming)
several facts were concluded. Next is shown why these conclusions were reached.
1. In order to achieve optimum automation performance operation-oriented devices must be
used. This is because of the non-stability observed in the Robotic arm operation, these errors
could be eliminated by using a lesser degree of freedom of the robotic arm (as was discussed in
chapter four) ,so the movement of the arm is more accurate and the servo motors can handle the
weight of the arm .
2. Different equipment may give similar results for a specific task but some of them may provide
larger system flexibility than others. This was concluded because it was learned that a Proximity
sensor provides a more accurate readings than the inductive sensor for object detection.
3. In addition to the components used in the project, the previous two conclusions, a third
conclusion is reached. That is although industrial automation is cost-effective in the long term its
initial costs are very high since in order to achieve optimum performance high quality
components are required.
References :
1. "Assembler Job Description - How to Become an Assembly Worker". Spherion. Archived from the original on
2020-09-25. Retrieved 2020-03-07.

2. ^ Jump up to:
a b
Ford & Crowther 1922, p. 45 (on line version), p. 80 (print version)

3. ^ Scholl, A.; Christian, B. (2006). "State-of-the-art exact and heuristic solution procedures for simple
assembly line balancing". European Journal of Operational Research. 168 (3): 666–
639. doi:10.1016/j.ejor.2004.07.022.

4. ^ Slack, N.; Brandon-Jones, A.; Johnston, R. (2013). Operations Management.

Pearson. ISBN 9780273776291
5. "Assembler Job Description - How to Become an Assembly Worker". Spherion. Archived from the original on
2020-09-25. Retrieved 2020-03-07.
6. ^ Jump up to:
a b
Ford & Crowther 1922, p. 45 (on line version), p. 80 (print version)

7. ^ Scholl, A.; Christian, B. (2006). "State-of-the-art exact and heuristic solution procedures for simple assembly
line balancing". European Journal of Operational Research. 168 (3): 666–
639. doi:10.1016/j.ejor.2004.07.022.
8. ^ Slack, N.; Brandon-Jones, A.; Johnston, R. (2013). Operations Management.
Pearson. ISBN 9780273776291.
9. Blauner, Robert (Summer 1965). "Alienation and Freedom: The Factory Worker and His
Industry". Technology and Culture. 6 (3): 518–519. doi:10.2307/3101830. JSTOR 4105309.

10. ^ Marx, Karl. "Comment on James Mill," Economic and Philosophical Manuscripts of 1844: 1844.
11. ^ "Leçons d'autogestion" [Autogestion Lessons] (Interview) (in French). Archived from the original on 7 July
2007.
12. Smith, John. "Types of Production Line." The Balance Small Business, 2021,
https://www.thebalancesmb.com/types-of-production-line-2221212.

13. Jones, S. (2020). The Anatomy of Production Lines. Manufacturing.net. Retrieved from
https://www.manufacturing.net/operations/article/13183689/the-anatomy-of-production-lines

14. Wilson, Adam. "The PLC in Automation Technology." Control Engineering, 2020,
https://www.controleng.com/articles/the-plc-in-automation-technology/.
15. Johnson, Bill. "How a PLC Operates." Automation.com, 2021, https://www.automation.com/en-
us/articles/2021/how-a-plc-operates.
Appendix 1
Appendix B
#include <Wire.h>
#include <Adafruit_PWMServoDriver.h>

// called this way, it uses the default address 0x40

Adafruit_PWMServoDriver pwm = Adafruit_PWMServoDriver();
// you can also call it with a different address you want
//Adafruit_PWMServoDriver pwm = Adafruit_PWMServoDriver(0x41);

// Depending on your servo make, the pulse width min and max may vary, you
// want these to be as small/large as possible without hitting the hard stop
// for max range. You'll have to tweak them as necessary to match the servos you
// have!
#define SERVOMIN 125 // this is the 'minimum' pulse length count (out of 4096)
#define SERVOMAX 575 // this is the 'maximum' pulse length count (out of 4096)

// our servo # counter

uint8_t servonum = 0;

void setup() {
Serial.begin(9600);
Serial.println("16 channel Servo test!");

pwm.begin();

pwm.setPWMFreq(60); // Analog servos run at ~60 Hz updates

//yield();
}

void loop() {

pwm.setPWM(0, 0, 125 );

​delay(500);
pwm.setPWM(0, 0, 255 );

​delay(500);
pwm.setPWM(0, 0, 450 );

​delay(500);
pwm.setPWM(0, 0, 575 );

​delay(500); ​

}
6