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GENERAL BIOLOGY 2
Module 5 and 6
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Module FIVE
REPRODUCTION AND DEVELOPMENT

MOST ESSENTIAL LEARNING COMPETENCY:

YOU WILL BE ABLE TO (1) compare various modes of asexual and sexual
reproduction.

LEARNING TARGETS:

At the end of the unit lesson, you will be able to:

 differentiate asexual from sexual reproduction; and
 describe different modes of sexual and asexual reproduction.

UNLOCKING DIFFICULTIES:
The following are the keywords and challenging terms used in this module.

ASEXUAL REPRODUCTION - Mode of reproduction that does not involve the use of gametes or sex cells.

SEXUAL REPRODUCTION - Mode of reproduction that involves the use of gametes or sex cells.

FISSION - Type of asexual reproduction involving the division of body into two or more equal parts.

FRAGMENTATION - Type of asexual reproduction where the body breaks into two or more parts, with each
fragment capable of becoming a complete individual; in animals, fragmentation is usually followed by
regeneration where the missing parts are produced. For example, a lost arm of the starfish may be
regenerated by mitotic cell divisions.

BUDDING - Type of asexual reproduction where a new individual arises as an outgrowth (bud) from its parent,
develops organs like those of the parent, and then detaches itself.

SPORULATION - Type of asexual reproduction where a new individual forms from an aggregation of cells
surrounded by a resistant capsule or spore, which later on germinates.

ISOGAMY - Fusion of similar gametes which are usually motile.

HETEROGAMY - Fusion of dissimilar gametes. In oogamy, a large immotile gamete, the egg is fertilized by a
small motile gamete, the sperm.

BISEXUAL REPRODUCTION - Type of sexual reproduction involving the union of gametes from two genetically
different parents.

HERMAPHRODITE - An individual with both male and female reproductive tissues. In animals “self-
fertilization” is not common. In worms, a hermaphrodite needs a male to donate sperms in order to
fertilize the oocytes in its body.
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MOTIVATION

Paramecium undergoing FISSION Hydra undergoing BUDDING

Spirogyra and a starfish arm undergoing FRAGMENTATION

A fungus, i.e. Rhizopus, producing CONIDIA/SPORES Two frogs in AMPLEXUS

Module FIVE
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REPRODUCTION AND DEVELOPMENT

INTRO TO
REPRODUCTION
1. ASEXUAL REPRODUCTION
Asexual reproduction produces offspring that are genetically identical to the parent because the offspring are
all clones of the original parent. This type of reproduction occurs in prokaryotic microorganisms (bacteria) and
in some eukaryotic single-celled and multi-celled organisms. Animals may reproduce asexually through fission,
budding, fragmentation, or parthenogenesis.

a. FISSION
Fission, also called binary fission, occurs in prokaryotic microorganisms and in some invertebrate, multi-celled
organisms. After a period of growth, an organism splits into two separate organisms. Some unicellular
eukaryotic organisms undergo binary fission by mitosis. In other organisms, part of the individual separates,
forming a second individual. This process occurs, for example, in many asteroid echinoderms through splitting
of the central disk. Some sea anemones and some coral polyps also reproduce through fission.

b. BUDDING
Budding is a form of asexual reproduction that results from the outgrowth of a part of a cell or body region
leading to a separation from the original organism into two individuals. Budding occurs commonly in some
invertebrate animals such as corals and hydras. In hydras, a bud forms that develops into an adult, which
breaks away from the main body; whereas in coral budding, the bud does not detach and multiplies as part of
a new colony.

c. FRAGMENTATION
Fragmentation is the breaking of the body into two parts with subsequent regeneration. If the animal is
capable of fragmentation, and the part is big enough, a separate individual will regrow.

Many sea stars reproduce asexually by fragmentation. For example, if the arm of an individual sea star is
broken off it will regenerate a new sea star. Fishery workers have been known to try to kill the sea stars that
eat their clam or oyster beds by cutting them in half and throwing them back into the ocean. Unfortunately for
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the workers, the two parts can each regenerate a new half, resulting in twice as many sea stars to prey upon
the oysters and clams. Fragmentation also occurs in annelid worms, turbellarians, and poriferans.

Note that in fragmentation, there is generally a noticeable difference in the size of the individuals, whereas in
fission, two individuals of approximately the same size are formed.

d. PARTHENOGENESIS
Parthenogenesis is a form of asexual reproduction where an
egg develops into a complete individual without being
fertilized. The resulting offspring can be either haploid or
diploid, depending on the process and the species.
Parthenogenesis occurs in invertebrates such as water fleas,
rotifers, aphids, stick insects, some ants, wasps, and bees.
Bees use parthenogenesis to produce haploid males (drones)
and diploid females (workers). If an egg is fertilized, a queen
is produced. The queen bee controls the reproduction of the
hive bees to regulate the type of bee produced.

Some vertebrate animals, such as certain reptiles, amphibians, and fish, also reproduce through
parthenogenesis. Although more common in plants, parthenogenesis has been observed in animal species
that were segregated by sex in terrestrial or marine zoos. Two Komodo dragons, a bonnethead shark, and a
blacktip shark have produced parthenogenic young when the females have been isolated from males.

2. SEXUAL REPRODUCTION
Sexual reproduction is the combination of (usually haploid, or having a single set of unpaired chromosomes)
reproductive cells from two individuals to form a third (usually diploid, or having a pair of each type of
chromosome) unique offspring. Sexual reproduction produces offspring with novel combinations of genes.
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This can be an adaptive advantage in unstable or unpredictable environments. As humans, we are used to
thinking of animals as having two separate sexes, male and female, determined at conception. However, in
the animal kingdom, there are many variations on this theme.

Hermaphroditism
Hermaphroditism occurs in animals where one individual has both male and female reproductive parts.
Invertebrates, such as earthworms, slugs, tapeworms and snails, are often hermaphroditic. Hermaphrodites
may self-fertilize or may mate with another of their species, fertilizing each other and both producing
offspring. Self-fertilization is common in animals that have limited mobility or are not motile, such as barnacles
and clams.

SUMMARY

Reproduction may be asexual when one individual produces genetically identical offspring, or sexual when the
genetic material from two individuals is combined to produce genetically diverse offspring. Asexual
reproduction occurs through fission, budding, and fragmentation. Sexual reproduction may mean the joining
of sperm and eggs within animals’ bodies or it may mean the release of sperm and eggs into the environment.
An individual may be one sex, or both; it may start out as one sex and switch during its life, or it may stay male
or female.
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Module FIVE
REPRODUCTIVE SYSTEM: HUMAN

MOST ESSENTIAL LEARNING COMPETENCY:

YOU WILL BE ABLE TO (1) describe processes in the life cycle of animals and
explain the process of human development.

LEARNING TARGETS:

At the end of the unit lesson, you will be able to:

 describe the different stages of animal development;

 differentiate the developmental process in monozygotic and dizygotic twins;
 describe human reproductive organ systems;
 illustrate the human female menstrual cycle;
 explain processes in human development; and
 differentiate various forms of contraception in humans.

UNLOCKING DIFFICULTIES:
The following are the keywords and challenging terms used in this module.

DEVELOPMENT - involves formation of sex cells, zygote formation, subsequent stages in one’s life span.
Development is terminated by death.

HAPLOID (n) condition - When a cell has only half the chromosome number or only one set of chromosomes.

DIPLOID (2n) condition- When a cell has the full chromosome number or two sets of chromosomes.

TOTIPOTENT CELL - A cell that is capable of differentiating to become any kind of cell.

GAMETOGENESIS - Stage of development that yields haploid gametes.

FERTILIZATION - Stage of development that results in a unicellular diploid zygote.

CLEAVAGE - Stage of development involving a series of mitotic divisions to produce a multicellular blastula
from a unicellular zygote.

GASTRULATION - Stage of development involving morphogenetic movements of the cells to produce a

gastrula with distinct germ cell layers; in vertebrates, this will result in three layers: the outermost
ectoderm; the inner endoderm, and the middle layer, the mesoderm

ORGANOGENESIS - Stage of development where the different germ layers differentiate into specific organ
systems.

GROWTH - Stage of development characterized by an increase in size of an individual.

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Module FIVE
REPRODUCTIVE SYSTEM: ANIMAL

REPRODUCTIVE SYSTEM
The reproductive system is the human organ system responsible for the production and fertilization of
gametes (sperm or eggs) and carrying of a fetus. Both sexes gonads produce gametes. A gamete is a haploid
cell that combines with another haploid gamete during fertilization, forming a single diploid cell called a
zygote. Besides producing gametes, the gonads also produce sex hormones. Sex hormones are endocrine
hormones that control the development of sex organs before birth, sexual maturation at puberty, and
reproduction once sexual maturation has occurred.

Other reproductive system organs have various functions, such as maturing gametes, delivering gametes to
the site of fertilization, and providing an environment for the development and growth of an offspring.

1. STAGES OF ANIMAL DEVELOPMENT

A. GAMETOGENESIS - stage of development that yields haploid gametes (formation of gametes)

i. Spermatogenesis (spermatocyte)
ii. Oogenesis (oocyte)

B. FERTILIZATION - stage of development that results in a unicellular diploid zygote.

C. CLEAVAGE - is the division of cells in the early embryo.

i. Totipotent cells - can form all the cell types in a body, plus the extraembryonic, or placental,
cells.

D. GASTRULATION - formation of three germ layers: ectoderm, mesoderm and endoderm. Each will
give rise to specific tissues and organs.

E. ORGANOGENESIS
i. Show fates of each germ layer in a typical vertebrate animal

GERM LAYER FATES

Nervous system (brain and spinal cord), epidermis,
Ectoderm
sense organs
muscles, bones, cartilage, circulatory, excretory, and
Mesoderm
reproductive organs
digestive and respiratory organs, endocrine glands,
Endoderm
germ cells and gametes

F. DIFFERENTIATION AND GROWTH

i. Differentiation implies increasing structural and functional complexity.
ii. Growth is an increase in size, or bulk.
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2. DIFFERENTIATE MONOZYGOTIC AND DIZYGOTIC TWINS

MONOZYGOTIC TWINS
Also known as identical twins; result from the union of a sperm and egg to form a single zygote that splits up
during the first cleavage stage.

DIZYGOTIC TWINS
Also known as fraternal twins; results from the development of two or more separate fertilization events
where the resulting zygotes develop almost simultaneously.

3. DIFFERENCE BETWEEN MALE AND FEMALE REPRODUCTIVE SYSTEM

The reproductive system is the only human organ system that is significantly different between males and
females. Embryonic structures that will develop into the reproductive system start out the same in males and
females, but by birth, the reproductive systems have differentiated. How does this happen?

Sex Differentiation

Starting around the seventh week after conception in genetically male (XY) embryos, a gene called SRY on the
Y chromosome initiates the production of multiple proteins. These proteins cause undifferentiated gonadal
tissue to develop into testes. Testes secrete hormones — including testosterone — that trigger other changes
in the developing offspring (now called a fetus), causing it to develop a complete male reproductive system.
Without a Y chromosome, an embryo will develop ovaries, that will produce estrogen. Estrogen, in turn, will
lead to the formation of the other organs of a female reproductive system.

Sex Hormones and Maturation

Male and female reproductive systems are different at birth, but they are immature and incapable of
producing gametes or sex hormones. Maturation of the reproductive system occurs during puberty when
hormones from the hypothalamus and pituitary gland stimulate the testes or ovaries to start producing sex
hormones again. The main sex hormones are testosterone and estrogen. Sex hormones, in turn, lead to the
growth and maturation of the reproductive organs, rapid body growth, and the development of secondary sex
characteristics, such as body and facial hair and breasts.
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MALE REPRODUCTIVE SYSTEM

The main structures of the male reproductive
system are external to the body. The two testes
(singular, testis) hang between the thighs in a sac
of skin called the scrotum. The testes produce
both sperm and testosterone. Resting atop each
testis is a coiled structure called the epididymis
(plural, epididymes). The function of the epididymes
is to mature and store sperm. The penis is a
tubular organ that contains the urethra and has the
ability to stiffen during sexual arousal. Sperm passes
out of the body through the urethra during a sexual
climax (orgasm). This release of sperm is
called ejaculation.

In addition to these organs, there are several ducts and glands that are internal to the body. The ducts, which
include the vas deferens (also called the ductus deferens), transport sperm from the epididymis to
the urethra. The glands, which include the prostate gland and seminal vesicles, produce fluids that become
part of semen. Semen is the fluid that carries sperm through the urethra and out of the body. It contains
substances that control pH and provide sperm with nutrients for energy.

TESTIS - where sperms are produced.

EPIDIDYMIS - where sperms are temporarily stored.

SCROTAL SAC/SCROTUM - supports the testis and epididymis.

VAS DEFERENS - where the sperm passes through from the testis before it joins the urethra.

URETHRA - connected to the urethra and the urinary bladder; serves as passageway of both sperm and urine
and terminates in the external urinary meatus of the penis.

SEMINAL VESICLE - secretes fluid that forms part of the semen; secretion gives the semen its alkaline
characteristic to counteract the acidity of the vaginal tract and therefore protect the sperm; the fluid
also contains sugars like fructose.

PROSTATE GLAND - secretes fluid that also provides alkalinity to the semen; it also contains proteolytic
enzymes, citric acid, phosphatases, and lipids.

BULBOURETHRAL GLANDS - paired glands that produce clear, viscous secretion known as pre-ejaculate that
helps to lubricate the urethra for sperm to pass through, neutralizing traces of acidic urine in the
urethra, and helps flush out any residual urine or foreign matter.

FEMALE REPRODUCTIVE SYSTEM

The main structures of the female reproductive system are internal to the body. They include the paired
ovaries, which are small, ovoid structures that produce eggs and secrete estrogen. The two Fallopian tubes
start near the ovaries and end at the uterus. Their function is to transport eggs from the ovaries to the uterus.
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If an egg is fertilized, it usually occurs while it is traveling through a Fallopian tube. The uterus is a pear-shaped
muscular organ that functions to carry a fetus until birth. It can expand greatly to accommodate a
growing fetus, and its muscular walls can contract forcefully during labor to push the baby out of the uterus
and into the vagina. The vagina is a tubular tract connecting the uterus to the outside of the body.
The vagina is where sperm are usually deposited during sexual intercourse and ejaculation. The vagina is also
called the birth canal because a baby travels through the vagina to leave the body during birth.

The external structures of the female reproductive system are referred to collectively as the vulva. They
include the clitoris, which is homologous to the male penis. They also include two pairs of labia
(singular, labium), which surround and protect the openings of the urethra and vagina.

CLITORIS - The homologue (equivalent) of the penis in females

VAGINA - Main entrance to the female reproductive tract; receives the penis during sexual intercourse.

CERVIX - Where the vagina ends; projection of the uterus into the vagina; leads to the uterus

UTERUS - Also known as the womb; where the embryo develops; with thick muscular walls, blood vessels; and
the endometrial lining

ENDOMETRIAL LINING/ENDOMETRIUM - Innermost lining of the uterus where the embryo implants and
develop

FALLOPIAN TUBES - Also known as oviducts; paired tubes that are connected to the uterus and terminate near
the ovaries; this is where fertilization takes place

OVARIES - Female gonads that release the oocytes during ovulation, which are then caught by the fimbrae of
the fallopian tubes in order for the oocytes to pass on to the fallopian tubes

4. DESCRIBE HUMAN DEVELOPMENT

I. FERTILIZATION - occurs in the fallopian tube; results in a unicellular zygote

II. CLEAVAGE - also takes place in the fallopian tube after fertilization

III. Describe MORULA and BLASTOCYST

MORULA - a human blastula made up of a solid ball of cells

BLASTOCYST - a human blastula composed of the inner cell mass, which becomes the embryo, and the
trophectoderm, which becomes the placenta.
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IV. IMPLANTATION - Attachment of blastocyst to endometrium of uterus; start of pregnancy

V. GESTATION - Differentiate embryonic development from fetal development in terms of period covered
during gestation

HUMAN EMBRYO - corresponds to the first two months of gestation.

HUMAN FETUS - corresponds to the months 3-9 of human gestation.

5. DESCRIBE THE EVENTS IN THE MENSTRUAL CYCLE

A. OVARIAN CYCLE

i. Follicular Phase
Part of the menstrual cycle of the ovary in humans where the follicles begin to mature; it is marked by
secretions of the follicle-stimulating hormone (FSH) and the luteinizing hormone (LH) by the anterior
pituitary gland and the estrogen by the ovaries; both FSH and LH stimulate the maturation of the oocytes
while estrogen stimulates uterine lining growth in preparation for implantation of the embryo.

ii. Ovulation
Part of your menstrual cycle. It occurs when an egg is released from your ovary.

iii. Luteal Phase

Part of the menstrual cycle of the ovary after the oocytes are released from the follicles; the remains of the
follicle become the corpus luteum, which then secretes progesterone, which stimulates the uterus to
undergo final maturational changes that prepare it for gestation to house and nourish an embryo.

B. UTERINE CYCLE

i. Menstrual phase
Part of the menstrual cycle of the uterus; also known as the “period”; corresponds to the early part of the
follicular phase of the ovaries (days 1-5) when endometrium degenerates and sloughs off, producing the
menstrual discharge.
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ii. Proliferative Phase

Part of the menstrual cycle of the uterus; corresponds to the latter part of the follicular phase of the ovaries
(days 8-14) when the endometrium heals and begins to thicken as a consequence of estrogen secretion.

iii. Secretory Phase

Part of the menstrual cycle of the uterus; corresponds to the luteal phase of the ovaries; the endometrium
undergoes final changes before it receives the embryo during implantation

6. CONTRACEPTION AND ITS TYPES

CONTRACEPTION - process that blocks any one of the following stages of reproduction in humans:
(1) release and transport of gametes;
(2) fertilization;
(3) implantation;
(4) actual completion of development of the embryo/fetus

A. SUPPRESSING METHODS - type of contraception that prevents the oocyte to mature.

Oral contraceptives - type of contraception taken in by women to prevent them from ovulating

B. BARRIER METHODS – “physical “

Condom - type of barrier method that is inserted on the male penis to prevent release of sperm into the
female reproductive tract.

Diaphragm - type of barrier method that blocks the cervix, thereby preventing the passage of the sperm
into the uterus.

Cervical cap - type of barrier method that covers the cervix and blocks passage of the sperm into the
uterus.

C. CHEMICAL METHOD

Spermicidal jelly and foam - type of barrier method that kills the sperm on contact; they are placed
inside the vaginal canal.

D. SURGICAL METHODS

Vasectomy - type of surgical method for men; entails cutting the vas deferens
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Tubal ligation - type of surgical method for women; entails cutting the fallopian tubes.

E. IMPLANTATION-SUPPRESSING METHODS

Type of contraception that prevents the blastocyst from being implanted in the endometrium

a. Intra-uterine devise (IUD) - type of implantation-suppressing method that physically blocks the
blastocyst form implanting into the endometrium.

b. Morning-after pill - type of implantation-suppressing method that blocks the action of hormones
that prepare the uterus to receive the embryo.

OTHER METHODS:

ABORTION - type of contraception that involves the deliberate removal of the embryo/fetus before it
completes gestation.
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Coitus interruptus - type of contraception that requires the man to remove the penis before ejaculation.

Abstinence - type of contraception where the man and the woman do not engage in sexual intercourse.

SUMMARY

a. The reproductive system is the human organ system responsible for the production and fertilization of
gametes and, in females, the carrying of a fetus.

b. Both male and female reproductive systems have organs called gonads (testes in males, ovaries in females)
that produce gametes (sperm or eggs) and sex hormones (such as testosterone in males and estrogen in
females). Sex hormones are endocrine hormones that control the prenatal development of reproductive
organs, sexual maturation at puberty, and reproduction after puberty.

c. The reproductive system is the only organ system that is significantly different between males and females.

d. Male reproductive system organs include the testes, epididymis, penis, vas deferens, prostate gland, and
seminal vesicles.

e. Female reproductive system organs include the ovaries, Fallopian tubes, uterus, vagina, clitoris, and labia.
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Module SIX
REPRODUCTIVE SYSTEM: PLANTS

MOST ESSENTIAL LEARNING COMPETENCY:

YOU WILL BE ABLE TO (1) compare and contrast different types of plant life cycles,
and explain processes in flowering plant reproduction and development.

LEARNING TARGETS:

At the end of the unit lesson, you will be able to:

 enumerate the different types of reproductive cycles;

 illustrate the life cycles of moss, fern, and flowering plant;
 describe double fertilization in flowering plants; and
 explain processes in plant development.

UNLOCKING DIFFICULTIES:
The following are the keywords and challenging terms used in this module.

GAMETOPHYTE - Stage of the life cycle of a plant that is haploid; stage that produces gametes via mitosis;
these gametes fuse to form a zygote that develops into a sporophyte.

SPOROPHYTE - Stage of the life cycle of a plant that is diploid; it is the most recognizable structure in most
flowering plants; it produces haploid spores by meiosis in structures called sporangia.

HAPLONTIC LIFE CYCLE - Life cycle where the haploid stage (gametophyte) is multicellular and the only diploid
stage is the fertilized egg cell.

HAPLODIPLONTIC LIFE CYCLE - Life cycle that includes multicellular diploid (sporophyte) and haploid
(gametophyte) generations.

DIPLONTIC LIFE CYCLE - Life cycle where the diploid stage (sporophyte)is multicellular and the haploid stage
(gametophyte) is represented by the single-celled gametes.

ANGIOSPERMS - Also known as flowering plants; group of plants that produce reproductive structures called
flowers in their sporophyte stages

FLOWER - Reproductive structure in flowering plants; made up of four major whorls

SEPALS - The outermost whorls of a flower; collectively called the calyx

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PETALS - Whorl inner to the sepals; may be brightly colored in some; collectively called the corolla

STAMEN - Whorl inner to the petals; the male reproductive structure of the flower; bears the male sporangia
(also known as microsporangia)

ANTHER - Part of the stamen that contains the microsporangia that develops into pollen grains

FILAMENT - Part of the stamen that serves as the stalk of the anther

PISTIL OR CARPELS - Innermost whorl of the flower; the female reproductive structure of the flower; bears the
female sporangia (also known as the megasporangia).

STIGMA - Part of the pistil where the pollen grain derived from the microsporangium attaches during
pollination.

STYLE - Part of the pistil that serves as the stalk of the stigma; leads to the ovary.

OVARY - Found at the base of the pistil; contains one or more ovules; eventually becomes the fruit.

OVULE - Contains the female sporangia or megasporangia; eventually becomes the seed.

COMPLETE FLOWER - A flower with sepals, petals, stamens and carpels

INCOMPLETE FLOWER - A flower that lacks one or more of the floral whorls

PERFECT FLOWER - A flower that has both stamens and carpels; a bisexual structure

IMPERFECT FLOWER - A flower that has only either the stamens (staminate flower) or the carpels (carpellate
flower); also known as a unisexual flower

MONOECIOUS PLANT - A plant having perfect flowers or both staminate and carpellate flowers on the same
individual

DIOECIOUS PLANT - A plant having only either the staminate or carpellate flower

POLLINATION - The placement of the pollen grain from the anther to the stigma of a carpel

POLLEN GRAIN - The immature male gametophyte that develops within the anthers of stamens; derived from
the microsporocytes inside the microsporangia of anthers. Inside the mature pollen grain, there is a tube
cell and a generative cell. The tube cell develops into the pollen tube as it enters the style and eventually
enters the micropyle of the ovule. The generative cell divides into two sperm nuclei and traverses the
pollen tube

EMBRYO SAC - The female gametophyte found inside the ovule; derived from the megasporocyte inside the
megasporangia; a mature embryo sac contains 8 nuclei. Eventually, these nuclei become enveloped by
membranes to become real cells. These are the one egg cell; two synergids that flank the egg; two polar
cells that are often fused; and three antipodals opposite the synergids and egg.

MICROPYLE - The opening through the integuments of the ovule that surrounds the embryo sac; this is where
the pollen tube enters in order to reach the embryo sac

ENDOSPERM - Part of the mature seed that is derived from the fusion of the sperm nucleus and the two polar
nuclei of the embryo sac. This becomes a nutritive tissue with triploid cells that serves to store food for
the developing embryo

ZYGOTE - Part of the mature seed that forms as a result of the fusion of the egg and one of the sperm nuclei
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COTYLEDON - Embryonic leaf that forms inside the seed

MONOCOT - A plant with only one cotyledon inside its seed (monocotyledonous)

DICOT - A plant with two cotyledons inside its seed (dicotyledonous)

SEED GERMINATION - Process that transforms a seed into a seedling

IMBIBITION - The first step in seed germination; absorption of water

RADICLE - Embryonic root that emerges from the seed.

PLUMULE - Embryonic shoot that emerges from the seed and breaks through the soil surface.

EPICOTYL - Part of the plumule above the cotyledon.

HYPOCOTYL - Part of the plumule below the cotyledon.

THE GENERAL LIFE CYCLE OF PLANTS:

The mature, multicellular organism is a diploid sporophyte. Later, some cells undergo meiosis to produce
haploid gametes which are then released. Gametes fuse and form the zygote which develops by mitosis to
become the multicellular diploid sporophyte.

In some plants, the dominant part of the life cycle is a multicellular, haploid gametophyte ( all cells have a
haploid chromosome number). Mitosis releases individual cells that can act like gametes (gamete are
produced by mitosis). The following terms should be mentioned: Gametophyte, Gametangia, Sporophyte,
Sporangia.
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Module SIX
REPRODUCTIVE SYSTEM: PLANTS

PLANT LIFE CYCLE

DIFFERENT TYPES OF LIFE CYCLES:

I. HAPLONTIC LIFE CYCLE

LIFE CYCLE OF THE GREEN ALGA CHARA
i. Chara is a multicellular green alga related to higher plants
because it has both chlorophyll a and b and produce plant
starch. Its dominant stage is a multicellular haploid stage which
produces gametes that eventually fuse to form unicellular
zygotes. Each zygote then undergoes meiosis to become haploid,
after which it undergoes mitosis to become the multicellular
organism.

Life cycle of the green alga chara, depicting a haplontic life cycle where the dominant stage is a multicellular
haploid organism (gametophyte) and the only diploid stage is the zygote which undergoes meiosis

II. HAPLODIPLONTIC LIFE CYCLE

LIFE CYCLE OF A MOSS
A moss has a multicellular haploid (gametophyte) stage that produces gametes. These gametes fuse to
produce a zygote that undergoes mitosis to produce a multicellular sporophyte. Within a part of the
sporophyte called the capsule, cells undergo meiosis to produce meiospores. These spores are eventually
released and germinate by dividing mitotically to become a multicellular gametophyte.
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LIFE CYCLE OF A MOSS, DEPICTING A HAPLODIPLONTIC LIFE CYCLE WHERE BOTH THE DIPLOID
(SPOROPHYTE) AND HAPLOID (GAMETOPHYTE) STAGES ARE MULTICELLULAR. THE MOSS PLANT PROPER IS
A GAMETOPHYTE.

III. Diplontic life cycle

A. Type of life cycle found in flowering plants (and in most animals). The organism is in the diploid stage ( all
cells are diploid in chromosome number) except for mature, haploid sex cells which are called gametes.

THE FLOWER
The four major whorls
1. Sepals
2. Petals
3. Stamen with Anther and Filament
4. Carpels- with Stigma, Style, Ovary and Ovule

Types of flowers based on the presence of the whorls

A. Complete
B. Incomplete

Types of flowers based on the presence of reproductive whorls

1. Perfect / Bisexual
2. Imperfect / Unisexual
i. Staminate flower
ii. Carpellate flower

PLANT TYPES BASED ON THE PRESENCE OF REPRODUCTIVE STRUCTURES: MONOECIOUS OR DIOECIOUS

DEVELOPMENT IN FLOWERING PLANTS

1. GAMETOPHYTE - Development through gametogenesis

MALE GAMETOPHYTE - The microsporangium

in the anther contains numerous
microsporocytes. Each microsporocyte will
undergo meiosis to produce four haploid
microspores each microspore develops into a
pollen grain (containing two sperm nuclei and
one tube nucleus)

FEMALE GAMETOPHYTE - The megasporangium

in the ovule contains megasporocytes. One
megasporocyte will undergo meiosis to produce
four haploid megaspores three megaspores
degenerate remaining megaspore divides
mitotically three times, an embryo sac with
eight haploid nuclei membranes partition to
make the embryo sac multicellular.
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2. POLLINATION
1. Transfer of pollen grain from the anther to the stigma
2. May be animal-aided or wind-aided

3. DOUBLE FERTILIZATION

A. Inside a pollen grain there is a tube cell and generative cell generative cell divides to produce two sperm
cells while the tube cell becomes pollen tube pollen tube elongates along the style and penetrates the ovule in
the ovary via the micropyle (an opening) pollen tube discharges the sperm cells into the embryo sac inside the
ovule one sperm unites with the egg to form the zygote while the other sperm fuses with the polar nuclei to
become the endosperm, which serves as food of the early embryo.

4. EMBRYO DEVELOPMENT (EMBRYOGENESIS)

A. Zygote divides mitotically to produce the proembryo and suspensor, which anchors the proembryo and
transfers nutrients from the parent plant to it cotyledons appear on the proembryo (monocots have only one
cotyledon whereas dicots have two) proembryo elongates into an embryo.

5. MATURATION OF OVARY AND OVULE

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A. Ovary matures into fruit while the ovule becomes the seed. The seed may become dormant for some
time.

6. SEED GERMINATION

a. Transformation of seed to seedling.

b. Seed undergoes imbibition to break dormancy nutrients stored in the endosperm or cotyledons are
digested and transferred to the growing regions of the embryo to primary meristems (protoderm,
ground meristem, procambium) develop to radicle emerges to plumule breaks through the soil surface
b.1. Epigeal germination occurs when the cotyledon emerges above ground, thereby exposing the
hypocotyl of the plumule.

b.2. Hypogeal germination occurs when the cotyledon remains below ground, thereby concealing the
hypocotyl.

7. SEEDLING GROWTH TO MATURE PLANT

A. Primary meristems differentiate to become the different plant tissues

FATES OF THE PRIMARY MERISTEMS IN FLOWERING PLANT DEVELOPMENT

PRIMARY MERISTEM MATURE TISSUE

Protoderm Epidermis
Ground meristem Cortex, pith
Primary xylem, primary phloem, vascular cambium, cork cambium,
Procambium
secondary meristems

Note: all activities, assessments, and post quizzes

will be submitted through our official google
classroom portal.
Thank You!
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Module FIVE and SIX

REPRODUCTIVE SYSTEM: ANIMAL and PLANTS

BIBLICAL INSIGHT

Genesis 9: 7
“As for you, be fruitful and multiply;
Populate the earth abundantly and multiply in it.”
REFERENCES:

Hickman, C.P. Jr., Roberts, L.S., Larson, A. and l’Anson, H. 2004. Integrated Principles of Zoology, (12 th ed).
McGraw- Hill Education.

Reece, J.B., Urry, L.A., Cain, M.L., Wasserman, S.A., Minorsky, P.V., and Jackson, R.B. 2012. Campbell Biology,
(9th ed). The Benjamin Cummings Publishing Co., Inc.

Sheridan, M. 1999. Instructor’s guide for Biology, 5 th ed. By Campbell, Reece, Mitchell. Addison Wesley
Longman, Inc.

Prepared by:

LENDON JAN S. CONDE

Subject Teacher

Checked by:

RAYMOND W. DELA CUESTA, LPT, M.A.Ed.

Senior High School Academic Coordinator

Noted by:
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ELEANOR C. AGUILLON, LPT, M.A.Ed.

Senior High School Focal Person