Chapter 14

Lymphatic System

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Functions of the Lymphatic System

1. Fluid balance

2. Fat Absorption

3. Defense

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 Figure 14.1

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 Components
• Lymph:
fluid that enters lymphatic capillaries composed
of water and some solutes
• Lymphocytes
• Lymphatic vessels
• Lymph nodes
• Tonsils
• Spleen
• Thymus gland

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 Lymphatic Capillaries and Vessels
• Carries fluid in one direction from tissues to
circulatory system
• Fluid moves from blood capillaries into tissue
spaces
• Lymphatic capillaries:
- tiny, closed-ended vessels
- fluid moves easily into
- in most tissues
- join to form lymphatic vessels

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• Lymphatic vessels:
- resemble small veins
- where lymphatic capillaries join
- one way valves
• Right lymphatic duct:
- where lymphatic vessels from right upper
limb and right head, neck, chest empty
- empties into right subclavian vein

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• Thoracic duct:
- rest of body empties from lymphatic
vessels
- empties into left subclavian vein

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 Figure 14.2

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 Lymphatic Organs
• Tonsils:
- palatine tonsils on each side of oral
cavity
- pharyngeal tonsils near internal opening
of nasal cavity (adenoid)
- lingual tonsils posterior surface of
tongue
- form a protective ring of lymphatic tissue
around nasal and oral cavities
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 Figure 14.3

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• Lymph nodes:
- rounded structures that vary in size
- located near lymphatic vessels
- groin, armpit, neck
- lymph passes through lymph nodes before
entering blood
- lymph moves through and immune system
is activated (lymphocytes produced) if
foreign substances are detected
- removal of microbes by macrophages

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 Figure 14.4

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• Spleen:
- size of clenched fist
- located in abdomen
- filters blood
- detect and respond to foreign substances
- destroy old red blood cells
- blood reservoir
- white pulp: lymphatic tissue surrounding
arteries
- red pulp: contains macrophages and red
blood cells that connect to veins
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 Figure 14.5

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• Thymus gland:
- bilobed gland
- located in mediastinum behind the sternum
- stops growing at age 1
- at age 60 decreases in size
- produces and matures lymphocytes

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 Figure 14.6a

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 Immunity
• What is it?
- ability to resist damage from foreign
substances
- Ex. Microbes, toxins, cancer cells

• Types of immunity:
- innate
- adaptive

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 Innate Immunity
• What is it?
- present at birth
- defense against any pathogen
- accomplished by physical barriers,
chemical mediators, cells, inflammatory
response

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 Physical Barriers
• First line of defense
• Skin and mucous membranes to act as barriers
• Tears, saliva, urine wash away pathogens

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 Chemical Mediators
• What are they?
chemicals that can kill microbes and prevent
their entry into cells

• Lysozyme:
found in tears and saliva to kill bacteria

• Mucous membranes:
prevent entry of microbes
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• Histamine:
promote inflammation by causing vasodilation

• Interferons:
proteins that protect against viral infections by
stimulating surrounding cells to produce
antiviral proteins

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 Cells
• White blood cells:
produce in red bone marrow and lymphatic
tissue that fight foreign substances

• Phagocytic cells:
- ingest and destroy foreign substances
- Ex. neutrophils and macrophages

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• Neutrophils:
first to respond to infection but die quickly
• Macrophages:
- monocytes
- leave blood and enter tissues
- can ingest more than neutrophils
- protect lymph in lymph nodes and blood in
spleen and liver
- given specific names for certain areas of
body (Kupffer cells in liver)
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• Basophils:
- made in red bone marrow
- leave blood and enter infected tissues
- can release histamine

• Mast cells:
- made in red bone marrow
- found in skin, lungs, gastrointestinal tract,
urogenital tract
- can release leukotrienes

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• Eosinophils:
- produced in red bone marrow
- release chemicals to reduce inflammation

• Natural Killer Cells:

- type of lymphocyte
- produce in red bone marrow
- recognize classes of cells such as tumor
cells or virus infected cells
- release chemicals to lysis cells
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 Inflammatory Response

• What is it?
- involves chemical and cells due to injury
- signaled by presence of foreign substance
- stimulates release of chemical mediators

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 Figure 14.8

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 Adaptive Immunity
• What is it?
- defense that involves specific recognition
to a specific antigen
- acquired after birth
- reacts when innate defenses don’t work
- slower than innate immunity
- has memory
- uses lymphocytes (B and T cells)
- 2 types antibody-mediated and cell-
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 Terms Related to Adaptive Immunity
• Antigen:
- substance that stimulates immune response
- Ex. Bacteria, virus, pollen, food, drugs, etc.
• Self-antigen:
molecule produced by person’s body that
stimulates immune system response
• Antibody:
proteins the body produces in response to
antigen

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 Origin and Development of Lymphocytes

• Stem cells:
- red bone marrow
- give rise to all blood cells
- give rise to some pre T cells and pre B
cells

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• Lymphocytes:
- type of white blood cell
- involved in adaptive immunity
- develop from stem cells
- differentiate into specific lymphocytes
such as B or T cells

33
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• B cells:
- type of lymphocytes
- involved in antibody-mediated immunity
- originate from stem cells
- mature in red bone marrow
- move to lymphatic tissue after mature
- lead to production of antibodies

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• T cells:
- type of lymphocyte
- involved in cell-mediated immunity
primarily and antibody-mediated immunity
- mature in thymus gland
- move to lymphatic tissue after mature
- 4 types

35
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 Figure 14.9

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 Antigen Recognition
• Lymphocytes have antigen receptors on their
surface
• Called B-cell receptors on B cells and T-cell
receptors on T cells
• Each receptor only binds with a specific antigen
• When antigen receptors combine with antigen
the lymphocyte is activated and adaptive
immunity begins

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• Major histocompatibility complex molecule
(MHC):
- contain binding sites for antigens
- specific for certain antigens
- hold and present a processed antigen on
the surface of the cell membrane
- bind to antigen receptor on B or T cells
and stimulate response

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• Cytokines:
- proteins secreted by a cell that regulates
neighboring cells
- Ex. Interleukin 1 released by
macrophages stimulates helper T cells

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 Lymphocyte Proliferation
1. After antigen is processed and present to
helper T cells, helper T cell produces
interleukin-2 and interleukin 2-receptors
2. Interleukin-2 binds to receptors and
stimulates more helper T cells production
3. Helper T cells are needed to produce B cells
4. B cells produce antibodies

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 Dual Nature of Immune System
• Lymphocytes give rise to 2 types of immune
responses: antibody-mediated and cell-mediated

• Antigens can trigger both types of responses

• Both types are able to recognize self vs. nonself,

use specificity, and have memory

43
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 Antibody-Mediated
• What is it?
- effective against antigens in body fluids
(blood and lymph)
- effective against bacteria, viruses, toxins
- uses B cells to produce antibodies

44
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 Antibody Structure
• Letter Y shape
• Variable region:
- V of Y
- bind to epitopes of antigen using antigen-
binding site
• Constant region:
- stem of Y
- each class of immunoglobulin has same
structure

45
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 Figure 14.12

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• Antigen-binding site:
site on antibody where antigen binds

• Valence:
number of antigen-binding sites on antibody

• 5 immunoglobulins used to destroy antigens:

IgG, IgM, IgA, IgE, IgD

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 Effects of Antibodies
• Inactivate antigen
• Bind antigens together
• Active complement cascades
• Initiate release of inflammatory chemicals
• Facilitate phagocytosis

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 Figure 14.13

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 Antibody Production
Primary response
• 1st exposure of B cell to antigen
• B cell undergoes division and forms plasma
cell and memory cells
• Plasma cells:
- produce antibodies
- 3-14 days to by effective against antigen
- person develop disease symptoms

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Secondary Response
• Memory cells:
- occurs when immune system is exposed
to antigen that has been seen before
- B memory cells quickly divided to form
plasma cells which produce antibodies
- produces new memory cells

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 Cell-Mediated Immunity
• What is it?
- effective against antigens in cells and
tissues
- effective against bacteria, viruses, fungi, and
protozoa
- uses different types of T cells

54
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 Types of T cells

• Helper T cells (TH):

- activate macrophages
- help form B cells
- promote production of Tc

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• Cytotoxic T cells (Tc):
precursor to cytotoxic T lymphocytes (CTL)

• Cytotoxic T lymphocytes (CTL):

destroys antigen on contact

• Regulatory T cells (Tr):

turn off immune system response when
antigen is gone

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 Figure 14.16

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 Figure 14.17

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 Types of Adaptive Immunity
Naturally Acquired Immunity
• Active:
- natural exposure to antigens causes
production of antibodies
- can be lifelong immunity
- Ex. Mononucleosis
• Passive:
- transfer of antibodies from mother to child
- Ex. Breast milk or placenta
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Artificially Acquired Immunity
• Active:
- injection of antigens using vaccines which
cause the production of antibodies
- vaccine or immunization:
process of introducing killed, live, or
inactivated pathogen

• Passive:
injection of antibodies from another person
or animal
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 Figure 14.18

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