ENGLISH A

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 A-Z
ENGLISH A
GLOSSARY OF ACADEMIC VOCABULARY FOR Late ciele

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SILVIA CODITA

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INTERNATIONAL SCHOOLS PUBLISHER
Published by Elemi International Schools Publisher Ltd

© Copyright 2018 Elemi International Schools Publisher Ltd

Author: Silvia Codita

Contributor: Mary James
Series Editor: Mary James

First published 2018

All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be copied, reproduced, duplicated, stored in a
retrieval system, or transmitted in any form or by any means, without the prior written permission
of Elemi International Schools Publisher Ltd, or as permitted by law or by licence. Enquiries about
permission for reproduction should be addressed to the publisher.

If you photocopy this book, or if you are given a photocopied version of this book or any part of it, please
be aware that you are denying the author and publisher the right to be appropriately paid for their work.

A catalogue record of this title is available from the British Library

British Library Cataloguing in Publication Data

ISBN 978-1-9164131-0-8

10987654321

Page layout/design by emc design

Cover design by Jayne Martin-Kaye

We are an entirely independent publishing company. This resource has been developed
independently from and is not endorsed by the International Baccalaureate Organization
International Baccalaureate, Baccalauréat International, Bachillerato Internacional
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registered trademarks owned by the International Baccalaureate Organization.
Studying English at IB Diploma level
The IB English Diploma programme is a rigorous and challenging course which requires
you to use the English language in a complex, academic context. In both IB Language A:
Literature and Language A: Language & Literature at Standard and Higher levels, you will
study literary and non-literary texts to develop an understanding of how form, content,
purpose, audience, and context shape meaning.

How this resource can help you

Navigating through the IB Diploma programme involves a substantial amount of time for
independent study and you may need additional support from your teacher, friends, or other
resources. Of course, your teacher and friends may not always be available, particularly when
it comes to acquiring, learning, and using the academic language of the course.

This A-Z glossary aims to help you in this process by unpacking the language of the
IB Diploma English courses, with a focus on both course content and assessment.

e In this A-Z glossary, you will find key vocabulary, such as literary terms, linguistic concepts,
subject-specific command words, and assessment terminology that will have a significant
impact on your overall achievement and final score.

e Each word or phrase included in this A-Z glossary has been carefully selected because
we think it will be useful in your studies. This resource contains words and phrases from
the IB Diploma English subject guides for both courses as well as subject-specific terms
commonly found in most English textbooks.

* Do remember that this resource is not a dictionary, as it does not contain all possible
definitions for each entry. It is, however, a glossary of terms where the definitions are
given in the context of the IB Diploma English Literature and Language & Literature
courses.
e For the most part, the terms in this glossary are relevant to both courses, whereas others
are more course-specific. This is often indicated in the definitions or the examples
provided, but you must also identify how these terms are useful to you in your
own course.

e Also note this is not a comprehensive list of terms. If your teacher gives you some
additional words, you might choose to write them into the glossary yourself, so that
the book is more like a living workbook for you.

e Your teacher might also encourage you to extend the current list with additional terms,
enhance the definitions according to their own ideas and interpretations, or provide
alternative examples derived from the works you are studying.

e The literary examples we have used come from the PLA (Prescribed List of Authors) and
the PLT (Prescribed Literature in Translation List). Other examples have been selected
because they relate to the IB Diploma students’ own experiences, ranging from how
you approach essay writing to your preparation for oral presentations, or your possible
questions about the assessment components of the course.

e Where you see a word in the definition which is written in blue text, this means that
a glossed definition exists for it elsewhere in the book. This has been done where we
thought it would be helpful for you.
Absolute phrase A phrase that modifies a noun and is separated from the rest of the sentence by
a comma.
Pen in hand, the student started to plan his Paper 1 essay.

(see phrase)

Absurdism An early 20th-century philosophy that considered humans were unable to find
real value in a meaningless and irrational world. In literature, especially in
the theatre of the absurd, this is shown through characters who question the
meaning of existence and fail to discover a sense of purpose. For example, the
protagonists’ questioning of the world in Samuel Beckett's Waiting for Godot.
(see existentialism, nihilism)

Academic honesty All essays or oral presentations for your |B Diploma must be created entirely
by yourself. You must not cheat or ‘steal’ information or ideas or be helped
by other people. Nor can you copy information from another person or
organization without clearly stating its source, ie where you got the text or
ideas from. All your own work has to be just that. Your own. Even if you think
someone else's work is very good and you are complimenting that person
by using it yourself, or you made the mistake of ‘cutting and pasting’ from a
website and have forgotten the source, it is not allowed. Academic honesty is
very important to your IB studies, and is required by universities, too.
(see plagiarism)

Accent The way we pronounce words when we speak. This might change depending
on where we learn to speak a language or who we learn from and how they
pronounce a language. You are not penalized for your accent when delivering
an oral presentation. Your use of language Is only assessed against the
descriptors on the language criterion.

Accented The way in which someone speaks.

1 Language may be spoken with a strong accent, so we describe it as accented.
For example, a student whose first language is Arabic may speak good
English but in a heavily accented way.
2 Emphasis or stress placed on a particular syllable or word, as part of a poem
or in a play, for example in Othello by William Shakespeare:
‘Most potent, grave, and reverend signiors / My very noble and approved
good masters.’ (Act 1, Scene 3)

Account Also known as a report, this is someone’s description and narration of events
as they happened. It can be a personal account, where the speaker either
witnessed or participated in the events described.

Accuracy (accurate) Without errors, correct. For example, in relation to how you express yourself
and apply grammatical rules correctly to your spoken and written English.
You will be assessed on your accuracy under the language criterion across all
assessments in the course. What this means is that your language has to be
precise and you must demonstrate a strong command of literary terminology.

Achieve (achievement, To reach an objective or a level of success through your hard work or your
achieves) talents. When you are assessed in IB Diploma, level descriptors focus on positive
achievement; you are given marks for what you show you can do, rather than
have marks taken away for what you fail to show.

Acronym A ‘word’ or an abbreviation made up of the initials or first letters of a set of

words, and which can be pronounced as a whole word, for example, UNESCO.
Compare this with BBC (an initialism) or IOP (an initialism) or with CAS (an
acronym).
(see initialism)
Act A part of a play, sometimes consisting of two or more scenes.

Action The main events in a story, play, or film that might be significant, interesting,
or exciting.

Active reading A way of reading which usually takes more time. We look to engage with the
text, and critically ask questions of what we read, so that we can shape our own
opinion about the author's work and the content.

Active voice A verb form where the subject performs the action depicted by the verb. For
example, the teacher marks the essay, is written in the active voice.
(see passive voice)

Adage A saying that contains a universal truth about the nature of life, the human
condition, etc. For example, from Twelfth Night by William Shakespeare:
‘Better a witty fool than a foolish wit.’

Adapt (adapts, To change or make adjustments in line with a different situation or conditions.
adapting, adapted)

Adaptation The alteration of a text or a story to fit another situation or media.

The play was an adaptation of a novel written many years ago.

Address A formal speech delivered on a special occasion, such as an inaugural address

delivered by the newly elected president of a country.

Adequate (adequately) Just enough, but not a lot or too much. In a similar way, in British English, some
people say ‘It’s OK’, meaning ‘It’s not great, but it will be adequate’. If your
work is ‘adequately organized’, it’s of a satisfactory quality, but it’s not brilliant
to achieve top marks. You've made it acceptable, but you’ve not exceeded
expectations either.

Adjacent Next to, very near to, immediately following or before.

Two adjacent lines in the poem.

Adjective A word which describes a person, place, or thing, for example, clever, green, or
difficult.

Adverb A descriptive word which gives more information about a verb or adjective, for
example, rapidly, kindly, or diligently. In English, we often add -/y to the end of
an adjective to make an adverb.

Advertisement A type of text that persuades the audience to purchase a product, hire a service,
adopt a certain attitude, etc.

Advertising campaign A series of advertisements that promote the same product, service, or idea
during a specific period of time. For example, you can choose an advertising
campaign as the source text for your Written Task 1 in Part 1 of the Language &
Literature course.

Advertising copy The text that provides a description or additional information about a product
or service being advertised. It is not the same as the slogan, which is a catchy,
memorable phrase to be associated with the product and the brand.

Aesthetic Relates to beauty or artistic quality. When we talk about the aesthetic quality
or merit of a text, we are referring to those elements which give it stylistic
characteristics, and how these impact on the reader.
Affect As a verb, to have an effect on something or someone.
The lack of preparation could affect your grade.

Affixation The process of adding a prefix or a suffix to a root word. For example, the
affixation of the word prematurely consists of the prefix pre- and the suffix -ly.

Alienation (alienated) A feeling of estrangement and isolation. Sometimes literature portrays

characters who are alienated from their society, such as George in Who's Afraid
of Virginia Woolf? by Edward Albee.

Allegory A story or poem which has been given a series of symbols by the author to
represent or hide a political, spiritual, or moral meaning. The symbols which
may be characters or events in the story make sense on one level but they
also have a second or ‘hidden’ meaning. A famous allegory is Arthur Miller's
play The Crucible, where he uses the Salem witch trials as a metaphor for the
McCarthy era.

Alliteration When a poet or story writer places several words in the same sentence which all
start with the same sound or letter.
The IB Diploma doesn’t deter determined dudes.

Allusion A frequently used literary or rhetorical device where a direct or indirect

reference is made to a well-known point in history, story, author, literary text, or
film, etc. There are several types of allusions, such as literary, historical, religious,
mythological, or cinematic.

Ambiguity When there is more than one meaning to a word or phrase, or it can be
(ambiguous) interpreted in different ways. In a legal text, for example, this may lead
to unwanted confusion; but in literature, a writer may deliberately create
ambiguity to allow readers to use their own ideas and judgment to interpret
the work.

Ambivalence The state of being uncertain or having opposing feelings regarding a topic,
event, or a person.

Amplification Adding more information in a sentence or in a paragraph to emphasize a point.

For example, in The Things They Carried, Tim O’Brien uses amplification to
depict the emotional and physical burdens of war:
‘Often, they carried each other, the wounded or weak. They carried
infections. They carried chess sets, basketballs, Vietnamese-English
dictionaries, insignia of rank...’

Anachronism When language, an object, or an event is included in a story that belongs

in another period of time. If a character uses a mobile phone in a piece of
literature from the 1960s, we would say that was an anachronism.

Analogy Where a writer or speaker makes a comparison between one thing and another
in order to help explain something better. Often used as a poetic device, an
analogy can sometimes take the form of a simile or a metaphor. In Carol Ann
Duffy's Valentine, the speaker offers her loved one an onion, comparing the
effect of the onion to the cruelty of love:
‘Here. / It will blind you with tears / like a lover.’

Analysis (analyse) The reading and study of a text or work in which we identify the literary
techniques used, and how these affect the reader to understand how they
support the author’s objectives or purpose.
(see list of command terms on page 94)
Anaphora The repetition of a word or phrases at the beginning of successive sentences or
lines of poetry. For example, in The Negro Speaks of Rivers by Langston Hughes:
‘I’ve known rivers: / I’ve known rivers ancient as the world...’

Anaphoric reference When a word refers to a previous idea or word previously stated in the text for
its meaning. Here, the anaphoric reference for it is the play:

The play challenges the audience’s expectations of gender norms as it

depicts a rebellious female protagonist.

Anecdote (anecdotal) A personal account of an event which is intended to be funny or interesting, yet
might be seen as unreliable or a rumour.

Anglophone English-speaking parts of the world or cultures, for example, Australia, South
Africa, or the US.

For the IB Diploma, you will study texts from several parts of the
Anglophone world.

Annotate (annotated, To add notes to a text which help explain, add clarity, or act as a reminder to a
annotations) student. The process of annotation is an important skill in the close reading of
texts (and is particularly important for Paper 1 and the IOC).

Antagonist In a literary text, a character who actively opposes or fights with the main hero
(or protagonist) which then serves to bring conflict to the story. We might
call them ‘the villain’ or ‘the bad guy’. For example, Roger Chillingworth in
Nathaniel Hawthorne's The Scarlet Letter.

Anthology A published collection of literary works (ie poetry, short stories, or essays) that
share the same genre, theme, or period, such as an anthology of 19th-century
poetry.

Anthropomorphism A type of personification where non-human entities are given human traits,
(anthropomorphic) such as speech and human behaviour. For example, the characters in George
Orwell's Animal Farm are animals who behave, think, and speak like humans.

Anti-climax An unexpected, often disappointing ending to a narrative, used as a literary

device to create humour or to serve as a warning for the audience. For example,
the ending of Christopher Marlowe's Doctor Faustus could be considered
anti-climactic.
(see climax)

Anti-hero The protagonist or another major character in a narrative who does not
demonstrate any heroic traits, such as nobility and bravery. The anti-hero can
be self-centered and non-conformist, sometimes a social outcast. For example,
Holden Caulfield in J D Salinger’s The Catcher in the Rye who lacks a clear sense
of purpose and places himself on the margins of society.

Anti-novel A novel where the usual conventions of the genre and traditions for what we
might expect in a novel are deliberately avoided by the writer. For example,
Ulysses by James Joyce.
Antithesis (p/ural The exact opposite, where a writer might put contrasting ideas against each
antitheses) other, or use two directly opposing types of language for two different
characters for literary effect. In Disabled, by Wilfred Owen, the speaker uses an
antithesis to contrast the image of the disabled soldier before the war to his
current state:
‘There was an artist silly for his face, / For it was younger than his youth,
last year. / Now, he is old; his back will never brace...’

Apostrophe 1 A punctuation mark which represents ownership or where a letter (or letters)
is missing to contract (or shorten) words.

The IB student’s determination to succeed. (ownership)

Physics doesn’t have to be difficult. (contraction)

2 A figure of speech when the poet is addressing a place, concept, or a person

that is imaginary or that isn’t directly part of the poem. It can sometimes
start with use of ‘O...!' or ‘Oh...!. In William Shakespeare’s Macbeth,
Macbeth addresses the stars:
‘Stars, hide your fires; / Let not light see my black and deep desires’ (Act 1,
Scene 4)

Apparent Visible or can be seen. If errors and inconsistencies are apparent in your
IB Diploma essay, they are visible to the examiner and may cause some
misunderstanding or confusion. On a scale from ‘a high degree of grammatical
accuracy’ to there are ‘many errors in the grammar’, if errors are apparent in
your essay, it would suggest there were quite a few inaccuracies.

Appeal 1 (verb) To make an earnest request.

The local charities appeal for donations.

2 (noun) As a text type, an appeal is a form of advertisement by charities

and organizations where they ask the public for financial donations and/or
support for their cause.

Application and As part of your IB Diploma English course, an assessment objective where you
analysis are judged on your ability to apply your prior knowledge of context, content,
and style in order to provide a successful analysis of literary works.

Apply To make use of something you already know in a specific, practical situation. For
example, in Language & Literature Paper 2, you must apply your knowledge of
the Part 3 works in order to answer the question.

Appreciation Having knowledge and understanding of the value of something. For example,
in Paper 1 you must show an appreciation of the writer’s choices, which means
that you have to explore how the writer's use of language creates a particular
effect within the text.

Appropriate Suitable to a particular situation. For example, to achieve a high mark on the
language criterion, you must use language appropriate to the task. This means
that language has to be suitable for a discussion of literature.

Archaic Old or out-of-date; may be used to refer to a word or a language style that
we no longer regularly use. Writers use archaic language to evoke a feeling of
nostalgia for the past. For example, in Ode to the West Wind by Percy Bysshe
Shelley:
‘Thou who didst waken from his summer dreams’
Archetype (archetypal) A typical or perfect example of a type of person or thing. You can have an
archetypal character, plot, or symbol. An archetypal character shows universal
traits about human nature, such as the protagonist who is the archetypal
dreamer in Don Quixote by Miguel de Cervantes.
(see stereotype)

Argument A statement meant to persuade someone of an opinion or a position on

a subject. In literary criticism, an argument consists of an interpretation
standpoint (or thesis) supported by evidence from the texts or the context in
which those texts were produced.

Arranged In poetry, how the words are presented or organized on the page and have a
relationship with each other for literary effect.

Artful Characterized by great artistic skill.

The artful depiction of the English countryside in Victorian literature.

Article 1 Words that modify a noun. These can be definite articles, as in the argument
or the reason, or indefinite articles, as in an argument or a reason.
2 Ageneric term for a journalistic text. Articles include news reports, opinion
columns, editorials, feature articles, etc.

Articulate You can communicate fluently, effectively, and credibly (either in writing or
while speaking).
The IB Diploma course aims to create articulate, confident communicators.

Aside Used in a play, where a character's lines are spoken without other characters
being able to hear them. This may help the audience understand some
information about the storyline or about a part of a character's personality. An
aside is much shorter than a soliloquy — it’s important not to confuse these two
terms.

Aspect An element of a literary work, such as theme, character development, character

relationships, etc. For your Written Task 1 in the Language & Literature course
or your Written Assignment in Literature, you are required to select an aspect
of one of the works studied during that part of the course.

Assertion A strong statement of a fact or an opinion. For example, one of the English A
Paper 2 questions may contain a statement of this sort and you are asked to
discuss two works you have studied in light of this assertion.

Assertive Confident, determined, and assured.

Assessment criteria The set of guidelines used to mark your IB coursework. They are based on
specific learning outcomes and enable teachers and examiners to measure your
level of achievement in every assessment component. Each assessment piece has
its own assessment criteria.

Assistance Help or support from someone else to ensure you meet an objective. For
example, your teacher is not allowed to offer you any assistance while you
are doing your IOP but the teacher will encourage you to speak after the
presentation.

Assonance Where a writer, particularly in poetry, uses words which have the same vowel
sounds next to each other or near to each other. This creates a sound or rhythm
to give it a certain mood or make it sound more musical or lively. For example,
in | Wandered Lonely as a Cloud by William Wordsworth:
‘A host, of golden daffodils’

(see dissonance; see consonance)

Assumption Something considered to be true, without actual proof.

Asyndeton A series of words where conjunctions (such as and, but, or, for, nor) have been
omitted on purpose to create a stronger impact on the audience. For example,
in his |Have A Dream speech, Martin Luther King leaves out and when he says:
‘Go back to Mississippi, go back to Alabama, go back to South Carolina,
go back to Georgia, go back to Louisiana, go back to the slums and
ghettos of our northern cities...’

Atmosphere The mood of a particular setting as created in a text. For example, if the setting
is depicted as a dark and cold room, we could say that the atmosphere is
unpleasant.
(see mood)

Attempt The effort to accomplish something. For example, your work is credited if you
make some attempt to meet the requirements of the task, although this would
fall under the lower levels of achievement on the assessment criteria.

Attention A sense of awareness. For example, the language criterion states that attention
should be paid to register, which means that you need to show awareness of
the language appropriate to the task.

Attitude A standpoint or perspective on a place, idea, or individual. For example, a

writer's attitude towards a character or setting is expressed through his or her
tone.

Audience Every text (either fiction or non-fiction) is produced for a particular audience
(that is, the reader, listener, or viewer, etc.). The audience receive and interpret
the text based on their own cultural expectations, beliefs, education, or in a
broader sense, their context of reception. For example, the controversial ending
of Henrik Ibsen’s A Doll’s House has been received differently by audiences over
the past 200 years.

Auditory (or aural) A type of imagery that evokes sound, noise, etc. For example, in When | Woke
imagery by Dylan Thomas:
‘| heard, this morning, waking, / Crossly out of the town noises / A voice in
the erected air’

Authenticity The quality of being original, unique.

(authenticate) Famous writers are celebrated for the authenticity of their work.

Author 1 (noun) The writer of a text or literary work.

2 (verb) The act of putting together a piece of writing.

Authorial intent The meaning that the author had in mind when they originally wrote the text.
For example, in Death of a Salesman, Arthur Miller's intent was to highlight the
illusion of the American dream.

Autobiography This is an account of the writer's life as written by them. It is their story as they
tell it in their own words. This is not to be confused with a biography which is
the story of the life of an individual as written by someone else.

Awareness Knowledge or understanding as shown through your academic work. For

example, in the IB Diploma, the level descriptors refer to the candidate who
shows little awareness. You have to be able to clearly demonstrate your
understanding of a topic or feature by giving clear examples and coherent
explanations.
Balance (balanced) A state of equal proportions in relation to two or more items. For example, in
your Paper 1 HL (Language and Literature), you must ensure that you provide
a balanced treatment of the two texts in order to achieve a high mark on
criterion C. This means that you address both texts equally. The IB learner
profile suggests ten qualities that students should be aiming for. One of these
is to be ‘balanced’: to ensure we balance work with play, for example, and
intellectual activities with physical activities. This will help us look after and
value our own well-being.

Ballad We often think of a ballad as a song, but in poetry it represents a type of poem
which narrates a story. Often written to communicate information, a ballad
poem is usually simple and straightforward, and follows a particular consistent
rhythm.

Bandwagon A propaganda technique where we are made to feel that because everyone else
is doing something it must be the right thing to do, so we join in.

Bathos A sudden change - usually unintentional (although it can be used deliberately

to make us laugh, too) — for example, from the very noble or honourable to
something quite trivial or unimportant. In William Shakespeare's Othello, lago
trivialises Desdemona’s noble character in order to suit his manipulative intent:
‘For ‘tis most easy /Th’inclining Desdemona to subdue / In any honest suit.
She’s framed as fruitful / As the free elements.’ (Act 2, Scene 3)

Beauty When applied specifically to literature, a combination of qualities, such as

structure, form, content which pleases the senses of the audience.

Belief The trust that something is true or good.

Readers often interpret literature based on their beliefs.

Believability The quality of being believable or credible. In literature, the question of

believability often shapes the reader's response to the text.
(see verisimilitude)

Bias Unfair preference of one idea, individual, or group over another; the opposite
of neutral.
(see media bias)

Bibliography A list of all the sources you have used (including the author’s name, the title
of their work, etc.) as part of your own research. Creating a bibliography is
an essential part of your academic research and essay writing in order to fully
credit another person’s work in your own and plays a vital part in avoiding
plagiarism.

Bildungsroman From the German bildung (for ‘education’ or ‘formation’) and roman (‘novel’),
it is a novel about the coming-of-age, the maturing process of a young
protagonist. For example, The Kite Runner by Khaled Hosseini.

Bilingual Being fluent or fully proficient in two different languages.

Billboard A large space for an advert, usually erected outdoors beside the road or ina
prominent position. Billboard is often used; an alternative would be ‘hoarding’.

Binary opposites The coexistence of two opposite motifs within a literary work, such as truth
and lies, success and failure, etc. The role of binary opposites is to add more
complexity to the narrative or to increase tension.

Biography The story of someone's life written by someone else. Compare with
(biographical) autobiography where the story of someone's life is written by themselves using
their own words.
Black comedy A style of comedy (also called dark humour) where humour is used in relation to
serious topics such as death, violence, infidelity, etc. Black comedy is often used
for satirical purposes and to make the audiences reflect on the flaws in society.
Examples of black comedy can be found in Samuel Beckett's play Waiting for
Godot.

Blank verse A type of verse written in iambic pentameter, but without any rhyme, often
found in William Shakespeare’s works.

Bleak Usually refers to a room, a landscape, or the weather which is inhospitable,

unwelcoming, unpleasant, or where there is little hope. A useful adjective
which might describe the atmosphere or setting of a novel, play, or scene.

Blog A diary-style record of the writer's thoughts, activities, or opinions usually

updated on a regular basis and published online.

Bourgeoisie A social class that emerged in late 18" century Europe, as the result of the
(bourgeois) industrial revolution. It was a middle social class often criticized in 19" century
literature for its materialism and false pretences.

Break down (verb) To analyse smaller sections of a text in order to establish how they create
meaning (that is, develop a theme or convey a message).

Breakdown (noun) The time allotted for specific stages in the IB Diploma examination
process. For example, in Language & Literature, the |OC breakdown consists
of ten minutes commentary delivery time, followed by up to five minutes of
subsequent questioning by the teacher.

Broadcast A television or radio programme.

Broadsheet A large format printed newspaper. Examples of broadsheet newspapers

include The Times ofIndia (India), or The Wal! Street Journal (USA). In the UK,
a broadsheet implies a more serious style of newspaper and journalism, as
compared with a smaller format (tabloid) newspaper which was thought to
focus more on sensationalist reporting and celebrity news and gossip. The term
is now out-of-date, since even newspapers like The Guardian or The Times in
the UK have now adopted a smaller, tabloid format — although the term is still
used to describe the more serious newspapers.

Brochure A short informative booklet focusing on a specific topic. Also known as a leaflet
or pamphlet.
(see flyer)

Burlesque A comic style in literature which is intended to ridicule, or make light of

something far more serious, or by presenting something very trivial or everyday
in an exaggerated, more sophisticated way. It allows a writer to draw attention
to serious social issues, for example, whilst using comedy to entertain an
audience. (Not to be confused with the same word used to describe a type of
variety show, predominantly in the US.)
Cacophony In literary terms, this represents a mixture of discordant sounds (usually
consonants) that are not pleasing to the ear, or are difficult to pronounce
where the writer may want to reflect disorder or chaos. From the Ancient
Greek, kakos, meaning ‘bad’ and phono meaning ‘sound’. For example, in Dulce
et Decorum Est by Wilfred Owen cacophony is used to depict the soldiers’ dire
conditions in the trenches:
‘Bent double, like old beggars under sacks, / Knock-kneed, coughing like
hags, we cursed through sludge’

Caesura From the Latin for ‘cut’, this refers to a break or a pause in the line of a poem
or verse (most commonly the middle of a line). It may help to create a dramatic
pause or simply where the writer wants to create a break in the rhythm. The
dash after /oam-song in Ted Hughes's Era of Giant Lizards is an example of
caesura:
‘A toad is stone-motion, mould-pride, loam-song - / The jewel in his head
is the wisdom of this.

Calculated Strategic and deliberate in making comments for a desired effect.

Canon A collection or group of works generally felt to be very important (for example,
to anyone's education) or very high quality examples or masterpieces of a
particular writer (for example, Shakespeare, the Shakespearean canon), series of
writers, or of a particular period in time.
The PLA is in essence the IB canon.

Capitalisation A feature used in writing or printing where all the letters are written in
CAPITALS or Initial Capitals and are used for literary effect.

Caption A brief text that appears under a visual illustration such as a picture, map,
infographic, etc. to help explain the illustration.

Caricature A comic style in descriptive writing where a character's feature or something is

exaggerated or made larger-than-life to create humour or ridicule them.

Caring Helpful, kind, and sympathetic. The IB learner profile suggests ten qualities
that students should be aiming for. One of these is to be ‘caring’: where we
can show kindness and concern for others, and appreciate what we can do to
positively support others and the world in which we live.

Cartoon A drawing that comments on social or political issues through humour. Cartoons
are usually published in newspapers or magazines, although some cartoonists
have their own websites.

Cataphoric reference/ This is a literary device where the writer uses a word or term early in a sentence
cataphora that the reader only really understands by reading later in the sentence or the
text. The earlier word in the sentence is often a pronoun (such as ‘He’ or ‘She’)
which goes against usual the word order in English where the noun is used first
so we all know what or who is being talked about. An author might use this
device to create suspense or surprise the reader.
(see anaphoric reference)

Catharsis (cathartic) Meaning ‘cleansing’ in Greek, this refers to the negative emotions that a play,
film, or literary piece may bring out in us (for example, frustration, anger,
or sadness) but that after we feel better for having experienced and purged
ourselves of these strong feelings. It’s thought that this might explain why we
sometimes enjoy a tragedy that has an unhappy ending.
Causes The reasons why a person, event, or thing leads to a particular event or
outcome. So when we look to explain something in a literary essay, we need to
show or describe the causes or reasons for something happening for our theory
to be convincing.

Cautionary tale A tale that warns the readers about the dangers in society or the consequences
of irresponsible human behaviour. It often contains a moral at the end to teach
the readers a lesson.

Censorship The act of forbidding or banning certain forms or parts of literature or news
that might go against certain cultural, legal, or moral rules in a society or that is
seen as a threat to a country’s political stability. Some literature may have been
censored many years ago, but is considered more acceptable today.

Challenge 1 (noun) An activity that is difficult, yet is usually seen as being a positive
experience in the end.
Studying for the IB Diploma is seen as a huge challenge for most students.

2 (verb) To ask someone to justify their opinion or thoughts, or to question

someone.

Chance An unexpected or unplanned event or coincidence in a piece of literature

that usually has a positive outcome, although not always. Sometimes used in
literature to achieve dramatic effect, for example, in Great Expectations by
Charles Dickens, chance brings Pip and Estella together.

Character (characters) A person or animal who takes part or who is referred to in a story, poem, film,
or play. An author will develop each character's personality for a specific reason
or function in the plot.

Character The portrayal of a dynamic character and how she or he changes throughout
development the course of the story.

Character in absentia A character who does not appear on stage but is often mentioned by the other
characters and has some influence on the events in the play. For example,
in Edward Albee’s Who’s Afraid of Virginia Woolf?, Martha’s father never
appears on stage, but he is the main source of conflict between Martha and her
husband.

Characterization How the author describes each character's personality so that the reader gets
to know them well. Little by little, the author uses what the character says
(the dialogue), what the character does (the action), and how other characters
respond to them to create a person that the audience might feel sympathy
for or dislike towards them. So characterization might be ‘direct’ where the
narrator describes a character’s qualities or ‘indirect’ where we have to infer
what the narrator wants us to see/feel from a character's choice of words or
actions.

Chorus In classical Greek drama, a group of actors that comment in unison on the
events in the play. The chorus is not a participant, but an outside observer of
the dramatic action.

Chronicle 1 (noun) A written record of historical events, in the order in which they
occurred. It is based on personal experiences, witness accounts, or historical
documents.
2 (verb) To keep a detailed record of events as they happened.
The author chronicled the events leading up to War World 1.

Chronology The retelling or depiction of a series of events in the order in which they took
(chronological) place.
The police report contained the exact chronology of the bank robbery.
Cinquain A type of poem with five lines that do not rhyme. They can be very simple,
usually allowing the poet to focus more on the choice of words, creating vivid
images for the reader.

Circular structure When the end and the beginning of a text share the same features, such as
similar wording, the same point in time, etc. For example, Seamus Heaney’s
poem Digging begins with:
‘Between my finger and my thumb / The squat pen rests; snug as a gun’

and ends with:

‘Between my finger and my thumb / The squat pen rests. / I'll dig with it.’

Clarity Being clear, unambiguous, coherent. In IB Diploma English, you are assessed on
your language skills and specific use of language, and you are expected to use
language which is clear and unambiguous so that you can show the examiner
how and what you understand and have learned from your course. So take care
to use the correct language in the right sort of sentence structures.

Class discussion In your interactive oral, all students and your teacher are expected to take part
in a Class discussion. This means that you will all speak at some point and that
you are each expected to initiate (or start) a part of the discussion. You need
to be able to speak confidently but also listen carefully to other students in the
class, so that it is a discussion and not a lecture from you.

Clause A group of words that represents one idea, and that usually forms part of a
sentence. There are two clauses here:
When the students entered the exam room, they felt confident.

Clear Easy to understand, obvious, and unambiguous. For the IB Diploma, you need
to develop the ability to express your ideas in clear, unambiguous language.
(see clarity)

Cliché A phrase or choice of words which is not original and has become boring
because it has been frequently over-used. We tend to place more value on more
creative, original use of language.

Cliffhanger The ending of a narrative which is full of suspense, without a falling action or
resolution. For example, Mohsin Hamid’s novel The Re/uctant Fundamentalist
has a cliffhanger ending where the reader never finds out who the Stranger is
and what his intentions are towards the protagonist, Changez.

Climax The exciting part of a story where we usually experience the highest point of
tension in a narrative, followed by falling action and resolution.
(see plot)

Close reading The thorough, in-depth style of reading a piece of written work to pay detailed
attention not only to what happens in the story, but how the author tells the
story to impact on the reader's experience. For example, in Paper 1 and the lOC
you conduct a close reading of the text(s) or extract(s).

Closed form A description for a poem that can be identified by a recognized style with
traditional rules in relation to the number of lines, its rhythm, or rhyming
pattern. For example, a sonnet (which always has 14 lines) is a closed form, as is
a limerick. (Also called fixed form.)

Closing The last part of a play or the end of a novel where the writer brings everything
to an end and finishes the work. For example, the closing act or the closing lines
of a play.
Cogent Where an argument is rational, logical, and well thought-through. In an English
essay or piece of literary criticism, you would usually need to make a point,
provide evidence (perhaps a quote), analyse what the writer has done, and
explain how your analysis links to your argument in order to provide a cogent
argument.

Coherence (coherent) Consistency, logic, unified. For example, for your lOP as part of your Literature
course, you are expected to create a whole presentation with a coherent
structure, which means your points are well-organized in a logical, step-by-step
route for your audience to clearly understand what you are saying.

Coincidence A surprising event or series of events which we usually consider to be accidental,

unlikely, or unplanned. This may be seen as a positive or a negative thing. Ina
novel, an author might choose to effectively use coincidence as a technique to
delight or intrigue the reader and add interest to the plot.
(see contrivance)

Collaborate Working cooperatively with others to achieve a common objective. As an IB

(collaboration) learner, you are expected to work in collaboration with other students at times,
for example, in the classroom discussion as part of your IOP.

Colloquial An everyday word or phrase, usually seen as informal, and sometimes

(colloquialism) originating in a specific geographical region. For example, British-English
speakers might say ‘That’s lush’ (meaning ‘That’s nice’), but this could confuse
an American-English speaker who wouldn‘t recognize this colloquial phrase.
(see slang)

Comedy A genre of literature, film, or television where the writer’s main aim is to
entertain and make the audience laugh. For example, William Shakespeare's
Much Ado about Nothing.

Comic exaggeration Exaggeration used to achieve comic effect.

My Paper 1 essay was so good | expect an 8.

Comic relief A dramatic technique where playwrights insert some comedy after a high point
of tension in the play. For example, in William Shakespeare’s Macbeth, the scene
of the drunken porter acts as comic relief after the murder of King Duncan.

Comic strip A series of drawings that functions as a unified text and comments on social or
political issues through humour.
(see cartoon)

Comma splice A comma used incorrectly to separate two independent clauses.

| worked very hard on this essay, | received a low mark.

Here, you can introduce a conjunction to connect the two sentences as in:
! worked very hard on this essay, but | received a low mark.

Command 1 (verb) To give an order or instruct someone to do something.

2 (noun) The ability to effectively use or control something. For example, in
the IB Diploma, you are expected to have a good command of terminology;
to show the examiner that you understand and can effectively use
terminology to communicate an argument.
3 (adjective) As in command terms: words that are frequently used in exam
questions to tell you what you need to do. We might also call them question
keywords, since each command term requires you to do something specific.
If you understand the command terms in the IB Diploma, you will find it a lot
easier to answer the question. For example, analyse, compare and contrast,
discuss.

(see list of command terms on page 94)

Commence To start or begin. As part of your IOP, the teacher will inform you that the
discussion is commencing.

Comment 1 Present an informed opinion where you make a judgment to follow up on

a statement or series of statements. This is a very specific use of the word as
a command word, as part of your IB Diploma for example, Comment on the
effectiveness of the writer’s techniques.
2 To make observations and put forward an opinion. For example, Ibsen uses
characters to comment on the society of the day.
(see list of command terms on page 94)

Commentary A written or oral analysis of the effect of the literary features in a text or
extract, as you are expected to do in Paper 1 and the IOC.

Communicative Willing to talk openly and to share information, views or feelings, whilst also
listening to the views of others, and where appropriate developing opinions
further. As an IB student, you are encouraged to actively take part in classroom
discussion and develop your communicative skills.

Communicators The IB learner profile suggests ten qualities that students should be aiming for.
One of these is to strive to be ‘communicators’: to express your opinions and
point of view with confidence, whilst also listening carefully to what others say.

Community A group of people either living in the same place or who share a characteristic
or interest in common (for example, the online community).

Comparative A type of essay where you compare and contrast two texts by analysing their
similarities and differences. For example, as part of Paper 1 HL in the Language
& Literature course.

Compare As a command word in the IB Diploma English course, compare means you need
to examine the similarities between two texts.
(see list of command terms on page 94)

Compassion Having concern and sympathy for others particularly if they are suffering or
have had some bad luck. The IB learner profile suggests ten qualities that
students should be aiming for. As part of being ‘caring’, we need to show
empathy, kindness, and compassion.

Complete A work which is finished and whole. For example, if we are working with an
extract, it is not a complete piece of writing or a complete work.

Complex sentence Where a sentence contains at least two clauses, one of which is dependent
on the other and could not stand alone (and still make sense to the reader).
A writer might use a complex sentence to join up a few sentences in a more
lyrical style, or to vary the length of their sentences, or sometimes to reflect a
character’s informal spoken language.

Complexity (complex) A state of being detailed or complicated, which also suggests increased
difficulty.

Compound sentence A sentence that consists of two or more independent clauses joined by a
conjunction or a semicolon.

Comprehension The ability to understand something thoroughly. When associated with reading,
it suggests an in-depth understanding of the text. We are reading the individual
words, but also engaging with the text to analyse it, make sense of what the
author was trying to do, and consider its impact on the reader.

Compulsory An essential or obligatory part. If something is compulsory, we cannot choose

not to do it.
Concept 1 Ageneral or abstract idea you might construct in your own mind.
2 Aplan you make before going on to build or create something.

Conclusion The ending to a text or an event. As part of the IB Diploma, when you are asked
to investigate something for an essay, you need to make a detailed examination
which then allows you to reach new conclusions as a result of your study and
the evidence you find.

Concrete poetry Sometimes called ‘shape poetry’, the visual form (or shape) of the poem reflects
the topic, which means that how it looks on the page has more emphasis than
the meaning of the words.

Confident The state of being certain about something.

The student is confident about his knowledge of the Paper 2 works.

Conflict Where characters compete or struggle to achieve their own objectives or

dreams. This might be an ‘internal’ conflict where a character struggles with his/
her own motivation or emotions, or ‘external’ conflict between characters, such
as the families fighting in Shakespeare’s Romeo and Juliet.

Confront To face and sort out a difficult situation or issue.

Conjunction A word that we use to connect words, clauses, or phrases in the same sentence.
For example, when, for, if, or but. Also called connectives.

Connection A relationship or link between one thing and another. For example, in literary
analysis we talk about the connection between style (how a writer uses
different literary techniques) and meaning (what the author communicates
through words), or how the connections we make between what we read and
our own culture or experiences.

Connotation (connote, An association we might make with a word because it evokes certain feelings
connotative) or makes us think about something (in addition to what it literally means). For
example, ‘home’ might mean a villa with a front door to one person whilst for
another it represents a warm, loving place where we feel we belong. In a similar
way, connotation is also used to refer to the figurative, non-literal meaning of
a word or group of words in a literary text. For example, in The Road not Taken
by Robert Frost, the road connotes a different path in life.
(see denotation)

Consecutive Uninterrupted, back-to-back, or following on from. We might refer to two

consecutive lines which rhyme in a poem.

Consistent 1 Carried out or done the same way over a period of time or many times.
(consistently)
She consistently hands her essays in on time.

2 Without any flaw or ambiguity.

The argument in this essay is consistently effective.

Consonance Where a writer uses words near to each other which have the same consonant
sounds. In English, different consonants have different sounds; for example, the
sound 'ck’ at the end of a word like ‘struck’ and ‘wreck’ might sound harsh or
like a drum, but using ‘I’ or ‘m’ might create a more musical or pleasing sound,
as in ‘comfort’.
(see assonance, alliteration)

Construct To build up or develop. For example, a writer constructs the character.

Consultation The act of meeting or discussing something with someone. For example, for
your IOP, your choice of topic will be made in consultation with your teacher.
Content The words, meaning, and style of a text.

Context (contextual) The situation, background, or setting to a particular event, idea or literary work.
For example, how a writer’s values and experiences, as well as political and
economic factors of the time may have influenced their writing. For example, in
the IB Language & Literature course in Part 3 Literature: Texts and Contexts, you
explore how context shapes the content and meaning of texts.

Context of The situation or setting of a literary work when it was produced may have
composition, context influenced how it was written or why it was produced. For example, authors
of production will be influenced by the place where they write or recent events that may have
taken place in their family or their life time. The more you know as a reader
about the author's circumstances at the time of writing will help you read and
understand a text differently.

Context of reception Also called ‘context of response’, the situation or background in which a literary
work was received or welcomed by the public or reviewers.

Continuous Without interruption or disruption. For example, in Paper 1, your literary

commentary (or essay) should be continuous so that the individual paragraphs
are related and follow a logical path.

Continuous prose A piece of writing with full sentences and punctuation, where each individual
paragraph is related to the next, so that the text flows logically, without the use
of any sub-headings. An essay could be described as continuous prose.

Contradiction The act of saying or doing something which seems the opposite or inconsistent.

Contrast 1 (noun) The state of being noticeably different from something when placed
beside or closely associated with it.
The contrast between the heat of the day and the cool evening.

2 (verb) To compare or provide a summary of the differences between

different states, people, phenomena, or things. As a command word in the IB
Diploma English course, contrast means you need to be able to identify the
differences between the items highlighted in the question.
(see list of command terms on page 94)

Contrivance An event or series of events created by an author to allow something else

to happen or to serve a particular purpose — and which appears artificial,
unbelievable, or implausible to the reader.
(see coincidence)

Conventions Textual conventions are the features or characteristics which create a particular
genre of writing, and which make a text distinctive in its form, eg a play is
divided up into acts and scenes. As part of your IB Diploma studies in English,
you need to be able to analyse the conventions of different text types and
how the work uses (or perhaps ignores) them to convey themes and/or ideas.
Language & Literature students need to be familiar with the conventions of a
broad range of text types in order to be successful in their Paper 1 exam.

Convergence Where we might change our way of speaking or use of language to suit a
certain situation, for example, to ‘fit in’ or to show someone that we want to
cooperate with them or feel closer in some way.
(see divergence)

Convey To express ideas or feelings, or to communicate information on a topic that the

writer wants the reader to understand.
 it is
Convincing To be believable or persuasive. If your argument is convincing, it means that
logically presented, and that you could persuade others to believe it given the
information and evidence you provide. In the IB Diploma, to achieve the highest
levels, you need to create a convincing argument.

Couplet Two lines of poetry which appear together and usually rhyme. For example, in
Democracy by Langston Hughes:
‘1 do not need my freedom when I’m dead. /! cannot live on
tomorrow's bread.’

Courage Having the bravery to do something even though we may be scared to do it.
The IB learner profile suggests ten qualities that students should be aiming
for. One of these is to be ‘risk-takers’: sometimes you have to face situations —
even those which are new to you, or which appear intimidating, and have the
courage to take on new challenges.

Creative non-fiction A genre where the author creates text which is about real places, events, or
people, yet uses literary techniques that we might usually expect from fiction
writing to ensure it is vivid, dramatic, and entertaining. Also referred to as
literary non-fiction.

Creative process The procedure of making a work of art or piece of literature from the start to
completion, including being inspired to create it, creating it, and finishing it.

Criterion-related In the IB Diploma, the style of assessment is described as criterion-related (or

criterion-referenced). This means that your work is marked with respect to what
you know, understand, and what you can do, and is judged in relation to a
set of descriptions at a variety of levels which detail what knowledge, level of
understanding, and abilities are required at each level. So you are not judged
in relation to what other people can do or how well they did on the day of the
exam, for example, you are only judged against a set of criteria that you are
aware of prior to the assessment. It’s up to you, therefore, to be familiar with
the criteria. This is very important if you are going to do your best in the exam.

Critical Involving the analysis of a work of literature or an issue which allows us to

examine it and come to a judgment. In everyday English, we often use the term
as an adjective to negatively describe something, or to make a harsh judgment,
but in your literary analysis, you need to be more objective than this.

Critical discourse Discourse is another word for spoken or written communication. Critical
discourse represents how you would communicate your literary analysis — either
as an essay or in a Class discussion. This is a fundamental part of your IB Diploma
studies; much of the specialist terminology you need to use for your critical
discourse is found in this glossary.

Critical perspectives When we study literature in depth and analyse it carefully, each reader may
come to a different judgment or think about the work differently because
our thinking will be influenced by different beliefs and experiences. We each
have a different perspective or view of the work. It’s important to consider
different critical perspectives in our IB Diploma studies and remain open to
other perspectives, not just our own, so that we might achieve a better, richer
understanding of the work.

Critical response An objective, ‘balanced’ piece of written work which allows the writer to
evaluate a piece of literary work, consider different critical views and why
you might agree or disagree with them, whilst offering your own evidence
and argument. Your IB Diploma assessment in English is very focused on your
appropriate use of critical writing as a critical response and not a personal
response.
Critical thinking The rational analysis and evaluation of an issue which then helps us to go on
and form our own judgment in an objective way.

Critical views Another way of saying critical perspectives.

Critique 1 (noun) A detailed assessment and evaluation of a piece of literary work or

political theory, or indeed your own writing.
2 (verb) To review or assess a literary work critically.

Cross rhyme A type of rhyme where the word at the end of one line rhymes with another
word in the middle of the second line. For example, in Edgar Allan Poe’s The
Raven:

‘But the silence was unbroken, and the darkness gave no token, / And the
only word there spoken was the whispered word, ‘Lenore!’.’

Cultural Relating to a particular society or community, particularly with regard to its

ideas, customs, traditions, and art.
(see context)

Cultural bias Where we instinctively interpret or judge something in line with the ideas,
customs, and morals of our own society, community, or time.

Cultural history The study of history in relation to its cultural traditions, morals, or customs of
a society in the past. Works of literature may give us insight into, and help us
understand the cultural history of a different time or society.

Cultural sensitivity An awareness of how other cultures may differ or be the same as our own,
without necessarily placing any judgment, either negative or positive on those
differences.

Cultural setting The way a particular set of cultural values are depicted in a text. For example, in
A Doll’s House, Henrik Ibsen depicts the bourgeois values of a Victorian family.

Cultural symbol A symbol associated with a particular culture. For example, the crown Is a
cultural symbol of the British monarchy.

Curiosity (curious) An enthusiastic need to understand or learn about something. The IB learner
profile suggests ten qualities that students should be aiming for. One of these
is to be ‘inquirers’, to be individuals who value curiosity and are confident
independent learners.

Cynical (cynic) To be distrustful or pessimistic, particularly in relation to interpreting the

motives of others, and believing they only do things to serve their own needs,
rather than have any concern or care for others.
 through
Dark humour Also called black comedy, a type of joke that addresses a serious issue
humour. For example, in Edward Albee’s Who's Afraid of Virginia Woolf?,
Martha’s cruelty towards her husband is conveyed in:
“I swear...if you existed I’d divorce you.’

marked
Declarative sentence A sentence that declares or states an opinion, fact, or argument, and is
by a full stop at the end.

Decode (decoding) To interpret or analyse the language and imagery of a text, to work out what
the author wanted to say.

Deconstruct To examine the language of a text in detail and to interpret how it creates
various meanings.

Decontextualize To consider a work of literature quite separately to or in isolation from its

(decontextualized, context.
decontextualization)

Deduct (deducted) To take away or remove. For example, in your IB Diploma English for Paper 2 of
both Literature and Language & Literature, marks are deducted if you do not
address the exam question in your response.

Defamiliarisation How an author can take a very familiar, everyday object and somehow make
it very strange or different to us, often found in science fiction or fantasy
literature. This term can also apply to the style in which a literary work is
written. For example, James Joyce’s Ulysses is written in a non-traditional,
stream of consciousness style.

Defence The act of protecting oneself or resisting through evidence and logical
argument someone else’s point of view. For example, as part of your IOP, you
might put up a critical defence in favour of an author who has had a charge of
subversion put against them.

Degree An amount or level of something. For example, when you are marked for your
IOC at SL and HL, your language is expected to have ‘a high degree of accuracy
in grammar’ in order to achieve the highest mark.

Deictic Relating to a word or expression that indicates direction, position (such as

down there, up here, over there) or a different time (/ast year, next Monday) in
relation to the writer or speaker.

Deixis The use of deictic forms, words, or expressions, ie words or expressions that
express a direction, position, or time related to the writer or speaker.

Delivery The style or way in which you give a presentation. For example, in the IOP and
the FOA for your IB Diploma, the delivery of your presentation needs to be
appropriate and effective. This means that you should pay attention to your
voice, the pace of your speech, how you make eye contact with your audience,
and how you make the presentation interesting.

Demise Someone's death or the end of something. A narrative may sometimes end with
the demise of the protagonist.

Demonstrate To clearly show evidence or proof that something is true. As part of your IB
Diploma English course, this is a frequently used command word. When you are
asked to demonstrate, you need to make sure that you explain your points by
providing relevant references from the text(s) or extract.
(see list of command terms on page 94)
Denotation The literal definition of a word, rather than what it might imply or the feelings
(denotative) or emotions we commonly associate with that word. For example, the word
blue describes a colour (its denotation), but we also associate sadness with the
word blue which is its connotation. (To help you remember which is which, the
‘d' in ‘denotation’ is the same as the ‘a’ in ‘definition’.)
(see connotation)

Denouement This represents the very end of the story where all parts of the different plots
and story lines are made clear to the reader/audience. It comes after the climax
and serves to show the effect and result of the climax. (It is a French word
adopted in English which means ‘unknotting’.)

Depict In literature, to describe or create a picture for the audience using words.

Describe (description) Provide a detailed account in words of an event, issue, or person. As part of
your IB Diploma English course, this is a frequently used command word. For
example, you may be asked to describe the setting of a novel, the traits of a
particular character, or the feelings depicted in a text.
(see list of command terms on page 94)

Detailed Where you pay attention to detail, and make reference to a lot of details, facts,
and information. In the context of your IB Diploma studies in English, you are
required to provide a detailed discussion of the effects of the literary features
in a text as part of Paper 1 and the IOC (for both Literature and Language &
Literature) which means, for example, that you should provide a wide range of
examples in order to support your points.

Determiner This is a word which comes at the beginning of a phrase and before a noun to
tell us whether the noun is general or specific; for example, the, my or an, any.

Detour To take an alternative route, usually longer. From the French word détour
meaning ‘change of direction’.
(see narrative disruption)

Deus ex machina A Latin phrase that literally means ‘God out of the machine’; this is a device
used when an outside force (which traditionally in ancient Greek plays
would have been a God, but in modern works, it could simply be an unlikely
coincidence) that sweeps into the narrative and mysteriously clears up any
problems or resolves conflict and creates a ‘happy ending’.

Development A process of growing or advancing. For example, the development of a

protagonist's character is often fundamental to a piece of literature. Similarly,
as part of the IB Diploma, assessment criteria are used to assess your knowledge
and understanding in a number of different assessment tasks. For example, at
SL for the Paper 2 essay, your ideas need to be well organized, and to show a
logical and coherent development.

Dialect A unique form and use of language which is specific to a geographical area or
a social group. In British English, it is usually seen as a non-standard form of
the language and does not usually represent a formal register. Whilst accent
refers to the pronunciation people use, dialect refers to the words they actually
choose to speak.
(see accent)

Dialogue Words used by at least two characters speaking to each other.

Dialogue form A writer’s technique where they use dialogue consistently to express a theory,
argument, or (usually) scientific or political ideas. Also referred to as dialogue
genre.
 events
Diary A form of autobiographical writing that records and reflects on personal
and experiences.

Diatribe Bitter, angry speech used to attack or criticize someone or something. For
example, Richard's hateful depiction of the house of York in the opening of
Richard III by William Shakespeare.

Dichotomy A great difference or division (usually opposing) between two things or groups.

Diction The choice of words and how they are used in a text — including in relation
to the tone, expression, and formality. When analysing a text, it is important
to examine how diction is used and to what effect. When we refer to spoken
language, diction refers to how we articulate and pronounce words.

Didactic (didacticism) Spoken or written with the intention of teaching something, sometimes ina
patronizing way, although not necessarily. Usually said or written in such a way
that the speaker or writer does not expect any discussion or disagreement.

Digital media As compared with print media, digital media is text and images which have
been coded and created to be viewed on electronic devices.

Dignity (dignified) 1 The feeling that the life, opinions, and actions of others have value and
deserve our respect.
2 Our own personal self-respect, pride.
The IB learner profile suggests ten qualities that students should be aiming for.
One of these is to be ‘principled’: which encourages us to have respect for the
dignity of others wherever they are in the world.

Digression A move away from the main topic — in spoken or written language. A literary
technique used by an author to move away briefly from talking about one
thing to focus on another. It may be to give the reader some background
information or to show the character’s thoughts.
(see narrative disruption)

Dimension An aspect or feature of something. When studying English literature for the
IB Diploma, some students will read literature in English, but there is also
an emphasis on the international dimension, where students are given the
opportunity to read literature in translation to gain a deeper understanding of
different cultures.

Diphthong When a speaker moves their tongue to produce the sound of two vowels,
combined to create a different vowel sound. An example in English is the vowel
sound in mail which is a diphthong.

Direct A mode of characterization through which the narrator provides his or her own
characterization description of the character’s traits and personality.
(see indirect characterization)

Direct narration (direct A style of writing where the author ‘tells’ the reader directly about the
narrative) characters and what they are feeling or seeing. This is largely done through
detailed, literal descriptions and means that the reader doesn’t have to
interpret or ‘guess’ anything about the characters.
(see indirect narration)
Direct speech A writer can choose two ways for characters to speak. One is direct speech,
where the actual words that the character says are written in speech marks
(also called quotation marks or inverted commas). Secondly, there is indirect
speech (also called reported speech) where the character's words are conveyed
or rewritten not using quotation marks. For example, your IB Diploma English
teacher tells you she would like to speak to your parents at parents’ evening.
You go home and say:
My teacher said ‘I would like to speak to your parents’ (direct speech)

My teacher said that she would like to speak with you (indirect speech)

Discourse 1 Spoken or written communication, or debate — very often about a serious or

academic topic. For example, as part of your IB in English Literature, you are
encouraged to take an active part in critical discourse.
2 More specifically in literature, discourse can refer to an author using a
character's speech to convey an ideological or political point of view. For
example, in Edward Albee’s Who’s Afraid of Virginia Woolf?, George's
discourse reflects a humanistic point of view.

Discourse analysis The study of language and how it is used by authors in different texts. It would
include analysing how words and phrases are used, how characters interact
verbally, as well as its cultural and social context.

Discourse markers A grammatical term which refers to a word or phrase we use when we speak
to connect, break up, or organize what we have to say. For example, in English,
examples would be Right..., Okay,..., Anyway... or To start with,...

Discuss As a command word in the IB Diploma English course, discuss means that you
provide a reasoned argument in response to a text or a question.
(see list of command terms on page 94)

Discussion Where at least two people talk about a topic to exchange ideas or points of
view. For example, as part of your IOC, you are expected to engage in discussion
with your teacher. It’s important that you stay focused on the teacher's
questions and provide a relevant response.

Dispassionate Without strong emotion or feeling, calmly. To be dispassionate suggests we can

be more rational and logical.

Dissonance Where a poet uses words with very different sounds to create an unusual or
unpleasant contrast, to interrupt the flow of words, perhaps to surprise or to
get the reader's attention. We usually describe it as the opposite of assonance.
(see assonance; see consonance)

Distract (distracting) To divert attention from, either intentionally or by accident, so as to stop

someone from concentrating. For example, when you present your IOC, there
will be no interruptions and your teacher will not distract you.

Divergence Where we might change our way of speaking or use of language to suit a
certain situation, for example, to distance ourselves from someone and suggest
that we don’t want to feel close to them.
(see convergence)

Diverse A wide variety; a group of things or people which are very different. As part of
your IB Diploma in English, you will read a diverse set of texts from a variety of
backgrounds, cultures, and genres.
Diversion 1 Achange ina planned direction, a turn.
2 Entertainment, usually which takes you away from an everyday life which
may be boring or full of problems.
(see narrative disruption, digression)

Documentary A type of film that depicts particular topics and real-life events through
interviews and factual information.

Doggerel Poetry or verse which is poorly written and with an irregular rhythm, and
sometimes funny.

Double entendre Originally from the old French for a ‘double meaning’ or understanding of
a word or phrase. Now we have adopted it in English where we understand
one meaning, but there is also another meaning which might be rude or
inappropriate. Shakespeare often uses double entendres to bring comedy into
his work.

Doubtful Unclear or not certain. For example, for your IOC in the Literature course, you
are given eight minutes to deliver your commentary. For a further two minutes,
your teacher will talk with you and ask questions to help you explain some
things which appeared doubtful.

Downfall A character's sudden fall from a position of power. This is often caused by the
character's tragic flaw, which can be a lack of judgment or excessive arrogance
or pride. For example, in Antigone by Sophocles, King Creon’s stubbornness and
failure to listen to others lead to his downfall through the death of his wife and
son as well as his loss of control over the city of Thebes.

Drama (dramatic, 1 Traditionally, a performance or play of fiction acted out usually on a stage.
dramatist) 2 More recently, drama is seen as a film or TV genre which is serious and is the
opposite of comedy.

Dramatic conventions A set of textual conventions typical of dramatic texts or plays. These include,
stage directions, stage set descriptions, props, sound and light effects, etc.

Dramatic irony In a work of literature, where the audience is aware of information that is not
known to some or all of the characters in the plot. This may add suspense or
sometimes humour.

Dramatic monologue A type of poem in the form of a speech delivered by the main persona. For
example, Lady Lazarus by Sylvia Plath.

Dramatis personae The list of characters in a play.

Dramatist A playwright or someone who writes plays. Arthur Miller, writer of Death of a
Salesman, was a prominent American dramatist.

Draw conclusions To think through or examine a number of issues and using examples as evidence
come to a decision about your own opinion on something.
(see list of command terms on page 94)

Dynamic character A character who experiences significant changes throughout the course of the
narrative. For example, the protagonist in Tess of the D’Urbervilles by Thomas
Hardy.
(see static character)

Dystopia (dystopian) An author's fictional creation of a world where humans are cruel and unkind,
and everything has turned out wrong. Aldous Huxley’s Brave New World is an
example of dystopian literature.
(see utopia)
Edit (edited) Correct, amend, or rewrite a piece of text to improve it.

Editorial An article usually in a magazine or newspaper which gives an opinion on

something, rather than just reporting on facts. Unlike an opinion column, the
editorial presents the opinion of the writer, the editorial board, or the publisher.

Effect 1 (noun) A change or result brought about by an event, speech, or story, for
example. We usually use the word ‘effect’ as a noun, for example:
The effect of the literary work on an audience or reader.
2 (verb) To bring about a change or influence something. As a verb, this is
more likely to be used in a formal context. For example:
The women’s suffrage movement effected great social change.

It’s easy to confuse effect with affect. If you want to talk about an act having an
influence on someone or making something happen, you would use affect as a
verb; for example:
His death affected her quite seriously.

But if you want to use affect as a noun, then you use the word effect, for example:

The effects of his death on her were quite serious.

Effectively (effective, In a way which works well, or which succeeds at what is intended. If your essay
effectiveness) is effectively organized, it presents your ideas, evidence, and conclusions in a
logical, coherent way. You might also talk about the effectiveness of a writer's
techniques.

Electronic text Any text that appears on a computer screen, mobile device, etc.

Elegy An emotional, sad, or moving poem which is written to grieve for or mourn
someone who has recently died. Often confused with eulogy which is also a text
written about a dead person but needn't be a poem and usually focuses more
on praise for the dead person and their positive qualities, rather than on too
much sadness. For example, Lord Alfred Tennyson’s /n Memoriam A H H is an
elegy dedicated to the poet's best friend, Arthur Henry Hallam.

Elicit To cause, provoke, or bring about a result, as in:

These words are intended to elicit a response in the reader.

Ellipsis 1 In poetry or in literature more generally, the writer consciously leaves out a
word or words which may not be needed and yet which don’t prevent the
reader understanding the meaning. It might be used to add tension, with
leaving something unsaid, or it might reflect a character's choice to use a
minimum number of words to say something. In T S Eliot’s Gerontion, the
word am is omitted from:
“1 an old man, / A dull head among windy spaces.’

2 May also refer to the three dots we use in written text (...) where a writer
In your
has left out some words or to create a pause or a feeling of suspense.
English essay, you may use an ellipsis to condense a quote from a literary
work to save space or to focus on a specific part (or parts) of the quote.

essay, you will

Embed (embedded) Place, fix, or include something into something else. In your own
you use a quote to support your
use embedded quotes. This means that where
will reproduce it as part of your own sentence, rather than let
argument, you
you have
it stand separately on its own. You may use an ellipsis to show where
quote flows naturally as part of your own words. The
left out words so that the
honesty
effective use of embedded quotes is an important part of academic
and helps avoid plagiarism.
Embedded narrative Where a writer starts with one narrative which then ‘frames’ or surrounds
another. In Emily Bronte’s Wuthering Heights, the whole story is told by
Lockwood who then incorporates Nelly’s narrative of events.

Embody To represent a good example of a quality, idea, or principle, usually in a positive

way. For example, in Jane Eyre by Charlotte Bronte, the protagonist embodies
admirable moral and intellectual values.

Emotion (emotional, A feeling or reaction, usually strong, such as anger, love, or jealousy. Usually
emotionally) seen as instinctive or uncontrolled, and without reason or logic. An author
might create a denouement to a story which we would describe as an
emotionally satisfying end to a novel.

Emotive Arouses or brings about strong feelings, for example, an author may use
emotive language to elicit a response in a reader. (Not necessarily the same as
emotional, which suggests something or someone has feelings.)

Empathy When we share and understand another person’s feelings or situation. For
example, an author's use of language can create empathy for the main
character. (Not to be confused with sympathy which suggests more of a feeling
of pity and sadness for someone when something goes wrong for them.) The
IB learner profile suggests ten qualities that students should be aiming for. One
of these is to be ‘caring’ which we can do by showing empathy and compassion
towards others.

Encounter(s) (noun) A meeting or coming together, usually unexpected, of people or

someone facing an issue or experience.

End rhyme A rhyme in poetry where the words that rhyme come at the end of two lines
of verse.
(see internal rhyme)

End stopped Usually refers to a line of verse which has a natural pause at the end (and which
may be marked by punctuation).

Ending The conclusion, finish, or final part of a play or novel.

Engage To attract, involve, or interest someone in something. For example, as part of

your IOP, you need to find ways or techniques that will help you engage your
audience. This might involve speaking with clarity and confidence, making eye
contact with your audience, etc.

Engagement Being fully immersed intellectually in the reading of a text or writing an essay.
This means you pay close attention to detail, make connections, and draw
insightful conclusions. For Literature and Language & Literature students, your
engagement with the text(s) or extract is important if you want to score a high
mark on Criterion A in Paper 1 or the IOC.

Enjambment (or When a line of poetry or verse continues from the end of one line to the start
enjambement) of another without a natural pause or any punctuation. (In contrast to an
end-stopped line.) From the French word enjamber, meaning ‘to stride over’ or
‘straddle’. The following lines in Wilfred Owen’‘s Mental Cases flow without any
interruption to convey the speaker's profound sympathy for those who were
mentally affected by their experiences of war:
‘Therefore still their eyeballs shrink tormented / Back into their brains,
because on their sense / Sunlight seems a blood-smear....’

Enthusiastic Having or showing a strong interest or pleasure in something, for example:

| was enthusiastic about the novel at the start.
Enumeration The listing of words or phrases to provide more detail or an explanation. In
Blackberry-Picking by Seamus Heaney, the speaker uses enumeration to convey
his childlike enthusiasm:
‘Round hayfields, cornfields and potato drills / We trekked and picked
until the cans were full’

Enunciation The ability to pronounce words with clarity, which is important during your oral
(enunciate) presentations.

Epic 1 Along poem, usually narrating a story of how a hero/heroine experiences a

series of events (also called epic poem)

2 More recently, it is used to describe a long film, book, or other literary work
that has a lot of action.

Epic simile The use of a simile in a poem that is described or is formed over several lines.

Epigram 1 A short saying or phrase which sums up an idea usually in an amusing or

(epigrammatic) clever way.
2 Ashort poem, usually with a clever and amusing ending.

Epigraph A short quote that is set at the beginning of a text or a section of a text to
create a theme or tone for the text which follows. For example, in Things Fall
Apart by Chinua Achebe, the epigraph is an extract from W B Yeats’s poem The
Second Coming:
‘Turning and turning in the widening gyre / The falcon cannot hear the
falconer; / Things Fall Apart; the centre cannot hold; / Mere anarchy is
loosed upon the world.’

Through this epigraph, Achebe introduces one of the main themes of his novel,
the breakdown of traditional cultures and societies.

Epilogue A writer’s tool where additional text is added to the end, even when the main
plot or ending has been concluded. An epilogue may give us some insight into a
further aspect linked to the work, or may act as a ‘teaser’ for another work that
will be written next. It may be written in the same style as the rest of the work
or may be a monologue by one of the characters.

Epiphany A point in the development of a character when he or she experiences a

moment of sudden and profound realization, usually of an intellectual or
spiritual nature. In Aleksandr Solzhenitsyn's One Day in the Life of Ivan
Denisovich, the protagonist's epiphany is the realization that he needs to accept
his fate as a prisoner in order to survive.

Episode A scene or a particular incident in a literary work, or a part of a televised series.

Epistolary A form of communication through written letters. In literature, some novels

are epistolary in nature, which means that they consist of a series of letter
exchanges between the characters, as in Alice Walker's The Color Purple.

Epitaph A short sentence usually written on a person’s tombstone (the stone which
marks where they are buried). The epitaph can be written about the dead
person or describe something else.

Epitome (epitomize) A person or thing which represents the ultimate or best example of a quality,
value, or type.

Eponym (eponymous) A name of a person which becomes linked with the object they invented or
identified, for example, watt after the Scottish inventor, James Watt. In a similar
way, an eponymous hero or heroine is a character whose name is given to the
title of the play or the novel (for example, Othello by William Shakespeare).
 Was
Essay (essayist) Even before anyone was writing essays for their IB Diploma, an ‘essay’
writer wrote a short piece of non-ficti on to put
a literary genre where the
forward their opinion or argument on a political topic, or literature, or to
comment on an aspect of daily life, and which would then be published for all
to read. An important essayist of the 1500s was Michel de Montaigne, a French
philosopher.

Ethics (ethical) A code of conduct in relation to what we usually consider to be right or wrong,
from a moral perspective. This might correspond to the beliefs or customs ofa
social, religious, or professional group of people (for example, doctors). The IB
learner profile suggests ten qualities that students should be aiming for. One
of these is to be ‘thinkers’: where we consider problems and issues as critical
thinkers, consider a variety of options, and make a logical and ethical (or
morally right) decision.

Ethnic Related to the race of a particular group of people. For example, as part of the
study of literature at IB, we are encouraged to consider the ethnic situation ofa
text and how this might influence the writing.

Ethos 1 The character, attitudes and culture of a group of people.

2 A tool used in argument to persuade others that you can be trusted,
for example, because you might have personal experience or you are a
recognized authority on the topic. You might say it’s the ethical appeal of
the writer.

Etymology The study of the origin of words and how their meaning changes over time.
Understanding the etymology of words is important in expanding your
vocabulary.

Eulogy A text written about a dead person. It might be a poem, but doesn’t need to
be, and usually focuses more on praise for the dead person and their positive
qualities, rather than too much on the sadness around their death.
This is often confused with elegy, which is an emotional or moving poem
written to grieve for someone who has recently died.

Euphemism A gentle or ‘accepted’ word or phrase used in place of another word which
(euphemistic, we might consider too offensive, too unpleasant, or too embarrassing. There
euphemistically) are many euphemisms related to death, for example, such as passed away or
left us. A writer may use euphemisms to add irony, or as part of conversational
dialogue in their fictional writing. For more formal writing (in your essays,
for example), you would be expected to use the ‘real’ word, and not use
euphemistic language which is often seen as more colloquial and informal.

Euphony Using words or phrases that have a melody or which sound nice. Particularly
in poetry where the writer may use alliteration or rhymes to create pleasant
sounds when the words are spoken.
(see cacophony)

Evaluate (evaluation, To list the different factors or issues and provide an assessment of their priority
evaluating) or impact, in order to arrive at a judgment. In your study of English, if you are
asked to evaluate, you need to make sure that you consider the stylistic devices
in a text and select those that have the strongest impact on the meaning of the
text as a whole and best support your argument.

Events Anything that happens. For example, the events in a novel or short story are
the things that happen and which develop the plot or characterization.

Everyday Something that forms part of our daily lives, or is used every day, and so is not
particularly interesting or unusual, for example, a character in a novel might use
everyday vocabulary, rather than anything more sophisticated.
Evidence Proof, or something you see, read, or experience which makes you believe that
something is true. For example, when presenting an argument in your essay for
IB English, you need to support your reasoning with appropriate evidence. This
might be a quote, or an example of a pattern in the literary work that relates to
plot, setting, tone, or the writer's use of language style. Secondary sources can
provide supporting evidence in IB, in the Written Assignment (Literature) and
the Written Task 2 (HL Language & Literature) only.

Evocative (evoke, If an experience, sound, or smell is evocative, it helps us remember or imagine

evoking) something pleasant or emotional.

Evolve To develop, change or progress. For example, a novelist uses a variety of

techniques to ensure characters evolve over a period of time.

Exaggeration A statement where the speaker/writer suggests that something is bigger,

(exaggerate) smaller, better or worse than it is in reality.
(see hyperbole)

Examine (examination) To study and inspect closely the issues around a topic or issue in order to give
details about the facts and arrive at a conclusion. This is a command word
frequently used as part of your IB Diploma English (Literature and Language &
Literature) course. When you are asked to examine, you need to make sure that
you select and discuss detail that is relevant to the question and the works you
have studied (as in Paper 2).
(see list of command terms on page 94)

Examples In order to show your knowledge and understanding around a theme or

the use of literary techniques, for example, you need to be able to show
appropriate examples which prove and justify your ideas.
(see exemplify)

Excellent (excellently, Very, very good. To reach the highest levels in IB English, you need to show, for
excel) example, excellent analysis and excellent appreciation for how language can
shape meaning. This means you need to provide a detailed discussion of the
effects of the literary features while engaging with the text(s) or extract in a
profound and meaningful way.

Exclaim (exclamation) To shout or cry out, usually suddenly and/or with surprise or fear. Exclaim is
one of the many alternative words for ‘said’ that a writer can use to enrich
their text and give more life to their character's speech. (They might even
use an exclamation mark (!) after the word or sentence to show that it is an
exclamation.)

Exemplify To give an appropriate or typical example of a thing, idea, or situation.

(see example)

Exhaustive Comprehensive or complete. We usually use the word exhaustive in the

negative, to say ‘This list is not exhaustive’, meaning that more examples could
be added to make the list even longer.

Existentialism A way of thinking and living that focuses on the existence of the individual and
(existentialist) personal freedom to make our own independent, rational choices. In this way,
we seek to form our own value system, and shape meaning to our life which
otherwise would be meaningless. Many existentialists communicated their ideas
through literature and poetry, such as Albert Camus, author of The Stranger.
 to
Explain To give more detail or information about something to help make it easier
To show that you have a good understand ing of something, you
understand.
need to be able to provide this level of detail and information to back up your
opinions, rather than simply describing the content or summarising a text.
(see list of command terms on page 94)

Explicit Clearly stated, without any ambiguities or implications.

| don’t understand what you are trying to say; could you please be more
explicit?

Explore (explored) To discover or uncover through a rational, systematic process. As part of your
IB Diploma, this is a command word frequently used as part of a Paper 2 essay
question. When you are asked to explore, you need to make sure that you
investigate how meaning is created through specific literary techniques in the
works studied.
(see list of command terms on page 94)

Exposition 1 Ashort piece of text at the beginning of a play or novel which introduces
the audience to the characters, setting, etc. This might be in the form of
a prologue, a character’s monologue or flashback, a dialogue between
characters to give us some background information, or the narrator's own
introduction of the setting and the characters in the narrative.
2 Acomprehensive account or explanation of an idea or theory.

Expository writing A type of writing that explains and describes a particular topic, such as essays,
journalistic texts, instruction manuals, textbooks, etc.

Express (expression) To communicate your ideas, thoughts, or feelings in words and which might
also involve hand gestures or other actions, such as the look on your face.

Extended metaphor Also known as an allegory, where the author develops a metaphor over a
longer period of time or in much more detail. It might progress over a few
sentences or even the whole work, and is often used to help an audience
understand a complex concept or topic. George Orwell’s Animal Farm represents
an extended metaphor for the 1917 Russian Revolution.
(see simile)

Extent The size, degree, length, or coverage of something.

(see to what extent?)

External assessment The external assessment includes Paper 1 and Paper 2, where you sit in an exam
room under exam conditions. In your IB Diploma for English (at either SL or
HL), your ability is judged through two types of assessment (or exam): external
assessment and internal assessment. For the external assessment, your work
is marked only by IB examiners. The external assessment includes the Written
Assignment (Literature SL and HL), the Written Task 1 (Language & Literature
SL and HL), the Written Task 2 (Language & Literature HL only). The external
assessment also consists of the Paper 1 and Paper 2 exams for both Literature
and Language & Literature courses. Teachers in your school mark your internal
assessment.

External conflict A character's conflict with an outside force, such as another character, the larger
society, an element of nature, etc.

Extract A short piece of text, taken from a longer novel, play, poem, etc.

Extreme (extremes) 1 Very large, very bad, or very great in degree.

2 When talking about extremes, we want to suggest a wide variation from
one end of a spectrum or scale to the other. For example, the highest and
lowest level descriptors in the assessment criteria for your IB Diploma.
Fable This is a literary genre where the writer teaches us a lesson, typically a moral
lesson, through a short, concise story which usually includes animals or other
natural aspects of the world around us. As a genre, it exists in different cultures,
for example, the Panchatantra, an Indian collection which exists in different
forms in different languages, or the Hare and the Tortoise story, one of Aesop’‘s
Fables which teaches us that being slow and determined can sometimes win the
race.

Faction 1 A sub-group which has a different viewpoint or policy to the rest of the
larger group or organization.
2 A literary genre which combines drama and real events, so that a series of
actual events are presented in a dramatic way to entertain the audience. The
word faction combines ‘fact’ and ‘fiction’.
(see fake news)

Factor(s) A thing that might trigger or influence an event or situation to create a result.

Facts Something we know to be correct or true, based on evidence or proof.

Fairness A behaviour or quality of equality, justice, or right, usually with respect to

people. The |B learner profile suggests ten qualities that students should be
aiming for. One of these is to be ‘principled’: to ensure we act in fairness to one
another, with respect for the individual rights of others.

Fake news A form of writing where hoaxes, rumours, propaganda, or disinformation are
written about as if they are real news events to mislead the reader. Whilst not
new as a concept, it has become more widespread as the power of social media
means that texts can be published and spread more quickly than before.

Falling action The section that occurs after the climax in the plot of a narrative.

Fan fiction A relatively new literary genre where enthusiastic fans take a story or characters
from a previously-published work (novel, TV, or film) and recreate it using the
internet.

Farce A comic story where a series of events is completely improbable and ridiculous.
Usually based around coincidence, misunderstanding, or mistaken identity,
it often creates very visual, slapstick humour as entertainment. Moliére’s
Tartuffe is an example of a farce where the scenarios are exaggerated, and the
characters’ dialogue contains many elements of humour.

Fate A series of events or one’s destiny in life where some believe we have no control
over what happens.
(see reversal)

Faultless Perfect, without any mistakes. For the IB Diploma in English, to achieve the
highest level 7, you don’t necessarily have to produce a faultless performance
or essays without any errors or mistakes at all. But your work still has to be very
good in how it meets the expectations of the marking criteria.

Favourite (favouritism) Something or someone that you like more than any other of the same kind, for
example, your favourite character in a play or novel.

Feature article A special-interest article that provides in-depth information on a particular

topic, person, or place.

Feeling 4 Emotion or reaction to something (for example, a literary text).

2 The sensation of touching something physical.
3 An attitude or opinion (for example, the author's feelings) as depicted ina
text; an important element to take into consideration as part of your analysis.
 and rights
Feminism The view or belief that a woman should have the same opportunities
in society that a man has; that there should be no discrimina tion on the basis of
gender. Leading authors who have written about feminist themes and women’s
issues include Margaret Atwood, Doris Lessing, and Alice Walker.

Fiction (fictional) Literature where stories are based around imaginary events and made-up
characters.
(see non-fiction)

Figurative Language that has a different meaning to its literal one. It is often used to
make a text more complex, to emphasize a point, or to express strong emotions,
etc. Figurative language includes a variety of techniques such as similes,
metaphors, hyperboles, etc.

Figure of speech A generic term to refer to a range of figurative language, such as metaphors,
personification, or similes.

First draft An early version of a written text which may only contain the main points in
outline plan form, not fully finished.

First-person narrator A narrator who describes the events and characters in a novel from the point
of view of one of the characters. This means that it allows the writer to
describe events personally as the character experiences them, but the character
can’t participate in a variety of different scenes at the same time, which can
limit how the writer tells the story. It also means that because the writer is a
character, everything we read is through their eyes and through their emotions
which might mean readers don’t get the full picture. (We say the narrator is
unreliable.)
(see unreliable narrator)

First-person point of When a text is written in the first person, it is written using the pronoun /,
view so the author is writing about himself or herself, describing his or her own
experiences. It creates a more personal account. An autobiography is written in
the first person.

Five senses As humans, the five senses we can use are sight, smell, sound, taste, and touch.
When a writer uses imagery in their writing, the language often relates to these
abilities.

Fixed form A description for a poem that can be identified by a recognised style with
traditional rules in relation to the number of lines, its rhythm, or rhyming
pattern. For example, a sonnet (which always has 14 lines) is a fixed form, as is a
limerick. (Also called closed form.)

Flashback A literary device where the author takes the reader to another time, to events
that have previously taken place before the current narrative. A flashback
usually gives background to the current character, place, or events, or may
create suspense and intrigue.

Flashforward A literary device where the author takes us forward in time to a later event or
time than the current narrative. As a separate scene, a flashforward presents
what will happen later in the story. Compare with foreshadowing, a device to
predict or foresee what might happen later.

Flat character A character who does not change throughout the course of the narrative and
lacks the complexity of a round character.

Fluent (fluently) To use spoken or written language effectively so you can communicate ideas,
thoughts, opinions, and information clearly, effectively, and with confidence.
Fly-on-the-wall A form of narrative where the narrator sees every event in the story. They are
Nnarration/narrative able to see the characters but take no part in the events themselves and so are
not ‘seen’ by the characters either.
(see third-person omniscient narrative)

Flyer A short, printed text used by an organization to advertise or market their

products or services. A flyer is a single printed sheet, unlike a brochure that
can have printing on both sides of the sheet and may be folded to emphasize
particular sections.

Focal point In visual texts, the most important part of an image that draws the attention of
the viewer. The focal point is closely linked to the message of the text.

Foil character A character who is used by the author to contrast or compare with another
character, usually the main character (or protagonist). The foil’s characteristics
help make the protagonist look even better or sometimes show up their
weaknesses. In Henrik Ibsen’s A Doll’s House, Christine Linde is a foil character to
the protagonist, Nora Helmer. She exhibits the traits of the independent woman
that Nora will become by the end of the play.

Foot (plural! feet) In literature, a repeated unit of rhythm that we use to describe poetry. One foot
represents one stressed and one unstressed syllable.

Footnote An additional note that you add at the foot (or bottom) of a page to provide
extra information or reference details for a quotation or paraphrase you have
included on that page.

Forceful A way to describe someone when they are confident, express their opinions
strongly, and are not embarrassed to get attention.

Foregrounding A device in poetry which involves using language to make it stand out from
more ordinary language. It may involve the use of repetition, or changing the
structure of language to draw attention to it, or for emphasis. This might create
a phrase, sentence or line of poetry that is unnatural or even grammatically
inaccurate, but that appears attractive or powerful, anyway.

Foreshadowing Where the author writes in suggestions or hints about something that might
happen in the story. This is usually subtle through imagery or a specific use of
language so as not to give away the full story.
(see flashforward)

Form The structure and shape of a poem.

(see fixed form/closed form)

Formal Official, serious, and correct — the opposite of casual and relaxed. As part of
your IB studies, it also represents an element of register, particularly important
for Language & Literature students to understand in the analysis of Paper
1 texts. You are also expected to write your IB essays and the IOC in formal
register (both Literature and Language & Literature students).

Formal features The features related to the form of a text, such as structure, style, etc. You must
address the formal features of the text(s) in your Paper 1 essay.

Formalism (formalist) A way of carrying out literary criticism which focuses on the form of the
language, the text itself. Formalism as a school of thought dates back to early
20" century Russia. It is not interested in the author as such, or the historical
or cultural background of a text. Formalists believed they were taking a
more scientific view of literature to help understand how writers manipulate
language to create a specific effect.
 ability
Formative assessment In your IB Diploma for English (at either SL or HL), your knowledge and
are judged through two types of assessment (or exam): external assessment and
internal assessment. For the external assessment, your work is marked only by
IB examiners, and your teachers mark your internal assessment. In order to help
you achieve the required level for these assessments, throughout the course your
on
teacher will assess how you are doing so far, and offer advice and guidance
how to improve your work through formative assessment. Obviously, this doesn’t
count to your final level, but you use this feedback to get better and hopefully,
achieve the best level you can in the external and internal assessments.

Formulate To create or prepare carefully and logically, for example, your teacher will
formulate some questions as part of the discussion that takes place after you
have presented your JOC.

Fourth wall The invisible space that separates the actors on stage from the audience.
Breaking the fourth wall is when an actor speaks directly to the audience.

Fragmented narrative Also known as a disjointed narrative, it is a story where the main events do not
follow a strict chronological order. For example, in The Things They Carried by
Tim O’Brien, the narrator depicts his memory of the Vietnam war by illustrating
events at different points in his past and present.

Frame 1 Inagraphic novel, a comic strip, or a cartoon each individual image is a

frame.
2 Atelevision or cinema film is made up of many distinct photographs. Each
one of these individual pictures is a frame.

Frame narrative Also known as a story within a story, it consists of a main narrative and one (or
more) minor narrative. For example, in Joseph Conrad’s Heart of Darkness, the
main narrative is told from the perspective of an anonymous narrator, with the
second narrative being told from Marlow’s perspective.

Free indirect Where the narrator of a literary text uses the third person pronoun (for example,
discourse/speech/ he or she) to describe the events and action, from the point of view of one of
narrative the characters. At the same time, however, whilst the narrator reports on what
the character does, the narrator also describes this character's thoughts, feelings,
and words — almost as if the narrator is that character, and yet still retains
the third person perspective, for example, in Mrs Dalloway by Virginia Woolf,
where the narrator depicts the events in the story from the perspective of the
protagonist.

Free verse A literary device to describe poetry that has no traditional form and does not
include any expected rhyme or rhythm. For example, in Daybreak in Alabama
by Langston Hughes:
‘When I get to be a composer / I’m gonna write me some music about/
Daybreak in Alabama’

(see fixed form)

Fulfil (fulfilling; US To achieve or satisfy, usually in relation to something that is expected or

fulfill) promised. For example, as part of your IB Diploma, you will need to fulfil
the requirements of the course, such as the assessment objectives regarding
knowledge and understanding, application and analysis, synthesis and
evaluation, and the use of appropriate language skills.

Function A purpose or use for something.

What Is the function of this literary text?

Further oral activity One of the internal assessment components in the Language & Literature
(FOA) course where students are expected to deliver an oral presentation that
explores the relationship between text, context, and meaning. You will conduct
at least two FOAs throughout your course, based on topics in Part 1 and Part 2
of the course.
Gender bias A prejudice against or favouritism for either gender, simply because they are
either male or female, not for any more practical reason.

Generalization A general statement or idea which is said to be true by looking at a few cases,
but does not apply to all cases.
Everyone who lives in Dubai is rich.

Genre Literature is made up of many different types of writing, each with different
form, style, and use of language. We call each group a genre where it has
similar characteristics and conventions for how that genre should be written.
Broadly speaking, literature is made up of prose, poetry, and drama — but then
prose may be divided into fiction and non-fiction, and subdivided further, for
example, fiction is made up of romance, gothic, and many others.

Gerund A part of speech where a verb is turned into a noun with the help of the -ing
suffix in English.
Drafting and editing are important steps in the writing process.

Gothic fiction/ A genre (or type) of literature (fiction) which features strange and mysterious
literature events, usually happening in frightening, gloomy places, like an old castle, or a
haunted wood. Themes usually relate to nature or natural events to scare and
shock the reader. For example, The Strange Case of Dr Jekyll and Mr Hyde by
Robert Louis Stevenson.

Grade boundaries A grade boundary allows the total number of marks which have been awarded
for an IB assessment to be divided up or assigned to a specific grade along
the one-seven (1 - 7) level marking scale. These grade boundaries are set each
year, according to consistent standards and agreed by the IBO based on the
candidates’ level of performance during a specific examination session. Grade
boundaries may show slight variations from one examination session to the
next.

Grade descriptors A set of statements published by the IBO which describe what is required
of you in the IB Diploma at each grade (or level). Each grade/level for each
subject group has its own statements. Although there are similarities across
the different subject groups across each level, the statements describe what a
student’s work would look like and the characteristics it would have to achieve,
for example, at level 7 (excellent, the highest), or at level 4 (satisfactory), or
at level 1 (the lowest level). You may ask your teacher to show you a copy and
explain these to you for your subject guide, if you have not already seen them.

Grammar The way in which words are put together to make sentences and paragraphs,
as well as how the form and spelling of a word may change according to an
agreed set of rules and conventions. These conventions help ensure the text
is less open to misunderstanding. If you use accurate grammar in your English
work for IB Diploma, you are more likely to achieve the highest marks.

Graphic novel/writing A genre of writing where the story is mainly told through pictures. We also
call this comic strip. There is some writing as well, mostly in the form of speech
bubbles or captions to help narrate the story. For example, Persepolis by
Marjane Satrapi.

Graphology 1 The study of handwriting to help us understand a bit more about the writer’s
character or personality.
2 When studying language, the visual aspect of a text in relation to its layout,
the choice of font, and how it is presented on the page. (This is more
relevant to IB Diploma Language A: English Language & Literature than
for Language A: English Literature where graphological features must be
addressed in the analysis of Paper 1 texts.)
 sit two
Guided literary For the Language A: English Literature course at IB Diploma level, you
analysis written exams at the end of your course. Paper 1 (SL) is called Guided literary
analysis. You are given two texts, which you are unlikely to have studied
before. One is prose and one is poetry. You have to choose one of these texts
and write your own literary analysis in response to two main questions. These
questions may help guide or shape your literary analysis, although to reach the
highest marks you may be expected to interpret other aspects, too. Students
are not penalized if they do not address the guiding questions as long as they
formulate a relevant, well-supported interpretation of the text. For HL students,
you are not given these guiding questions.

Guiding questions A maximum of two questions provided at the end of each text in Paper 1 SL
(Literature and Language & Literature) and the end of your IOC extract (SL
and HL - both courses). These questions are meant to guide your approach to
the text or extract by helping you to consider larger themes, certain stylistic
elements, etc. You are not expected to address these questions and you are not
penalized if you don’t do so. Conversely, your Paper 1 essay or your IOC should
not consist of two separate responses to the two guiding questions, as your
response will lack a clear focus, which is penalized on criterion C.
Haiku This word comes from Japanese; a haiku is a Japanese style of poem that we
have adopted for use in English, too. Haiku can be fun or sometimes quite
serious, and usually relate to nature, for example, animals or the different
seasons of the year. (In some parts of the world, the weather and natural
environment changes at different times of the year often inspire poets.) Haiku
poems have a distinct form of 17 syllables over three lines, as in:
First line: 5 syllables
Second line: 7 syllables
Third line: 5 syllables

Half rhyme A poetic device where the author chooses two rhyming words, but only the
end consonants rhyme or are similar, but the vowel sounds are different. For
example, bridge and badge. (Compare with bridge and midge.)

Handle (verb) To describe how someone manages an issue or situation — which may
lead to it being successful or not. We might talk about how the writer handles
imagery in their work, for example.

Headword 1 A key word, for example, as used in a dictionary before its definition is
(headwords) provided.
2 A heading for a paragraph or chapter which might be a word or a phrase
(more likely in US English).

Heptameter One way to measure or describe the rhythm in a poem is by using a unit of
rhythm called a foot. A line of verse which has seven feet is a heptameter.
(see metre)

Hero/heroine (heroic) The main character of a piece of literature who is usually liked for characteristics
that we often admire in people (for example, bravery, compassion, generosity,
etc.). Hero usually refers to a male character, and heroine for a female character,
although hero can be used for either gender.

Heroic couplet A form of verse where two lines rhyme in iambic pentameter.

Hexameter One way to measure or describe the rhythm in a poem is by using a unit of
rhythm called a foot. A line of verse which has six feet is a hexameter.
(see metre)

Historical fiction A literary work set in the past, depicting fictional events that took place
during a certain period in history. For example, Khaled Hosseini’s The Kite
Runner is considered a historical novel because it is based on the author's own
experiences in Afghanistan.

Historical present Also known as historic present, in the English language this grammatical term
tense refers to where an author uses the present tense to narrate or describe events
that have already happened.
It is recommended that your IB essays are written in the historical present
tense, even when you refer to the events described in a text.

Hold (verb) If we describe how a presentation engages and holds the audience, we
indicate that the content of the talk as well as how it is presented interests the
audience so that they listen intently, and are keen not to miss any details.

Holistic Where each part of a whole must be seen at once and be considered as
interdependent and related.
 feel most
Home language Usually refers to the language we first learned to speak — or which we
which we are more likely to speak at home or with the
comfortable with - and
majority of our family on an everyday basis.
For many IB Diploma students, they are learning academic subjects at
school through the medium of English which is not their home language.

Homonym Where two or more words have the same spelling (or the same sound), but a
different meaning. For example, compare:
conductor (something which allows electricity to travel)

conductor (someone who directs an orchestra)

(Note that a homonym can also be a homophone.)

Homophone This is from Greek meaning ‘same sound’. In English, it describes two words
which have the same sound, but different meanings. For example, compare:
site (a place)

cite (to reference or quote)

principal (the person who is in charge of a school)

principle (a basic or scientific rule)

(see homonym)

Honesty A quality where we don't cheat, lie, or steal, and are sincere. The IB learner
profile suggests ten qualities that students should be aiming for. One of these is
to be ‘principled’: a part of this is that we act with honesty, not only academic
honesty where we must be truthful about how we produce our own written
work, for example, but also honesty in dealing with others - to respect others
and what they believe in.

Hook The opening statement to an essay or a speech meant to have a strong impact
and grab the audience's attention. A hook can be a famous quote, a universal
truth, a personal anecdote, or the author's own insightful reflection on the
topic.

Horror A genre of literature written to frighten, scare, or shock the reader.

(see Gothic literature)

Hubris Originating in the classical Greek tragedies, the tragic hero’s arrogance and
pride that leads to his downfall.

Human behaviour How people act or behave, particularly in relation to other people in society.
The study of literature often provides opportunities to explore human
behaviour since it is so often a theme chosen by authors.

Human truths Proven facts or reality (or that which we believe to be true) as related to human
beings and their behaviour.

Humane To be kind, thoughtful, and sympathetic towards other people (and animals),
and avoid hurting them. To engage in a deeper understanding and appreciation
for literature, it can require us to be open-minded and to have a humane
appreciation for words, language, technique, and an author’s intentions.

Humorous verse Poetry that we find funny, amusing, or witty.

Hyperbole A literary device where the author constructs a phrase or uses words that are
over the top and exaggerated to add emphasis. The audience recognizes this
larger-than-life use of language and finds it funny (in a comedy) or very serious
(in a drama, or tragic situation).
Oh, I’m exhausted, that Extended Essay took me 100 years to write.
Hyperlink Some online texts contain direct links to other online (or hyper) texts. A
hyperlink is usually marked by using a different colour font.

Hypernym A type of word, usually quite a broad term which includes the meaning of
another word or words.
Colour is a hypernym for red, whilst red is a hypernym for scarlet.
(see hyponym, synonym)

Hypertext An online text with references to other texts through hyperlinks.

Hypertext fiction/ A way of presenting information so that a reader may navigate it in a non-
narratives linear way. We usually read a book in order from page 1 to page 2, etc., yet
on a website we can choose our own path through a text or series of texts.
Technology has allowed this type of fiction to develop and may involve multi-
author contributions. Hypertext narrative can work in print, too, where the
reader can move, for example, through different paths of the story, or where
different characters narrate the same events, but with a different perspective.

Hyponym A type of word that will fit within a broader category of a word. For example:
Blue is a hyponym for colour, whilst turquoise is a hyponym for blue.

Hypophora A literary device where a writer or a speaker asks a question and follows
immediately with the answer. For example, in her essay What Is Poverty?, Jo
Goodwin Parker begins with a hypophora:
“You ask me what is poverty? Listen to me. Here | am, dirty, smelly, and
with no ‘proper’ underwear on and with the stench of my rotting teeth
near you.’

(see rhetorical)

Hypothesis An idea, theory, or assumption where the evidence has not yet been provided
(hypotheses, which would support it or prove it to be correct. For example, you might
hypothesize) hypothesize about an author's intention in your literary analysis, but it is
very important that your support your ideas with evidence, using quotes or
reference to the author's work.
 one
lamb (iambic) A unit of rhythm in poetry which includes one unstressed syllable and then
stressed syllable.

lambic pentameter ‘Penta’ means ‘five’ in Greek, so this refers to a verse where the rhythm is
in
represented by five iambs on each line. Shakespeare wrote much of his work
this pattern, called iambic pentameter.

Ideal 1 Perfect, something we aim for.

2 Aperfect model or standard which is usually so unlikely to be achievable

that it only exists in our minds. For example, the imperialist ideal as explored
in Joseph Conrad's Heart of Darkness.

Ideological viewpoint A perspective or point of view that relates to a philosophy or set way of thinking.

Ideology (ideological, A philosophy or way of thinking and living (usually political) which can govern
ideologist) how society is organized and/or determines our individual aims in life. For
example, the communist ideology or the ideology of the Democratic party.

Idiolect A way of speaking including choice of words, intonation, and pronunciation

that is very personal to each of us. As individuals, because we have each had our
own unique experiences and different influences on our speech, we are thought
to all speak our very own individual dialect. So one person's way of speaking
English may be different from yours.

Idiom (idiomatic) An informal phrase or saying that as a whole phrase we understand its meaning,
although if we were to look at each word, it would not make sense. For example,
we say Once in a blue moon to mean ‘rarely’. The English language is rich in idioms
and these can sometimes prove difficult for students whose home language is not
English, because you can't always translate an idiom word for word (although
a similar idiom might exist in any other language, too.) However, it is best to
avoid using idioms in your academic writing, since they are usually too informal —
although you may refer to an author's use of idiomatic language.

Imagery An author uses imagery to help us imagine and experience something in our
own mind. Imagery often describes something by referring to our senses (ie
sight, smell, sound, taste, and touch) in a very practical way, to help us relate to
what the author is trying to convey.
(see five senses)

Immorality (immoral) The actions or behaviour which ignore or disobey the accepted morals of a
society, community, culture or religion and which are considered morally wrong.
Art, and particularly literary works have often been criticized, condemned or
banned and seen as sinful or immoral at their time of publication or even since.
At the same time, immorality is a theme often portrayed by authors.

Impact The effect or strong impression that something or someone has on you (for
example, on your opinions or on how you feel) or on something else.
The emotional impact of reading a literary extract.

Impediment Generally, a weakness or obstacle that might delay the progress of something
or someone. In a literary text, an author might wish to write the narrative in a
non-linear fashion (ie not in chronological order) and a character's memory, for
example, might act as an impediment (or an interruption or change) to the flow
of the plot.
(see narrative disruption)

Imperative i Very important or vital.

2 Agrammatical term which describes the form of a verb used to give orders
or tell someone what to do (for example, Work hard!). lf a character's
dialogue makes use of imperatives, they might be authoritative or bossy.
Imperfect rhyme Also known as half rhyme, it is a type of rhyme where two words share the
same consonant ending, but have different preceding vowel sounds, as in lodge
and nudge, or blunt and rant.

Implications (imply, What something might hint at or suggest, or what might be the consequences
implied) of something. For example, in IB English, you need to have a good
understanding of the implications of the author's work.

Implicit Not directly stated, but implied or suggested. In the IB Diploma programme,
you must consider both the implicit and explicit meaning of texts.

Incantation The use of a series of words meant to have magic power. For example, in
William Shakespeare's Macbeth, incantation is used to convey the witches’
supernatural powers:
‘Double, double toil and trouble, / Fire burn, and cauldron bubble.’ (Act 4,
Scene 1)

Inconsistency When something is irregular, contradictory, or there is a lack of uniformity, for

(inconsistencies) example, when rules are not always applied in the same way every time. In your
academic writing, you should always try to use language where you consistently
apply grammatical rules and accurate spelling throughout the entire work. If
not, it looks as if you don’t fully understand the rules.

Independent Where you can act alone, make your own mind up about things, and rely on
(independence) yourself or your own abilities to get something done, without undue pressure
from others. A primary focus of the IB Diploma programme is for students to
learn how to become more independent both in their learning and in their
thinking, so that you can show evidence of having come to your own literary
judgments and opinions. This doesn’t mean you do everything on your own;
your teacher is always there as a guide and a resource to help you learn.

Indirect A characterization technique where the character’s traits are revealed through
characterization his or her own words, actions, and thoughts.
(see direct characterization)

Indirect narration A style of writing where the author doesn't ‘tell’ the reader directly about the
characters or ‘show’ what they are feeling or seeing, but writes in a less detailed
way so that the reader has to imply more about the events or the characters.

Indirect speech A writer can choose two ways for characters to speak. One is indirect speech
(also called reported speech) where the character’s words are conveyed or
rewritten without the use of quotation marks. For example, your IB Diploma
English teacher tells you she would like to speak to your parents at parents’
evening. You go home and say:
My teacher said that she would like to speak with you (indirect speech)

My teacher said ‘I would like to speak to your parents’ (direct speech)

Individual oral As part of the internal assessment at SL and HL, all students present a ten-
commentary (IOC) minute formal commentary to analyse the literary techniques used in a text or
an extract from the works you have studied as part of the course (in Part 2 for
Literature students and Part 4 for the Language & Literature course). This Is a
recorded examination consisting of the student’s commentary and a subsequent
discussion with the teacher for the HL students in the Literature course,
and both SL and HL students in the Language & Literature course. The 1OC
represents 15% of your entire IB Diploma English grade, so it is worth spending
time and effort on getting it right.
 for the
Individual oral As part of the internal assessment for your IB Diploma in English
Literature course, you decide on your own task to create your own presentation.
presentation (IOP)
This formal presentation is intended to show your understanding of at least
one work taken from Part 4 of the course. This IOP represents 15% of the final
grade awarded for your IB Diploma in the English Literature course (for both HL
and SL students), so it’s worth working hard on it to get the highest marks you
can.

Individual The emphasis is on you as an individual carrying out the IOP, FOA, and IOC, so
presentation that your knowledge and understanding can be appropriately assessed.

Inequality A disparity or difference, usually related to gender, money, opportunity, or

human rights across different people or groups of people. Often explored
as a theme in literature, for example, in The Awakening by Kate Chopin, the
narrator explores the theme of gender inequality in 1890s society of Louisiana
in the USA.

Infer (inference) To guess or logically make assumptions based on evidence.

Influence Something or someone which has an impact or effect which changes something
or someone else. For example, we might describe how punctuation can
influence how a poem is read or heard; this makes it important to read a poem
aloud (even if you do it silently in your own head in the exam room).

Informed response If your response is informed, you have evaluated all available textual evidence
and logically come to a conclusion, rather than acting instinctively or on
impulse. For example, your Paper 2 essay (for Literature and Language &
Literature) must be an informed response to the exam question.

Initialism A ‘word’ or an abbreviation made up of the initials or first letters of a set of

words, and which are pronounced individually, rather than as a whole word.
For example, compare BBC (an initialism) with UNESCO (an acronym), or lOP (an
initialism) with CAS (an acronym).

Initiate (initiative) To start or take responsibility in order to make something start. For example, as
an HL or SL student you complete a written assignment based on a work studied
in Part 1 of your IB Diploma English Literature course. Whilst this must be your
own work, you are also encouraged to receive some guidance and support from
your teacher. At times, this will require you to initiate discussion (so take the
initiative, rather than wait to be asked questions by your teacher).

Innuendo A phrase or sentence that on one level says something quite innocent about
someone or something. On another level, however, it hides a negative or
hurtful comment, or criticism. In English, if you hear someone say ...if you know
what | mean, it usually suggests that they are using innuendo.
(see double entendre, euphemism)

Inquire (inquiry, To ask questions or explore a topic to get information or facts. The IB learner
inquirers, inquisitive) profile suggests ten qualities that students should be aiming for. One of these is
to be ‘inquirers’: to help us develop our research and inquiry skills, ask questions
about ourselves and the world around us, so we can continue learning as long
as we live.

Insert 1 (verb) To add or include.

2 (verb) To place something in another place so that it fits.
3 (noun) A physically separate piece of promotional literature included in a
publication.
4 (noun) A shot in a film which is added to the main (or master) scene to show
something from a different perspective or in close-up to add emphasis or
draw the attention of the audience.
Insight A full, accurate understanding and complete awareness of something, even
if it is something quite complex. This is a term used frequently at IB in level
descriptors, particularly in relation to your knowledge and understanding
of the works studied. It suggests that you should provide your own personal
response to the text in a way that demonstrates deep thought and profound
understanding.

Insignificant Of little importance — often because of its small size, but not always — or
(insignificantly) meaningless, or irrelevant. If you make insignificant references to a text extract,
this fails to show a full and deep understanding, compared to if you make
appropriate and relevant references.

Integrated Appropriately included or combined so that something fits to create a unified

whole. In essay writing and oral presentations, your references to the text(s)
must be included in your analysis with a sense of coherence and fluidity, as part
of a larger sentence or idea.

Integrity The act of being honest and truthful, and of having good principles. The IB
learner profile suggests ten qualities that students should be aiming for. One of
these is to be ‘principled’, and includes the idea that we should always act with
honesty and integrity to be fair towards and respectful of others.

Intellectual The ability to think rationally about ideas and information and use one’s mind
(intellectually, to reflect on academic or literary topics.
intellect)

Intellectual elite A group of people in society who consider themselves (or are seen as) superior
to others because of the powers of their intellect. Usually an unpleasant term
suggesting that such people are out of touch with real life and how most
people live.

Intellectual property Something which has been created through the use of the mind. For example,
it could include works of art or literary works, designs, discoveries, or words and
phrases which form part of a brand - or anything that needs protection through
copyright or patent law. As part of your IB Diploma studies, you must ensure all
your work is your own and you are not reproducing (either deliberately or by
accident) anyone else's intellectual property.
(see plagiarism)

Intended reader The audience that the writer planned for when writing; the reader the writer
had in mind when the work was originally written.

Intensifier A grammatical term to describe a word that you put in front of an adjective
to add more emphasis or strength to what is being said. For example, very,
extremely, or really.

Interactive oral As part of the assessment for your IB Diploma in English Literature you take
part in a class discussion where you communicate with other students and
your teacher about a particular topic. This is called the interactive oral. Your
contribution to the discussion is marked by your teacher.

Intercultural Relating to one or more different cultures. An IB education encourages young

(interculturally) people who want to create better, more peaceful relations between nations of
the world. This philosophy is very much based on intercultural understanding
and respect for others.
Interest (interested, Curiosity, or where you pay attention because you want to find out more about
interesting) something. During the presentation for your IOP, it is essential for you to use
(this
strategies and techniques to ensure your presentation is interesting to watch
might be how you look at the audience when speaking, your use of visual aids, or
your use of gestures and facial expressions), as well as for the content to interest
the audience (through how you show your knowledge and understanding of the
topic as well as your use of appropriate language).

Interior monologue A literary technique where the writer describes a character's thoughts, feelings,
and impressions of events, and appears as if the reader is simply overhearing
the insides of the character's mind. It might appear as a random collection of
thoughts or be more logically structured.
(see monologue, stream of consciousness, soliloquy)

Internal assessment In your IB Diploma for English (at either SL or HL), your ability is judged through
(IA) two types of assessment (or exam): external assessment and internal assessment.
For the external assessment, your work is marked only by IB examiners. The
external assessment includes Paper 1 and Paper 2, where you sit in an exam room
under exam conditions. For your internal assessment, you participate in 1) an
Individual Oral Commentary (IOC), and 2) an Individual Oral Presentation (IOP)
for the Literature students or the Further Oral Activity (FOA) for the Language &
Literature students. Teachers mark your internal assessment, but a sample of IAs
are selected from your school in order to be marked and moderated by the IBO.

Internal audience The audience that a character is addressing within a novel or a play.

Internal conflict A character’s mental struggle with emotional problems, uncontrollable fears
or impulses, etc. For example, in Don DeLillo’s White Noise, the protagonist's
internal conflict is triggered by his fear of his own death.

Internal rhyme A rhyme in poetry involving words either in one single line of verse or where
the words in a middle of a line of verse rhyme with words in the middle of the
line before or after. For example, in Walt Whitman's A Noiseless Patient Spider:
‘Ceaselessly musing, venturing, throwing, - seeking the spheres to connect
them’

(see end rhyme)

Interpret To read, understand, and infer meaning from, for example, a literary text or
(interpretation) poem. As a command word in the IB Diploma English course, interpret (for
example in a task on Paper 2) means that you need to make sure that you infer
the connotative meaning by taking into consideration the context as well as the
literary features of the text(s) under analysis.
(see list of command terms on page 94)

Interrelationship A close connection or association between two or more factors, elements, or

people. In Paper 2 (for both Literature and Language & Literature students), for
example, you have to consider the interrelationship between the works studied
in relation to the exam question chosen. This means that you should consider
elements such as thematic links, variations in genre conventions, similarities and
differences, etc.

Interruption A break or pause in something that would normally continue for longer. For
(interrupt) example, during your IOC and your IOP, there will be no interruption by your
teacher or by your classmates, you are expected to carry on uninterrupted and
without any assistance.

Intertextuality The relationship of texts to each other, or how they can interrelate, for
example, when an author refers directly to another work, when a writer inserts
another text in their own, or how writers’ work may be linked through a similar
choice of sounds, words, devices, etc.
Intervene To interfere or mediate in a discussion between others or when someone else is
talking. Please note, that your teacher will only intervene in an JOC if a student
panics or really cannot continue without some level of support. But this will be
very unusual, most students manage just fine!

Introduction The opening or start to a longer or bigger piece of work (for example, a work
of non-fiction, an essay, or a presentation) which situates the main topic in a
relevant context and presents a brief overview of what the rest of the work is
about. If the work is of a persuasive nature, then the main argument is also
presented in the introduction.

Invective Strong criticism of someone or something else expressed with insulting and
abusive language.

Investigate To study, explore and examine a topic in more depth rationally and
(investigation) systematically in order to find out the facts or resolve a problem or query. As
a command word in the IB Diploma English course, investigate means that
you explore how stylistic features shape the meaning of a text, how context is
important to the interpretation of texts, and how texts relate to other texts, etc.
(see list of command terms on page 94)

Invocation An appeal to a higher, divine, or natural authority for help or inspiration. For
example, in P B Shelley’s poem /nvocation:
‘Rarely, rarely, comest thou, / Spirit of Delight!’

Irony Where the use of a phrase or word intends a literal meaning, yet at the same
time means something quite different. The difference between the two
meanings often represents a contradiction. In The Things They Carried, Tim
O’Brien uses irony to convey the American soldiers’ state of helplessness in
Vietnam, in contrast to their glorified image back home:
‘Their calculations were biological. They had no sense of strategy or
mission.”

(see dramatic irony, situational irony, verbal irony)

Irrelevant Unrelated or inappropriate. This word appears regularly in the level descriptors
for IB English at both SL and HL. It means you need to ensure that your
responses always 1) directly answer the question (and don’t make reference
to evidence or quotes which may be valid, but are unconnected to the exam
question), 2) demonstrate that you know the text really well (use relevant
quotes or references) and 3) that you show a convincing interpretation of the
text (backed up with pertinent references to the text).

Issue An important topic or subject, or a problem or challenge which provokes

discussion or debate.
 or
Jargon A set of words or phrases usually associated with a specific profession, trade,
subject (for example, legal jargon or medical jargon). As a result, jargon is quite
difficult for anyone outside of this group to understand. It has also come to
refer to complicated language or waffle, because someone might misuse jargon
or deliberately use it to confuse the audience.
(see slang)

Journal 1 Typically, a printed document like a magazine or paper published ona

regular basis (for example, weekly, monthly, or termly), but usually not every
day. These days, journals may be published in digital format, but still cover
academic, specialist, or serious issues.

2 A form of diary in which someone regularly records their thoughts, ideas,

experiences, for example, a travel journal.

Journalism The job or profession for collecting news items and information, preparing a
(journalistic) report (for either written or audio format) which Is then published to a wider
audience. In the UK, journalism can amount to broadly two types of writing,
because writers may adopt a different journalistic style of writing according
to which type of newspaper they write for. Firstly, there are the broadsheet
newspapers — typically written in a more formal, more serious style with a
logical progression of statements. A tabloid journalist may write in a more
sensational style, with greater use of images, usually with a clear point of
view, but not necessarily backed up with evidence in quite the same way as a
broadsheet article. Even with more journalism published online, these styles of
journalistic writing still exist.

Judgment (or A conclusion based on the findings or evidence.

judgement)

Justice A sense of equality, fairness, or what is ‘right’, for example, in relation to how
people are treated in society, or according to an agreed set of laws. The IB
learner profile suggests ten qualities that students should be aiming for. One
of these is to be ‘principled’: to ensure we act with a strong sense of justice
towards one another, with respect for everyone's rights.

Justify To explain something in a rational and convincing way which would include
backing up your points with evidence from the text, and describing exactly
how this supports your hypothesis or explanation. As a command word in the
IB Diploma English course, justify means that you should provide reasons and
evidence for your points.
(see list of command terms on page 94)

Juxtapose (juxtaposed, To put two things side by side so as to emphasize the differences between
juxtaposition) them. An author might use language or situations in juxtaposition to emphasize
a point, show something funny or absurd or for other effects.
_ Key words (or In an academic context, key words are those that are essential to understanding
___keywords/key terms) a subject at IB Diploma level. For each subject, you should learn and know well
these key words (or key terms) in terms of understanding what they mean if you
read or hear them, as well as being able to reproduce them in your written or
oral work. Each subject will have its own specific key words, although some may
overlap between subjects.

Kinesthetic imagery A type of imagery that depicts movement, as in the waves rolling towards the
shore.

Knowledge Information and facts about a topic or subject that you know or have in
your own mind without having to look it up. Your IB Diploma examination is
intended to assess the knowledge you have (or what you know) about the texts.

Knowledge and The IB Diploma not only assesses what you know but also how well you
understanding understand it. Sometimes we can reproduce information which suggests we
know it, but we've only learned it ‘by heart’. We don’t really understand it on a
deeper level. For the IB Diploma, you need to be able to show knowledge and
understanding. To gain this level of understanding, you need to read around
the topic, engage critically with the text presented to you, and be able to
reproduce what you learn in your own words. For Paper 2 for both Literature
and Language & Literature students, a high mark on Criterion A (Knowledge
and understanding) means that students demonstrate a very good knowledge
and understanding of the texts in relation to the exam question.

Knowledgeable To be well-informed about and familiar with a specific topic or subject. The IB
learner profile suggests ten qualities that students should be aiming for. One
of these is to be ‘knowledgeable’: to show that we are well-informed across
a range of subject areas and can share in discussion on a variety of issues and
ideas.
Lack (lacking) If there is a lack of something, there is an absence of it. If something is lacking,
it means that it just isn’t there, it doesn’t exist.

Lament An emotional poem or song which is written to show sadness that a loved one
has died.
(see elegy)

Language death A process where a community of people who speak the same language becomes
so small that their language ceases to be spoken either fluently or regularly.
Usually, a language dies when it has been used in a bilingual community yet
the other language becomes the preferred or dominant one, so that only a
few older members or no members of the community speak the language
proficiently.

Language of The terminology used regularly in exam questions, level descriptors and
assessment marking criteria. Your knowledge of language and how to understand and use
it appropriately is very important to your English IB Diploma studies. Above
all, you must make yourself familiar with the language of assessment, so that
you can focus on what the examiner expects from you. For example, study all
command terms in this book and make sure you understand what each term
means.
(see list of command terms on page 94)

Lapse A pause or temporary absence of something in what otherwise would have

been continuous. For example, a piece of written work for your IB Diploma in
English might have lapses in grammatical accuracy which would suggest that on
the whole the use of grammar is appropriate or adequate, but there are some
inaccuracies.

Layout How a written text appears, and the way in which its component parts are
designed or organized on a page.

Learning The process of gaining more knowledge, skills, and experience in a specific topic
— usually at school through study, but also more broadly in life.
Literature is a source of learning about the world and the human
condition and experience.

Lecture A talk delivered by a teacher, professor, or specialist meant to instruct the

audience on a particular topic.

Leitmotif (leitmotifs) A literary term to describe a phrase, image, or idea which is repeated frequently
throughout a literary work to create a certain mood or emphasize larger ideas
or themes. This might be to help highlight a message the writer wants to
communicate to the audience, for example, the motif (or leitmotif) of darkness
in Joseph Conrad's Heart of Darkness.

Letters A literary genre covering prose writing where the letters were written usually
with only the end recipient (or sometimes only the author themselves) in mind.
Usually very personal, sometimes biographical, they can provide great insight
into a society, culture, or its personalities that we wouldn't learn about any
other way. In the Language A: Literature course for IB Diploma, there is the
option to study a form of ‘prose other than fiction’. This may include a variety
of different types of writing including autobiography, speeches, and letters.
(Not all students will do this, just some of you - depending on the options your
teacher selects.)

Lexical choice The selection or choice of words that an author makes when creating a literary
work. Obviously, the words an author uses will have an impact on the style and
register of the text.

Lexical field A group of words related to the same topic.

(see semantic field)
Lexis (lexical) The whole set of words that make up a language.
(see semantics)

Liberty Freedom, or the ability to travel, think, behave, without being stopped
or restrained by those in authority. This is a regular motif in literature, for
example, the motif of liberty in Athol Fugard’s plays.

Lighting In a film or play, how lights are arranged and used on stage (or on the film
set) to create special effects. These effects may add dramatic effect, suspense,
or create a certain atmosphere to the scene, or help emphasize a message the
author wants to convey to the audience through imagery or symbolism.

Limerick A humorous verse made up of five lines with a very specific use of rhyme and
metre:
Line 1 = has three metrical feet + rhymes with lines 2 and 5
Line 2 = has three metrical feet
Line 3 = has two metrical feet + rhymes with line 4
Line 4 = has two metrical feet
Line 5 = has three metrical feet
For example:
There once was a girl called Jess,
She was having a hard time with ESS,
So, she asked Mr Bell,
Who taught her very well,

Now the answers she never has to guess!

Limitation The limits or restrictions of something, usually suggesting that something or

someone is not as good or as big as it might be, or that it has disadvantages.
For example, if you are asked to evaluate, this is usually asking you to review
different aspects or features and consider both the strengths and limitations (or
advantages and disadvantages, perhaps).

Limited Incomplete or imperfect, for example, if your response shows limited evidence
of a planned structure, then you may have attempted some structure, but it was
not fully complete or coherent.

Limited narration A narrative style where the narrative voice doesn't necessarily know everything
that happens and narrates as if talking on behalf of one of the characters,
usually a main character. As a result, the narrative is limited to the audience
sharing the feelings and thoughts of this one character. Limited narration can
be written using the third person (he/she or they) or from the first-person angle
(J or we).
(see omniscient narration, third-person limited narrative)

Line A group of words or a phrase arranged horizontally so that they are said
together. A line of a poem or song would usually be written as one horizontal
row of text. In a play, an actor learns their lines; learning all the words and
phrases they say in the role (or part) they act.

Linear narrative A story where the events are depicted in chronological order.

Line-by-line Taking each line of the text one by one. In your IB Diploma IOC, you must avoid
‘a line-by-line paraphrase’ of the poem or extract which is the focus of your
commentary. This means that your commentary must not involve a detailed
description of each line of the text.
Lingua franca A language that people use to talk with each other if they do not share the
same native (or home) language. This could be English; for example, an Emirati
may speak to someone from Malaysia in English, so their lingua franca is
English. (A lingua franca is also sometimes called a ‘bridge language’ or a ‘trade
language’.)

Linguistic Describing something (for example, theories or ideas) related to languages or

the study or form of language.

Linguistic imperialism When a strong or dominant country imposes its language (and possibly its
culture) on another nation, making it difficult for that country’s home language
and culture to survive.

Listening (listen) The ability to hear sounds, but also the skill to engage with what is meant by
those sounds and respond appropriately. This is a crucial part of any classroom
discussion, where as well as speaking you need to be able to hear the words
your peers say, and also take them in, reflect, and respond. Listening is only one
of a number of skills (including reading, writing, and visual skills) that you need
to develop as part of your IB Diploma in English.

Listing The use of a list or an enumeration of various things, ideas, or traits in order to
add descriptive detail or to emphasize a point.

Literal (literally) The basic or exact meaning of a word or phrase, without the use of metaphor,
innuendo, or exaggeration.

Literary Relating to the formal written word or literature, in particular.

Literary analysis The study and appreciation of literature, specifically in relation to an

interpretation of the author's intentions with a focus on content, technique,
style, structure and choice of language.

Literary commentary The close reading, interpretation, and analysis of literary texts. As part of the
external assessment for your IB English Literature course, Paper 1 includes two
previously unseen passages and you write your own literary commentary on one
of these passages. The IOC for both Literature and Language & Literature is also
a literary commentary.

Literary conventions For your English A IB course, this term refers to the entire range of techniques
and characteristics we typically associate with a literary genre. For example, this
might be the number of lines in a sonnet, or the division of a play into acts, or
the narrative style of fiction.

Literary criticism The study, evaluation, and interpretation of literary works and their meaning.

Literary device Also referred to as a stylistic device, a technique or characteristic a writer uses
to craft their words to create a special effect, emphasize what they want to
say, Or create a more interesting story for their audience. For your English A IB
Diploma studies, you need to know and understand the range of literary devices
available to an author (for example, allegory, hyperbole, or imagery) in order
to appreciate the writer’s work, interpret their meaning, and communicate
your own point of view on texts. This is particularly important for the unseen
passages in Paper 1, as well as the |OC and Paper 2 responses.

Literary features A broad term usually intended to encompass both literary conventions and
literary devices.
Literary fiction A type of fiction that is generally thought to be of merit. A work of literary
fiction provides enough material for you to read and study it in depth for your
IB Diploma studies for English. Not all published fiction would provide the
potential for you to analyse, interpret, and write about the author's craft, the
use of techniques, characterization, etc. For example, a story in the romance
genre may focus more on plot rather than characterization, which usually
means it would not be classified as literary fiction.

Literary genre A particular style of writing which is characterized by a recognised form, for
example, poetry, drama, or prose in the form of a short story are all literary
genres.

Literary heritage The body of literary works that have been produced in a particular country or
region, such as the English literary heritage.

Literary journal A magazine published specifically to include academic essays or formal writings
on the topic of literature and topics related to literary study and analysis. Often
called a literary magazine.

Literary merit Worthy of literary study and analysis.

Literary movement A time period in the history of literature that consists of works by different
authors who share similar philosophical ideas and writing style.
(see realism, romanticism)

Literary roots A film or TV series can reproduce the story of a novel, and although the content
of a film originates from a literary text, it doesn’t necessarily stay exactly true to
the original story or the author’s intention. We can discuss the literary roots or
origins of a film and how it relates to the original book.

Literary work A written text which most people would define as a piece of creative writing
(for example, fiction) and which can be considered for its style and effect.

Logical Rational or consistent. For example, where ideas follow on from each other
in an organized and sensible way so that the reader can understand a writer's
message or be persuaded by the writer's argument.

Lost in translation A term to describe certain aspects of an author's work written in their original
language which are lost or missing when the work is translated into another
language. This doesn’t necessarily relate to it being a bad translation, but that
it is difficult to make certain literary devices (for example, innuendo, irony,
or puns) work in exactly the same way when they are translated. Different
languages have different characteristics and provide different opportunity for
authors to exploit different devices.

Lyric poetry A genre of poetry that was originally written to be sung. These days, we still
use the term to describe verse that is particularly emotional, usually expressing
personal feelings, and through a clever and playful use of language has its
own melody and beauty. (Although lyric poems today wouldn't have to be
accompanied by music.)

Lyrical When describing literature, relating to the author's expression of their own
personal feelings, usually in a beautiful or particularly artistic way.
Magical realism A literary genre that depicts the world in a primarily realistic manner, but also
inserts magical or dream-like elements to highlight the characters’ profound
experiences. For example, in Franz Kafka’s Metamorphosis magical realism is
used to portray the absurdity of life as the protagonist awakes in the body of
an insect.

Main clause A clause that can function independently as a sentence, followed by at least
one other clause.
The student did very well in the IOC, despite the fact that he was very
nervous when he walked into the room.

Malpractice Improper or illegal behaviour particularly in relation to how you conduct

yourself as a professional or at work. For example, if a doctor is negligent in
how they treat a patient, they may be guilty of medical malpractice. Academic
malpractice refers to a student or candidate gaining a better grade or higher
marks because they cheated in an exam, plagiarized another person’s work in
an essay, or copied a friend’s homework, for example. The IBO considers this — as
do many universities — as malpractice which may result in you being disqualified,
and not receiving a grade in the subject concerned.

Manifesto Usually the written statement by an individual, group, or political party through
which they make public their views and agenda. A famous example is The
Communist Manifesto by Karl Marx and Friedrich Engels, published in 1848.

Marginalized A character who exists on the margins of the narrative and does not hold an
character important role. A marginalized character is a deliberate choice on the part of
the author and may reveal larger social attitudes towards certain racial, ethnic,
or gender groups. For example, the marginalization of the female characters in
William Shakespeare's Othello reflects Elizabethan beliefs on the role of women
in society.

Mark bands (or For each component of an IB assessment (for example, Paper 1 Section B which
markbands) might be worth 15 marks), examiners are provided with information on what
is expected of an answer in order for a student to receive a certain number of
marks. So, using the example above, where 15 marks are available for Paper 1
Section B, examiners can refer to a detailed description of what is expected if a
student receives 13-15 marks, another detailed description for 10-12 marks, etc.,
right down to 0 (zero) marks. These descriptions represent the mark bands for
each component.

Mark scheme Each exam paper for the IB Diploma is accompanied by its own mark scheme.
The mark scheme provides information on what each question of the exam
paper would require in a candidate’s response to be given a certain number of
marks. This helps you understand what you need to provide to obtain as high
a mark as you can. The mark scheme is drafted by the chief examiner and sets
marking standards at the start of each examination session. The mark scheme
is then shared with other examiners to ensure that marking is consistent and
accurate. After the examination session is over, the mark scheme becomes
available for schools to share with teachers and students and is a useful
reference for practising past papers.

Marxism Originating from the 19" century work of Karl Marx, Marxism is a Way of
organizing society, its economy and politics not along class structures, but where
a classless society of workers (or proletariat) self-governs in its own interests. As a
literary theory, Marxism provides specific modes of interpretation by considering
the socio-economic class divisions depicted in a text and the class struggle that
characters might experience. For example, in F Scott Fitzgerald's The Great
Gatsby, the protagonist's conflict is fueled by class divisions and his acquisition of
wealth can be interpreted as an attempt to redefine his class identity.
Mass communication This represents the ways by which huge amounts of information or messages
are shared amongst a vast number of people. Over time, these methods of mass
communication change. In the past, literary books and journals would have had
a strong influence in society as a means of communicating a message, but more
recently, television, the internet, and social media play an increasing role and
serve to influence their audience more quickly than before.

Matriarchy A society, community, or family which is dominated or governed by a woman

(or matriarch). As a literary theme, we read of a matriarchy in Alice Walker's The
Color Purple where the protagonist adopts a matriarchal role by the end of the
novel.
(see patriarchy)

Meaning (meaningful) The meaning of a word or concept can be described through the use of other
words to create a clear definition to express what it means or represents. When
an author writes a text, the meaning (or message) they want to convey is not
necessarily directly expressed. As readers, we infer or guess its meaning through
our understanding of literary techniques such as structure, characterization, or
use of language, for example. For Paper 1, the level descriptors for Criterion B
assess your ability to analyse how the stylistic features in the text(s) are used to
construct meaning. This means that it is not enough to identify stylistic features
in the text, but you must also provide a discussion of their effect and how they
contribute to the meaning of the text as a whole.

Media (singular 1 Media is a generic term which refers to means of mass communication such as
medium) newspapers, magazines, film, television, and radio.

(see new media)

2 The word ‘media’ represents the Latin plural word for ‘medium’, which stands
for how information is delivered or transmitted and received. For example,
the features of a text published in an online medium are different from those
of a text published in print medium. This is particularly important in the
approach to Paper 1 texts in the Language & Literature course.

Media bias The bias of journalists and media producers in covering events or by excluding
certain events from the news coverage. The source of bias can be personal,
political, or ideological, but it contravenes the fundamental principles of
objective journalism.

Melancholy A very sad feeling or emotional mood.

Melodrama Originally this term described a play which included music, but it has since come
to mean a type of drama full of sensationalized action, where the characters’
personalities and emotions are far more exaggerated than in real life. Other
plays may have melodramatic moments or events such as a grisly murder or the
appearance of ghosts, for example, in William Shakespeare's Macbeth.

Memoir Also known as an autobiography, it is a type of text that consists of the author's
memories of his or her own life. For example, / Know Why the Caged Bird Sings
by Maya Angelou.

Message The statement the author makes about the main topic of the text. Identifying
the author's message is an important step towards providing an appropriate
analysis of texts in Paper 1 and the IOC (for both Literature and Language &
Literature students).

Metacognition Broadly defined as thinking about thinking, it is a powerful learning tool that
enables you to perfect your skills for the various assessment components of
the IB Diploma English course. Metacognition involves a sustained process
of reflection through which you monitor your own learning and formulate
strategies for improvement.
Metalanguage The language used to discuss language itself. For example, the glossary in this
book is a form of metalanguage.

Metaphor A word or a phrase that implies an indirect comparison to something else, for
example in William Shakespeare's As You Like It:
‘All the world’s a stage’

(see extended metaphor)

Metonymy A word or phrase used to substitute a related object or concept. For example, in
William Shakespeare’s Macbeth, the ‘golden round’ Lady Macbeth refers to is a
metonymy for the sovereign crown she wants her husband to pursue:
‘All that impedes thee from the golden round’ (Act 1, Scene 5)

Metre (or meter) Also known as foot or beat, the rhythm created by stressed and unstressed
syllables in a line of verse or stanza in a poem. Metre can be analysed in
relevance to the meaning of the poem.
(see iamb and iambic pentameter)

Mimesis The imitation of the real world in literary texts. Mimesis also consists of a
process of re-presentation of reality used by writers to convey a particular
message to their readers. In Bleak House, Charles Dickens uses mimesis to depict
the murky realities of the London High Court and to criticize the corruption of
the legal system.

Minor character A character who does not have a significant contribution to the plot but does
reveal important aspects of the major characters and the protagonist. Minor
characters also enable writers to develop certain themes and motifs. For
example, Reverend James Smith in Chinua Achebe’s Things Fall Apart is a minor
character who serves to underline the writer's criticism of the colonial rule.

Modality (modal The use of modal verbs (also known as auxiliary or helping verbs). Modal verbs
verbs) are used to express possibility, permission, or obligation. For example, can/could/
be able to, may/might, must/have to, etc.

Moderation A common practice in the marking of IB exams, particularly the internal

assessment. It involves the selection of exam samples that are cross-marked
by more than one examiner to ensure that the assessment criteria have been
applied with accuracy and consistency in every school and in line with the
standards determined by the principal examiner.

Modernism A late 19" century, early 20" century literary movement where writers focused
more on exploring the inner self of individuals in the context of increasing
industrialization and urbanization. For example, James Joyce’s Ulysses.

Modes of literacy The different ways in which meaning can be constructed and conveyed. For
example, this can be done through language, images, gestures, sound, etc.

Modifier A word, phrase, or clause that describes another word to add more specific
detail. Modifiers can be adjectives, adverbs, as well as adjective and adverbial
clauses. For example, the last two lines in John Keats's poem A Thing of Beauty
(Endymion) contain modifiers (endless, immortal) and an adjectival clause
(Pouring unto us from the heaven's brink):
‘An endless fountain of immortal drink / Pouring unto us from the
heaven's brink.’

Monologue An extended speech delivered by a character ina literary text.

(see dramatic monologue, interior monologue, soliloquy)
Monosyllabic Consisting of one syllable (like in yes, no, why). It can also describe when
someone speaks making very brief statements.
The student's monosyllabic answers did not contribute to a successful
subsequent discussion during the IOC.

Mood 1 Aliterary term associated with the setting depicted in a text, also known as
atmosphere. For example: Philip Larkin conveys a gloomy mood in the last
stanza of his poem Money:
‘I listen to money singing. It’s like looking down / From long french
windows at a provincial town, / The slums, the canal, the churches ornate
and mad / In the evening sun. It is intensely sad.’
2 How the audience feels in response to what is said or described in a text. This
is a useful term for addressing the effect on the reader in Paper 1 and the
IOC. Martin Luther King’s / Have A Dream speech evoked an optimistic mood
among his contemporary African-American audience.

Morphology The study of words, their structure, and the way they relate to other words in
the same language. An awareness of the morphology of words can help you
in your close reading of texts required for Paper 1 and the IOC. For example,
you can identify certain morphological patterns and relationships that convey
implicit meaning in a text.

Motif A recurring idea within a text or a larger body of works by the same author. For
example, the motif of family tradition in Seamus Heaney's Death ofA Naturalist
poetry collection, or the motif of revenge in William Shakespeare’s Hamlet.

Motivation The reason behind a character’s actions. In the study of literature, motivation
is discussed as an element of characterization and it is often the result of the
character's conflict.

Multivocality In the study of literature, this term implies that a text can carry multiple
meanings generated by the reader’s own reception and interpretation. In
other words, readers construct meaning based on their own cultural values and
expectations. For example, A Streetcar Named Desire by Tennessee Williams
would be interpreted differently by Western and Middle Eastern audiences.

Myth An ancient story that explains natural phenomena or historical events by

incorporating supernatural elements. For example, the ancient Greek myth of
Prometheus explains how humans gained access to fire.

Mythology A collection of myths from a particular tradition or culture (for example, Greek,
Roman, Egyptian, Chinese, or Indian).
Names The names given to certain characters in a way that they reveal specific traits
about them. For example, in Shakespeare’s Romeo and Juliet, the name
Benvolio means ‘well-intended’ and it is indicative of his role in the play as
peacemaker between the Capulets and the Montagues.

Narrate To tell a story, either fictional or based on true events.

Narration The act of telling a story or providing an account of true events.

Narrative A story or an account of true events.

Narrative disruption In an author's narrative, an event or character (usually the villain) which
disturbs a state of equilibrium to create a change, upset, or break in a chain of
events. A search to restore order or right the wrong starts so as to bring back a
satisfactory equilibrium.

Narrative poem A poem that tells a story, such as Edgar Allan Poe’s Annabel Lee.

Narrative technique The way a writer tells a story by choosing specific stylistic features such as point
of view, setting, characterization, plot elements, figurative language, etc.

Narrative voice Also known as point of view, it is the voice of the narrator in a story.

Narrator The person who tells the story. This can be the author himself or herself, a
fictional persona, or a character.

Naturalism A 19" century literary movement where authors concentrated on depicting the
natural causes of human behaviour, such as family, society, heredity, and the
environment. A famous naturalist novel is Gustave Flaubert’s Madame Bovary.

Nemesis The enemy of the protagonist in a literary work.

Neology From the Greek neo (‘new’) and /ogos (‘word’), the study of new words and
phrases or existing words and phrases used in a new context. A recent example
of a neologism is post-truth, an adjective which describes a situation where
emotions are more likely to shape public opinion than facts.

New media Forms of digital mass media, such as podcasts, apps, social media platforms, etc.

New textualities New, emerging text types, usually as a result of electronic and digital
communication. Such texts may include hypertext narratives, wikis, blogs,
tweets, etc.

News bulletin A short news report broadcast on radio or television.

Nihilism A philosophical system that emerged in 19™ century Russia, revolving around
the belief that human life has no real meaning or purpose. This philosophy is
found in existential literary texts, such as Albert Camus’s The Stranger, where
the protagonist struggles to find meaning to his existence.

Nominalization A linguistic process through which a verb, adjective, or adverb is used as a

noun. For example, the verb know becomes a noun in knowledge, or the
adjective bewildered can take the form of bewilderment as a noun.

Non-factual Not based on facts, but opinion. In TOK, non-factual information is not
verifiable and therefore deemed as false. A useful concept in the analysis of
Mass media texts.

Non-fiction (also Texts based on facts or real-life, historical, or biographical events. Some
nonfiction) non-fiction genres include biographies, autobiographies, memoirs, essays,
journalistic texts, etc.
(see fiction)
Non-literary texts Texts that provide precise, factual information with straightforward language.
For example, a set of instructions, recipes, scientific reports, etc.
(see literary)

Nonsense A form of word-play where new words are created which don’t have any actual
meaning but are used for poetic or dramatic effect. Lewis Carroll's Jabberwocky
provides several examples of nonsense words, for example:
‘Twas brillig, and the slithy toves’

Nostalgia A feeling of longing for the past, as depicted in literary works. For example, in
A Streetcar Named Desire by Tennessee Williams, Blanche Dubois’s main conflict
is triggered by her profound nostalgia for the past and her old family home.

Noun A part of speech that refers to a person, a thing, a place, or an idea.

Noun phrase A noun and all its modifiers. For example, in the noun phrase the comparative
essay, there is a definite article (the), an adjective (Comparative), and a noun
(essay).

Novel A long prose narrative that depicts fictional characters and events in realistic or
imaginary settings. For example, Ernest Hemingway's A Farewell to Arms.

Novella A prose narrative longer than a short story, but not as long as a novel. A
novella has fewer characters, settings, and subplots than a novel. For example,
Death in Venice by Thomas Mann.

Novelist An author of novels.

Objective A specific goal or result one aims to achieve. In the Literature course, there are
three main assessment objectives:
e knowledge and understanding
* analysis, synthesis and evaluation
* selection and use of appropriate presentation and language skills.
The four assessment objectives in the Language and Literature course are:
* knowledge and understanding
* application and analysis
e synthesis and evaluation
e selection and use of appropriate presentation and language skills.

Objective narrative A narrative told in the third-person point of view where the narrator does not
provide a description of the characters’ thoughts and feelings. This makes the
narrative more neutral.

Oblique Not directly stated, implicit.

Observer The position of a first-person narrator in a story. The observer narrator

presents the characters and events in the story from his or her point of view.
The observer can also be a participant in the events of the story, such as Nick
Carraway in F Scott Fitzgerald’s The Great Gatsby.

Obstacle Something that stands in the way of progress or slows down the action from
moving forward. In literature, it represents the main source of conflict for the
protagonist in the story. The obstacle can emerge from the protagonist's own
self, other characters, society, or nature, etc.

Octave A poem or stanza consisting of eight lines. For example, the last eight lines in
Annabel Lee by Edgar Allan Poe.

Ode A type of poem written in praise of a person, an idea, or a phenomenon, etc.

For example, Ode to Autumn by John Keats.

Oedipus complex A concept defined by Austrian neurologist Sigmund Freud as a male's

unconscious and actively repressed sexual desire for his mother. In literature, a
prime example is Oedipus the King by Sophocles, where Oedipus kills his father
and unknowingly ends up marrying his mother.
(see psychoanalysis)

Offer (verb) To provide, for example, when you are asked to ‘offer a considered
and balanced review’ of a text, you are expected to provide a well-thought,
objective analysis.

Olfactory imagery A word or a group of words that depict a particular scent for a specific effect. In
William Shakespeare’s Macbeth, Lady Macbeth’‘s guilt is portrayed in:
‘Here’s the smell of blood still. All the perfumes of Arabia will not
sweeten this little hand.’ (Act 5, Scene 1)

(see imagery)

Omission An author's deliberate choice to leave out details that can be assumed by the
reader, and which allows more room for interpretation.

Omniscient narration A form of third-person narrative where the narrator is all-knowing and provides
details about the characters’ thoughts and feelings. For example, in Things Fall
Apart by Chinua Achebe.
(see limited narration)

Onomatopoeia A word that imitates a particular sound, for example, tick-tock, buzz, slurp,
etc.
Open-minded Open to different ideas, perspectives, opinions. Also, a quality listed on the IB
learner profile and defined as an understanding and appreciation of values
from different cultures.

Opinion The view on a particular subject, not necessarily based on facts. In the study of
Language & Literature, the author's choices (such as style, tone, and structure)
are determined by his or her opinion on the main topic of the text.

Opinion column A journalistic text that presents the writer's opinion on a particular subject. The
opinion does not necessarily reflect the opinion of the editorial board or the
publisher, as is usually the case with editorials.

Opposing Opposite readings or interpretations of a work. For example, some critics

consider Joseph Conrad's Heart of Darkness a literary masterpiece depicting the
protagonist's expedition in Africa, whilst others criticize the novel for its racist
depiction of African culture.

Optimistic A state of mind characterized by hope. A famous optimist in literature is Don

Quixote.
(see pessimistic)

Oral commentary The oral delivery of a textual analysis or literary commentary.

(see 1OC)

Oral communication The process of conveying information through the spoken word. Some types of
oral communication include speeches, lectures, presentations, radio broadcasts,
casual conversations, etc.
(see written communication)

Oral presentation Delivering a speech on a particular topic to an audience.

(see 1OC, FOA)

Oratory The skills of effective public speaking, which include confidence, fluency,
appropriate use of vocal range, and good knowledge of the expectations of the
audience.

Organization The way ideas are structured in an essay, creative response, or oral presentation.

Organized Structured in a methodical, efficient manner. Your ability to organize your

ideas is marked based on Criteria C or D (for both Literature and Language &
Literature), depending on the assessment component.

Origin The point where something started or came into being, such as the origin of an
idea or of a word.

Orthography The writing conventions in a language, such as spelling.

Oxymoron A literary device consisting of two words that have opposite meanings. For
example, in William Shakespeare's Romeo and Juliet:
Feather oflead, bright smoke, cold fire, sick health’ (Act 1, Scene 1)
 Ahh ity itt a |
Pamphlet Also known as a leaflet or a brochure,it is a very short booklet containing
information about a specific subject. af Hie :

Paper 1 An external assessment component where both Literature and Language &
Literature students are required to provide a critical response to unseen extracts
or texts. In the Literature course, Paper 1 consists of a Guided literary analysis
(SL) or a Literary commentary (HL) in response to an unseen poem or prose
passage. On the other hand, in Language & Literature, Paper 1 is a Textual
analysis in response to unseen texts from the non-fiction genre for SL students,
or a comparative textual analysis of one of two pairs of unseen texts for HL
students.

Paper 2 An external assessment component where you must produce an essay under
examination conditions. In the Literature course, your essay must be written in
response to one of the three questions for each literary genre represented on
the PLA. In the Language and Literature course, Paper 2 consists of six questions
based on the texts you have studied in Part 3 and your essay must be written in
response to one of these questions.

Parable A short narrative or poem that teaches us a moral lesson. Unlike a fable, a
parable depicts human characters. A well-known example in literature is Charles
Dickens's A Christmas Carol.

Paradox A statement which appears contradictory, although reveals something true. For
example, in William Shakespeare’s Othello, lago says:
‘When devils will the blackest sins put on / They do suggest at first with
heavenly shows’ (Act 2, Scene 3)

The paradox here is that devils use heavenly means to commit the darkest sins,
which is a contradictory idea yet with an element of truth to it.

Paragraph A section of a written text that consists of at least one sentence and
concentrates on one idea or topic.

Paralanguage The prefix para- means ‘beyond’, ‘near’, or ‘beside’. Paralanguage consists of all
forms of communication beyond the use of language, such as gestures, facial
expressions, intonation, pitch, etc.

Parallel plots The structure of a novel or a play where the author includes two or more
narratives that revolve around the same theme, event, or character.
(see plot)

Parallelism Words or phrases that are identical in terms of grammar, meaning, or structure.
For example, Barack Obama draws a parallel between firefighters and parents
in his 2009 inaugural address:
‘It is the firefighter’s courage to storm a stairway filled with smoke, but
also a parent's willingness to nurture a child, that finally decides our fate.’

Paraphrase To restate something in your own words. Paraphrasing is an important skill in

summarizing texts or providing textual references.
(see plagiarism)

Parody From the Greek term paroidia, the imitation of an original work for
lighthearted comedic effect, without necessarily mocking or satirizing. For
example, Don Quixote by Miguel de Cervantes is a parody of the romance
stories popular in medieval Spain.
(see satire)

Partial marks Also known as half-marks. (They are not an acceptable practice in
the process of
IB marking.)
Passage Also known as an extract, a selected piece of text taken from a larger work,
such as novel, play, essay, speech, memoir, etc.

Passive voice A verb form where the subject undergoes the action by the verb. For example,
the verb mark is used in the passive voice here:
The essay was marked by the teacher.

(see active voice)

Pastiche A literary text that imitates the style of another work, as a form of celebration
and admiration. For example, Tom Stoppard’s play Rosencrantz and
Guildenstern are Dead is a pastiche inspired by William Shakespeare’s Hamlet.

Pastoral Related to the countryside or rural. Pastoral literature celebrates the simplicity
of rural life in contrast to the harsh realities of life in the city. For example,
William Wordsworth’s Michael: A Pastoral Poem.

Pathetic fallacy A type of personification where non-human entities are given human feelings.
For example, in / Wandered Lonely as a Cloud, William Wordsworth uses
pathetic fallacy to convey his fascination with the natural world by describing
the daffodils he sees:
‘Fluttering and dancing in the breeze.’

Pathos An appeal to the emotions of the audience, often used as a method of

persuasion. For example, in his trial speech, / am Prepared to Die, Nelson
Mandela elicits feelings of sympathy when he says:
‘Children wander about the streets of the townships because they have
no schools to go to, or no money to enable them to go to school...’

(see bathos)

Patriarchy A social system where men are in a position of power and women are
considered inferior beings. For example, in William Shakespeare’s The Merchant
of Venice.
(see matriarchy)

Pedantic Being too concerned with unimportant details or boasting superior knowledge.

Pejorative language Offensive language used to be disrespectful towards someone.

Penalized Losing marks. For example, in Paper 2 (for both the Literature and Language &
Literature courses), you will be penalized if your response does not address the
question.

Pentameter A line of verse that consists of five feet or stressed syllables. There are different
types of pentameter, such as iambic, trochaic, dactylic, and anapestic, but
the most commonly used in English literature is the iambic pentameter. For
example, in William Shakespeare’s Sonnet 18:
‘Shall |compare thee to a summer's day?’

Perceptive Capable of noticing things, particularly less obvious things. For example,
being aware of the subtleties in the text(s) in Paper 1 or the finer nuances
of the question in Paper 2. Perceptive comments are required to reach level
5 on Criterion A in Paper 1 SL, Language & Literature, whereas perceptive
understanding is expected to score a top mark on Paper 2 HL, in both Literature
and Language & Literature courses.
Perfect rhyme Also known as full rhyme, the rhyme created by similarly sounding words at the
end of two or more consecutive lines in a poem, as in, for example, She Was a
Phantom of Delight by William Wordsworth:
‘Her eyes as stars of Twilight fair; / Like Twilight's, too, her dusky hair,’

(see imperfect rhyme)

Performance The act of carrying out or presenting a play, poem, parody, etc.

Performance poetry Poetry written to be performed in front of a specific audience or written during
the performance itself.
(see slam poetry)

Period 1 Also known as a full stop; a punctuation mark to signal the end of a
declarative sentence.
2 Astretch of time in the history of literature where writers shared a similar
philosophy, intellectual concerns, and writing style. For example, William
Shakespeare wrote his plays during the Jacobean period.
(see literary movement)

Persona From Latin meaning the ‘mask of an actor’. In literature, it is the narrative or
poetic voice adopted by an author. When discussing poetry, it is more accurate
to refer to the speaker in the poem as the persona rather than the poet.

Personal anecdote A brief account of someone’s personal experience, sometimes used to

emphasize a point or to persuade the audience of the speaker's views.

Personal response Your own original thoughts, feelings, and interpretation in response to a
literary work.
(see critical response)

Personification A figure of speech where a non-human entity is given human characteristics. For
example, in Robert Frost’s Mending Wall:
‘My apple trees will never get across / And eat the cones under his
pines...’

Perspective Personal or theoretical viewpoint applied in the interpretation of literary works.

Persuasive Convincing, purposeful, or effective. For example, level 5 on Criterion B for the
Written Assignment (HL and SL) in the Literature course requires that ‘ideas
are persuasively organized’, which means that you must organize your ideas
effectively and purposefully, in the form of a logical argument.

Persuasive appeals Persuasive strategies meant to convince the audience by appealing to their
emotions (pathos), ethics (ethos), or sense of logic (logos). These are known
as traditional persuasive appeals. However, there are also modern persuasive
appeals such as the appeal to fear, to patriotism, to status, etc.

Persuasive language Different forms of language used to convince an audience of the speaker's
views, beliefs, ideas. Persuasive language appears in both fiction and non-fiction
texts, such as political speeches, advertising, opinion columns, etc.

Pertinent Relevant to a particular subject or task. For example, your analysis of the
Paper 1 text(s) must be supported by pertinent textual references.

Pessimistic A state of mind characterized by a lack of hope. Sometimes writers convey a

pessimistic view of the world, as in Lord of the Flies by William Golding.
(see optimistic)
Phoneme A unit of sound that does not carry any particular meaning, such as /k/, /p/, /t/,
etc. Phonemes help in distinguishing one word from another, as in cot and pot.

Phonetics A branch of linguistics that focuses on the study of sounds as produced by the
vocal organs of speech, such as lips, tongue, teeth, etc.

Phonology The study of the patterns of sound in a language. Unlike phonetics, which
focuses on the physical production of sounds, phonology is the systematic study
of sounds and their meaning.

Phrase A group of two or more words that has one independent meaning within a
sentence. For example:
South Africa has spectacular sunsets.

Here, spectacular sunsets is a noun phrase.

(see absolute phrase, noun phrase, prepositional phrase, verb phrase)

Pithy A short and meaningful statement; the opposite of wordy.

Pivotal (adjective) Key point in the development of a narrative. For example, in Arthur
Miller’s The Crucible, a pivotal moment is when John Proctor tells the court
about his affair with Abigail Williams.

PLA (Prescribed List of The IB Prescribed List of Authors includes the works that can be chosen for Parts
Authors) 2 and 3 of the Literature course, and Parts 3 and 4 in Language & Literature.
The list contains works categorized by genre, author, gender, period, and place.

Place 1 In terms of context, the country or region where a text was written and
produced. For example, Margaret Atwood’s The Handmaid's Tale was written
in Canada.
2 Within a text itself, place is also known as the setting of that particular work.
The Handmaid's Tale is set in New England, USA.

Plagiarism The act of using someone else’s ideas or work and claiming them as your own.
Plagiarism can be avoided by using appropriate citations, paraphrasing, and
asking your teachers for help when you're in doubt.
(see academic honesty)

Planned Carefully drafted and organized. For example, a clearly planned structure to
the commentary will enable you to score high marks on Paper 1 in both the
Literature and Language & Literature courses.

Play A literary work written to be performed on stage. For example, The Bald
Soprano by Eugene lonesco.

Playwright The writer of a play.

Plot The series of events in a narrative. The traditional elements of a plot are
exposition, rising action, climax, falling action, and resolution.

Plot time When the action of a narrative takes place.

PLT (Prescribed The IB Prescribed Literature in Translation includes works which can be chosen
Literature in for Part 1 and Part 3 in the Literature course, and Part 3 in Language &
Translation) Literature. The list contains works categorized by genre, author, gender, and
date of publication.

Podcast A digital audio or video file broadcast online. It may contain a lecture, an
interview, or any other type of text.
 Poetic devices Language features used for poetic effect, such as metaphors, personifications,
similes, etc.

Poetic licence An author's deliberate choice to break away from the actual truth or specific
textual conventions to emphasize a point or achieve a certain effect. The
poetic licence defines the author's unique writing style. For example, James
Joyce’s poetic licence lies in his unique approach to the stream-of-consciousness
narrative style.

Poetic justice The end of a story where virtue is rewarded, which is considered the ideal form
of justice. For example, in Jane Eyre by Charlotte Bronté, the heroine overcomes
all her struggles and marries the man she loves.

Poetry (poem) A literary genre where emotions and ideas are expressed in rhythmic verse
form.

Poignant Evoking very strong emotions. For example, The Things They Carried by
Veal.
Tim O’Brien is a poignant depiction of the American soldiers’ experiences in
AAP
SAS Vietnam.
In Point A statement that proves something in a written or oral response.

Point of view The voice of the narrator in a story. In literature, the different types of point of
view are first-person narrative, second-person narrative, third-person limited,
and third-person omniscient.

Political correctness Language used to avoid offending certain racial, ethnic, or gender groups.

Positioning 1 Location or place.

2 Astandpoint on a particular topic. For example, an ethical positioning.

Post-colonial Literary works that deal with the relationship between the colonizer and the
literature colonized and the identity of oppressed or marginalized social groups. For
example, John Michael Coetzee’s novel The Life and Times of Michael K deals
with the racial divisions in South Africa during apartheid.

Post-modifier(s) A word or a group of words placed at the end of a noun phrase. For example:
The Paper 2 practice essay last week

Here, the post-modifiers are /ast week.

Poststructuralism An intellectual movement of the 1960s and 1970s where theorists believed that
the reader's culture and society are essential to the interpretation of a text.
For them, meaning is constructed by the reader's reception of the text rather
than what the author wants to convey. Some poststructuralist thinkers are Jean
Baudrillard, Jacques Derrida, Michel Foucault, etc.
(see structuralism)

Power of expression The ability to express feelings or ideas in a way that has a strong impact on the
reader or audience.

Power struggle The fight for dominance or influence between two or more parties. In
literature, the power struggle between characters is the main source of conflict
that drives the plot forward, as in Julius Caesar by William Shakespeare.

Precise Accurate, exact. The term appears in the level 5 descriptor for the language
criterion for Paper 1 and Paper 2 SL and HL in both Literature and Language
& Literature courses. Precise use of language refers to the use of accurate
terminology appropriate to the task.

Predictable Easy to foresee or anticipate.

Predicted grades Grades predicted by your teacher based on your performance in the course.
Your predicted grades for the internal assessment are submitted to IBO, but
they do not have an influence on your final score because your work will be
sampled, marked, and moderated by IB. Your overall predicted grade for the
course is also needed for your university application process.

Prefix A letter or a group of letters attached to the beginning of a root word to alter
its meaning. For instance, the prefix re- was added to the root write in rewrite.

Prejudice A preconceived opinion that is not based on facts or reason.

Preparation period During your Individual Oral Commentary examination, you will have a
20-minute supervised preparation period before the actual delivery of your oral
commentary. This is when you plan your commentary.

Preposition A part of speech that consists of a word that links other words within a
sentence. It can indicate location, time, etc. For example:
The novel is on the shelf.

Prepositional phrase A group of words that contain a preposition, its object, and the modifiers of
that particular object. For example:
Beyond the glimmering light.

In this prepositional phrase, the preposition (beyond) refers to the object (/ight),
with its modifier (the glimmering).

Prescribed Formulated and approved by someone in a position of authority. For example,

the PLA and the PLT have been authorized by the IBO.

Presentation A speech of varying length on a particular topic and for a specific audience.
(see oral presentation)

Primary characters Also known as the main characters, they are the protagonist and villain in
a narrative.

Principled Based on moral guidelines. Also, ‘principled’ represents an attribute listed on

the IB learner profile, where students are encouraged to behave with honesty,
respect, and a sense of justice.

Print media Forms of mass communication printed on paper, such as magazines,

newspapers, brochures, etc.

Problem The main source of conflict in a literary text.

Problem plays Realistic plays that deal with controversial social issues that spark debate
between characters and encourage the audience to reflect on the state of their
society.

Procedural text A type of text that explains how something is done in a methodical fashion.
Some procedural texts include recipes, technical! instructions, a set of rules, etc.

Profound Showing great knowledge and intellectual depth.

Progression The development of events in a narrative.

Prologue An introductory section before the exposition of a novel or a play. The role of
the prologue is to introduce the narrator, some of the main themes, the setting,
etc.

Prompt A topic or statement that provides the main starting point and focus of a
written or oral response. The Paper 2 questions (for both Literature and
Language & Literature) provide you with prompts for your comparative analysis
of two works you have studied in this part of the course.
 Pronoun A word that substitutes a noun or a noun phrase. There are several types of
pronouns in English:
* personal pronouns (/, you, he, she, it, we, they)
* possessive pronouns (mine, yours, his, hers, ours, theirs)
* reflexive pronouns (myself, yourself, himself, herself, itself, ourselves,
yourselves, themselves)
e indefinite pronouns (including anyone, anybody, anything, someone,
something, no one, all, etc).

Propaganda False information used to serve a political party, government, corporation, etc.
This information is meant to persuade a large number of people to think or act
in a particular way. For example, in George Orwell's 1984, the ruling party uses
propaganda as a means of controlling its citizens and supporting Big Brother.

Prose A form of writing that imitates natural speech, without the rhyme and rhythm
typical of poetry. Prose texts include novels, short stories, memoirs, diary
entries, etc.

Prose fiction Fiction texts written in prose form, such as novels and short stories.

Protagonist The main character in a literary text. For example, Elizabeth Bennet in Jane
Austen's Pride and Prejudice.

Provoke 1 To stimulate thought or emotions, as in a thought-provoking novel.

2 To cause a negative reaction or feeling.

Psychoanalysis 1 A psychological theory expressed by Austrian psychiatrist Sigmund Freud. Its

main focus is to explore how the unconscious manifests itself in the conscious
mind and what impact that has on an individual’s psychological state.
2 In literature, psychoanalytic theory is applied in the study of characters’
ff psychology. For example, a psychoanalytic reading of William Shakespeare's
%
e Hamlet may consider the protagonist’s unconscious mind and how it affects
his actions.
4

Psychological realism The way a character's conflict, motivation, thoughts, and actions are depicted
in a way that is realistic or recognizable to the reader. In Leo Tolstoy’s Anna
Io
Go, Karenina the protagonist's inner turmoil is depicted in great detail in order to
reveal the reason behind her actions.
Cef

Psychology The study of the human mind and how it is reflected in human behaviour.

Pun A play on words that has a double meaning and usually achieves a humorous
effect. For example, in William Shakespeare's Richard I/II, sun is a pun for son.
‘Now is the winter of our discontent / Made glorious summer by this sun
of York,’ (Act 1, Scene 1)

Punctuation The group of symbols that mark different parts within a sentence or the end of
a sentence. They include commas, full stops, semi-colons, colons, exclamation
marks, question marks, etc.

Purpose The reason why an author produces a text. Every text has a message and is
produced with a specific purpose and for a particular audience; these three
elements are inextricably linked. The purpose of a text can be to inform,
describe, persuade, entertain, or instruct. Although a text may appear to
have more than one purpose, identifying the primary purpose is essential in
providing a focused stylistic analysis. For example, given its journalistic nature,
an opinion column informs the audience of a particular issue, but the primary
purpose of the column is to persuade the audience of the opinion presented.
Quaint Old-fashioned yet charming, as in a quaint house or a quaint village.

Quatrain A four-line stanza. For example, in The Armadillo by Elizabeth Bishop:

‘This is the time of year / When almost every night/ The frail, illegal fire
balloons appear. / Climbing the mountain height’

Questioning the text A reading strategy through which you ask questions about the text in order to
help your understanding.

Quintet A stanza consisting of five lines.

Quote/Quotation (noun) A word, a phrase, or a larger piece of writing taken from a text to
prove a point. In essay writing, quotes must be placed within quotation marks
and appropriately referenced by author, work, page number, etc, in line with
the requirements for the task. In Paper 1 (for both Literature and Language
& Literature), for example, quotations must be followed by line numbers in
brackets. (The word ‘quote’ can also be used as a verb.)

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Radio broadcast A news bulletin, programme, or address delivered on the radio.

Rarely Not often. For example, if your language is ‘rarely clear’ in Paper 1 (for
Literature and Language & Literature) you cannot score higher than 1 mark on
Criterion D.

Rationale A clear and logical explanation of your choices, such as why you chose a creative
style for the IOP or the FOA, or why you chose a particular text type for the
Written Task 1 (for the Language & Literature course).

Reaction The response to a situation or something more specific, like a text. Your
personal reaction to a literary work is an important step in the process of
interpretation.

Reader-response A literary theory that places the reader at the centre of interpretation of texts.
theory Every reader experiences the text in a way that is unique, shaped by his or her
own emotions, knowledge, cultural expectations, etc. As such, the meaning of a
text is not fixed, but shaped by many possible interpretations.

Reading The process of deriving meaning from a written text. Reading skills are
important not only in the understanding of texts but also in drawing
comparisons to other texts and gaining new knowledge.
(see close reading)

Realism A literary movement originating in the 19 century where writers depict real-
life characters, with real problems, in a recognizable setting. For example, The
Cherry Orchard by Anton Chekhov is an example of social realism as he portrays
the shift in social classes in 19 century Russia.

Reality The state of being real. For example, realistic fiction depicts the realities of life.

Reasoned argument A clear, well-thought out, and logical argument. A good academic essay is
structured in the form of a reasoned argument, with relevant evidence to
support your points.

Reasons Statements that explain an argument and are supported by evidence.

Rebuttal Also known as a counter-argument, a statement that contradicts an argument

or an opinion.

Recognition A moment in the play where the protagonist has a sudden realization about
his or her identity or position in relation to other characters. For example,
in Oedipus the King by Sophocles, the moment of recognition occurs when
Oedipus realizes that he married his own mother.

Recognizable Easy to be identified or recognized. For example, Criterion C (Organisation and

Development) for the Paper 1 HL in the Literature course states that the essay
will reach a level 2 if it has a ‘recognizable structure’. This means that the ideas
must have some noticeable organization.

Recording In the IB Diploma, some of your assessment components must be recorded and
sent to the IBO, such as the IOC. In contrast, your IOP or FOA can be recorded,
but are not sent to the IBO.

References Quotes or paraphrases from the text(s) under analysis. For example, in order
to score high marks on Criterion A in Paper 1 and Paper 2 (for Literature and
Language & Literature), you must provide well-chosen and relevant references
to support your points.
Reflection Thinking about your work in relation to the aims of the task and the course
objectives. For example, Criterion A of the Written Assignment assesses your
ability to reflect on the cultural and contextual elements in the work you have
chosen for the task.

Reflective Thoughtful and considerate. Also, a characteristic of the IB Learner Profile,

where you are encouraged to reflect on your ideas, strengths, and weaknesses
in order to develop your own learning.
(see metacognition)

Reflective statement A component of the Written Assignment where you are required to write a
reflection piece based on your journal notes on the work you have chosen for
the task. Your reflective statement must be written in response to a prescribed
question and it is assessed on Criterion A for the Written Assignment.

Refrain A line or a set of lines that are repeated at regular intervals within a poem. The
refrain usually emphasizes the main idea of the poem. For example, in Robert
Frost's Stopping by Woods on a Snowy Evening:
‘The woods are lovely, dark and deep, / But | have promises to keep, / And
miles to go before | sleep, /And miles to go before |sleep.’

(see repetition)

Refute To prove that an argument or a statement is false or untrue.

The critic refuted previous interpretations of the novel.

Register The language used for a particular purpose or audience, and in a certain
context. There are three main types of register: formal, informal, and semi-
formal. In the IB Diploma English course, you are assessed on your choice
of appropriate register for the task. For example, in essay writing and oral
presentations such as the IOC or the IOP, you are required to write or speak ina
formal register.

Relatability The reader's ability to find a personal connection with the text.

Relate To be able to identify with someone or something. For example, some students
find it easy to relate to a character such as Holden Caulfield from The Catcher in
the Rye because of his rebellious attitude towards society.

Relationship 1 The correlation between two or more concepts or things, as in the

relationship between the title and the poem itself.
2 The connection between two or more individuals. In literary texts,
relationships between characters can reveal elements of conflict and
contribute to the development of larger themes.

Relativism The idea that there is no absolute, objective truth and that every opinion
contains its own truth relative to one’s society, culture, language, etc. For
example, moral values are relative to a particular individual or culture.

Relevant (relevance) Appropriate and significant to a particular discussion. For example, a discussion
of literature (such as in Paper 1, Paper 2, the IOC, or the Written Assignment)
must be supported by relevant references to the text(s).
Reminisce To remember and reflect on the past.
The author reminisces about his childhood.

Reminiscent Similar to something else from a previous experience.

The evening was reminiscent of old high school days.

Repetition The restating of the same word, phrase, or sentence to emphasize its
significance within a text and to achieve a poetic effect. For example, in A
Poison Tree by William Blake, there are several repetitions:
‘Iwas angry with my friend; /1 told my wrath, my wrath did end. / 1 was
angry with my foe: /| told it not, my wrath did grow.’

Report An account that depicts a series of events as they happened. This can be a news
report, police report, etc.

Reportage A type of writing that reports an event or a series of events.

Reported interview A published interview where the interviewee’s answers are delivered through
indirect speech, paraphrase, short quotes, combined with with the interviewer's
own commentary.
(see reported speech)

Reported speech Restating what someone else said, without using the exact same words.
(see direct speech, indirect speech)

Research The process of exploring a variety of sources and materials in order to build
knowledge, gather information, etc.

Reservation A feeling of doubt or reticence.

The publishers had some reservations about the author's first draft.

Resolution An element of plot that marks the end of a story or a narrative text.
(see denouement)

Resolve 1 (noun) A feeling of determination.

The JB student demonstrated strong resolve in improving his essay writing
skills.

2 (verb) To solve or find a solution to a problem or a situation.

Resonant (resonance) 1 Making a strong, echoing sound.

The principal delivered his assembly speech in a resonant voice.

2 Having a long-lasting effect.

Shakespeare's writing had a resonant impact on the English language.

Respond Providing your own unique interpretation in response to a text or an exam

independently question. Your ability to respond independently to texts and prompts is very
important to your successful completion of the IB Diploma English course.

Response to the The way you address the exam question in Paper 2 (Literature and Language
question & Literature) or the prescribed question in Written Task 2 (HL Language &
Literature). Your response has to be relevant to the question in order to score a
high mark on Criterion B.

Retell To tell a story again, perhaps in a different way. It is important that you do not
confuse the concept of retelling with literary analysis in your essay writing, such
as in Paper 1 or the IOC (for both Literature and Language & Literature).
Reveal (revealed) To show or make apparent. For example, it is important to consider what is
revealed about a character through his or her diction.

Reversal The turning point in a play or a novel where the protagonist experiences a twist
of fate. In Chinua Achebe’s Things Fall Apart, Okonkwo’s fate changes from
being the leader of his tribe to being exiled later in the novel.

Review A text type that provides the author's analysis and evaluation of a text, place,
performance, experience, etc. The focus of a review can be a book, film,
theatrical performance, restaurant, hotel, etc.

Rhetoric (rhetorical) 1 (noun) Skilful use of language for effective speaking and writing, or
for persuasive purposes. Great speakers use a broad range of rhetorical
strategies to make a strong impact on their audiences. For example, in his
1940 speech delivered in the House of Commons, Winston Churchill tries to
persuade the British people of the need to fight Nazi rule in Europe:
‘We shall go on to the end, we shall fight in France, we shall fight on the
seas and oceans, [...] we shall defend our Island, whatever the cost may
be...’

Here, Churchill uses a range of rhetorical strategies, but most noteworthy are
the appeals to unity and patriotism.
2 (noun) Sophisticated language with no actual meaning.
The prime minister’s speech was nothing but empty rhetoric.

Rhetorical question A question that does not require an answer because it is asked to emphasize an
idea or to achieve dramatic effect. For example, in John F Kennedy’s inaugural
address delivered in 1961:
‘Can we forge against these enemies a grand and global alliance, North
and South, East and West, that can assure a more fruitful life for all
mankind?’

Rhyme Words or syllables at the end of a line that sound identical (or almost identical)
to other words or syllables at the end of another line within a poem or song
lyrics. Rhyme is used to achieve a particular effect, usually determined by the
message the author wants to convey, and can consist of adding dramatic effect,
creating points of tension, emphasizing strong emotions, imitating sounds in
nature, etc.

Rhyme scheme The rhyme pattern in a poem, where each rhyme is assigned a particular letter
from the alphabet, such as AABB or ABAB, etc. For example, the first stanza in
Matthew Arnold’s A Wish has an ABAB rhyme scheme:
‘1 ask not that my bed of death / From bands of greedy heirs be free; / For
these besiege the latest breath / Of fortune’s favoured sons, not me.’

Rhyming couplet Two consecutive lines of poetry that end in the same rhyme, as in William
Shakespeare’s Macbeth:
‘Hear it not, Duncan, for it is a knell / That summons thee to heaven or to
hell’ (Act 2, Scene 1)

(see couplet)

Rhythm Also known as beat, the pattern of stressed and unstressed syllables within a
poem.
(see metre)

Ridicule To make fun of someone or something. In fiction and non-fiction texts, ridicule
is used to create humour and convey the author's critical stance.
The cartoonist ridicules the prime minister’s efforts to improve the
economic situation in the country.
Rising action An element of plot where the events depicted lead to the highest point of
tension or the climax of the narrative.

Risk-takers Someone who takes risks to achieve something. Also, a characteristic of the IB
Learner Profile where risk-taking is linked to exploring new ideas, being willing
to take on new challenges, and accept change.

Riveting Fascinating, compelling, so as to hold your attention.

Role 1 The part given to a character, an actor, etc.

2 The function of a concept or a strategy, as in the role of rhetorical devices in
a speech.
3 Someone's responsibility, such as the teacher's role in the classroom.

Romanticism A literary movement originating in the 18" century where the writers’ main
focus was on celebrating the past, expressing intense emotions through
references to the natural world, and taking a stand against the pre-established
social norms. Some Romantic poets include William Blake, John Keats, Percy
Bysshe Shelley, etc.

Root In linguistics, a word that has its own independent meaning, without a prefix or
suffix. For example, the root of the word represents is present, with the prefix
re- and the suffix -s.

Round character A character who has a complex, sometimes contradictory personality, such as
Lady Macbeth.
(see flat character)

Run-on sentence A sentence containing two or more clauses that are not connected by
punctuation or conjunctions.
The assignment was due last night | submitted it on time.

The correct versions would be:

The assignment was due last night; | submitted it on time. (the two
clauses are separated by a semi-colon)

The assignment was due last night and | submitted it on time. (the two
clauses are joined by the conjunction and)
Sacrifice To give up something important to you for the benefit of something or
someone else.
Achieving high results in your studies can come with great sacrifices.

Sarcasm (sarcastic) A form of verbal irony intended to ridicule or criticize. For example, in
Tennessee Williams's A Streetcar Named Desire, Stanley's sarcastic attitude
ridicules Blanche’s reluctance to talk about what happened to her family
fortune and conveys his suspicion that she might have something to hide:
‘Sister Blanche cannot be annoyed with business details right now!’
(Scene 2)

Sardonic Humorous, but also critical, mocking, or sarcastic.

The speaker's sardonic tone shocked his listeners.

Satire (satirical) 1 (noun) The use of sarcasm, exaggeration, or humour to criticize and expose
flaws in society.
2 (noun) A novel, play or other work where the author uses satire. For
example, in The Importance of Being Earnest by Oscar Wilde, the playwright
uses Satire to ridicule the harshness of Victorian social norms.
(see ridicule)

Satisfying Enjoyable and gratifying, as in the satisfying end to a novel or short story.

Scene 1 Asection in a play, sometimes part of a larger act.

2 The setting where certain events take place.

Science fiction A literary genre that depicts imaginative events taking place in the future, at a
time of major technological advancements or significant changes in society. For
example, Margaret Atwood’s The Handmaid’s Tale may be considered a science
fiction text.

Scope The depth or range of a topic, idea, etc.

Your Extended Essay topic should not be limited in scope.

Screenplay The text or script for a film which contains the characters’ lines as well as
specific instructions for the film director.

Script The written version of a film or televised broadcast, for example. It includes the
characters’ or the speakers’ lines, specific directions regarding the characters’
tone, movement, facial expression, etc.

Scrutiny A very careful examination, as in the scrutiny of a text, a place, etc.

Second-person A form of writing from the perspective of the reader, with the use of you, your,
narrative/point of yours, yourself, yourselves. This point of view is rarely used in fiction texts, but
view often found in self-help books.

Secondary characters Characters who are not as important as the protagonist and the antagonist in
a narrative. For example, Mr Bumble in Oliver Twist by Charles Dickens could be
described as a secondary character.

Self-deprecating (self- Being critical of oneself in order to gain the trust of the audience or create
deprecation) humour.
| know | have procrastinated a lot for the past two weeks and / do not
deserve an extension for my Written Task.
Semantic (semantics) Relating to how meaning is created in a language. This might involve
the relationship between words in a sentence, interpreting symbols, and
investigating how and why meaning changes over time. For example,
identifying the connotation of specific words in a poem is a process of
semantics.
(see linguistics)

Semantic field A group of words and phrases that share the same topic and are related in
meaning. For example, Wilfred Owen’s poems contain words and phrases
related to his experience of war, such as gas shells, fatigue, blood, guns, etc.

Sensationalism In journalism, the description of events and facts in a way that evokes strong
(sensationalist) emotions in the audience. This often affects the objectivity of the reporting and
the accuracy of the facts presented.
The newspaper was criticized for its sensationalist coverage of the
presidential elections.

Sense 1 (noun) The ability to recognize, understand, and apply something. For
example, having a good sense of register and style in essay writing will
enable you to score high marks on Criterion D in Paper 1 and Criterion E for
Paper 2.
2 (noun) The physical ability to see, hear, touch, taste, and smell (as in your five
senses).

Sentence A word or a group of words that convey a complete thought in the form of a
statement, question, command, etc. A sentence must contain a subject and a
verb, begin with a capital letter, and end with a punctuation mark (for example,
a full stop, question mark, or exclamation mark).

Sentence construction The way sentences are built, with appropriate punctuation, capitalization,
and grammar. Your sentence construction in Paper 1, Paper 2, the Written
Assignment, and in the Written Tasks 1 and 2 is marked against the language
criterion (D or E).

Sentence fragment A sentence where an important component (that is, the subject or the verb) is
missing and it does not convey a complete thought or idea.
Speaks two foreign languages.

The correct version is:

My friend speaks two foreign languages.

Sentence structure The elements that make up a sentence. For example, a simple sentence must
contain a subject and a verb, although command sentences where you tell
or ask someone to do something may contain a verb only. In addition to the
subject and the verb, more complex sentences may also consist of objects,
prepositional phrases, independent clauses, etc.

Sestet The stanza of a poem consisting of six lines.

Set Situated in a particular time and place. For example, Sam Shepard's Buried Child
is set in the American Midwest of the 1970s.

Setting The time and place of a story. Social elements and cultural values are also
elements of setting.
(see cultural setting, social setting)

Shakespearean sonnet A type of sonnet first written by William Shakespeare, with the rhyme scheme
ABAB CDCD EFEF GG.
Shape (verb) To create, form, or generate. In Paper 1 (for both Literature and
Language & Literature), you are required to discuss how the writer's choices
shape the meaning of a text, which means that you must address how stylistic
devices contribute to the message or the theme of the text.

Shift To change or vary, as in a shift in tone.

Short story A story shorter than a novel, with focus on one plot and fewer characters.

Sibilance (sibilant) Consonants such as /s/, /sh/, /ch/, and /th/ that create a hissing sound when
spoken. For example, in William Shakespeare’s Othello:
‘Three lads of Cyprus, noble swelling spirits’ (Act 2, Scene 3)

Significant Important and noteworthy. For example, during the !OC, your teacher will ask
(significance) you questions about the most significant aspects of the text or extract on which
you have conducted your oral commentary.

Simile A figure of speech where two things are compared and described as being
similar. A simile uses connecting words such as /ike or as. For example, in Mrs
Dalloway by Virginia Woolf, the narrator compares the roses to fresh linen in
order to achieve a poetic effect and convey a peaceful atmosphere:
‘how fresh like frilled linen clean from a laundry laid in wicker trays the
roses looked’

Simple sentence A sentence that contains basic elements such as a subject and a verb.
The student was speaking.

Sinister Frightening, disturbing.

The shriek of the ow! in the forest created a sinister atmosphere.

Situate an extract To identify where the extract belongs in the larger text. For example, if you
receive an extract from a novel during your IOC, you must identify which
chapter it comes from and where it fits in the larger plot. For higher marks, it is
also recommended that you address the significance of the extract in the larger
novel. You may want to consider whether or not the extract marks a turning
point in the plot, or a significant moment in the development of the character,
for example.

Situational irony A situation where the opposite happens to what is expected. This type of irony
is often used in literature to create a comedic effect, emphasize a point, or to
convey a reflective mood.
After weeks of IOC preparation and practice, the student was too nervous
during the actual exam and provided a superficial analysis.

Slam poetry A type of poetry performed in front of an audience or panel of judges. The
poems often depict strong emotions as the speaker talks about his or her own
experiences or struggles in society.
(see performance poetry)

Slang The type of spoken, informal language used by a particular group of people.
For example, teenagers use slang as a way of expressing their identity through
words such as /it for ‘awesome’ or ship for ‘relationship’.

Slapstick comedy A type of comedy where humour is created through exaggerated actions and
very obvious jokes, usually involving physical action like characters falling over
or apparently hitting each other.

Slogan A catchy, easy to remember short phrase or sentence often used in advertising
or political campaigns, for example. The slogan for McDonald's is /’m lovin’ it.
Social commentary A work of fiction or non-fiction through which the author comments on various
issues in society. Sometimes an author can adopt a critical stance in order to
advocate some form of social change. For example, in The New World Order,
Harold Pinter criticizes the use of torture as a form of interrogation of political
prisoners. This is a useful term for Paper 2 (for both Literature and Language
& Literature), especially if the exam question is about the authors’ views
on societal issues. Here, you could provide a discussion of how the authors’
respective works comment on those issues.

Social media Online social networking platforms, such as Facebook, Twitter, Instagram, etc.
Social media consists of online communities that share information in the form
of written messages, comments, pictures, and videos.

Social setting The social structure, dynamics, values, and expectations depicted in a text. For
example, in Anna Karenina, Leo Tolstoy describes the social expectations of 19"
century Russian aristocracy.

Society (social) A group of people living in a particular place and sharing similar cultural,
religious, or philosophical values and beliefs. For example, the 19" century
English society.

Sociolect The language or dialect used by a particular social class or community. In

literature, sociolect is used to portray characters in a more realistic way. For
example, in the opening chapter to Charles Dickens's Great Expectations, the
escaped convict's language is a reflection of his uneducated background and
low standing in society:
‘You bring me, to-morrow morning early, that file and them wittles. You
bring the lot to me, at that old Battery over yonder.’

Soliloquy A monologue or speech in a play where the character reveals his or her
thoughts and feelings, sometimes when no other characters are present on
stage. Unlike an aside, the soliloquy is not addressing the audience.

Sombre Depressing, gloomy, or serious.

The narrator's depiction of his old family home creates a sombre
atmosphere.

Sonnet A poem that conveys strong emotions and consists of 14 lines of 10 syllables
each. There are various types of sonnets (for example, Petrarchan, Spenserian),
but the most well-known in English literature is the Shakespearean sonnet.

Sonnet sequence A group of sonnets that share the same theme.

Sound 1 (noun) Something that can be heard.

2 (noun) The effect created by literary techniques such as onomatopoeia,
alliteration, assonance, consonance, rhyme, and rhythm. These techniques
are also known as sound devices and help emphasize the meaning of the
text and create a certain mood.
3 (adjective) Effective or valid, as in a sound argument.

Sound imagery Also known as auditory (or aural) imagery, a type of imagery that evokes sound
or noise, for example, in When | Woke by Dylan Thomas:
‘| heard, this morning, waking, / Crossly out of the town noises / A voice in
the erected air’

Source The place of origin for an idea, quote, etc. In the IB Diploma course, a source
can include a person, an online or print text, a documentary.
Your Extended Essay needs to be based on a variety of different sources.
Speaker The voice in a text, such as a persona in a poem, a narrator ina story, or the
voiceover in a documentary.

Specimen paper A Paper 1 or Paper 2 exam paper released by the IBO intended to provide
teachers and candidates with an idea of what the exam will look like. The
specimen paper can be used to practise your Paper 1 or Paper 2 essay writing
skills.

Speech (speeches) 1 The ability to express thoughts and emotions through speaking.
2 The spoken delivery of a text such as an address, lecture, or presentation.

Springboard A starting point that allows for further development or discussion.

Stage 1 (noun) A particular phase or period in the development of something or

someone.
2 (noun) The podium or area where a play is performed.
3 (verb) To produce a performance on stage.

Stage directions The playwright’s notes which represent instructions for the characters’ tone,
movement on stage, facial expression, etc. Stage directions usually appear in
brackets and in italicized font in the script of the play; their function is not
only to reveal significant elements about the characters in the play but also to
provide specific instructions to directors who are staging the play.

Stage set description The playwright’s description of how the stage should be set in order to create
a particular mood. The description may contain references to light and sound
effects, props and their position on stage, etc.

Staging The process of presenting a play on stage. This includes the selection of actors,
stage set design, sound and light effects, props, etc.

Standard A set of expectations to represent a particular level of achievement or

performance. For example, your Paper 1 may be awarded a zero mark on
Criterion A if the work does not reach the standard described by descriptors for
that criterion.

Stanza The part of a poem consisting of a set of lines that have a specific length and
rhyme scheme. A poem may consist of at least one stanza.

Static character A character that does not experience any profound changes throughout the
course of the narrative. For example, in Khaled Hosseini’s The Kite Runner, Baba
is a static character because he remains true to his beliefs until the end of the
novel.
(see dynamic character)

Stereotype 1 Asimple generalization about for example, a section of society, a gender, or

(stereotypical, an idea, which may be held by a lot of people and is not necessarily true in
stereotyping) practice.
Higher level English students write better essays.

2 A type of character who is easy to recognize through his or her predictable

actions, thoughts, speech, etc. Sometimes writers portray stereotypical
characters in order to highlight certain elements in society. For example, in A
Doll’s House by Henrik Ibsen, Torvald Helmer is depicted with the traits of a
stereotypical Victorian husband.

Stock character A character with stereotypical traits, recognizable across a variety of texts. For
example, the jealous husband, the rebellious teenager, the doting mother, etc.
Story 1 In fiction texts, the description of imaginary characters and events in an
imaginary setting.
2 Innonfiction texts, an account of certain events as they occurred, for
example, as in news reports, witness accounts, or personal narratives.

Stream of A narrative technique that describes the characters’ natural flow of thoughts,
consciousness and which can sometimes appear chaotic or disjointed. This technique was very
popular with early 20% century writers such as James Joyce, Virginia Woolf,
or William Faulkner. In To the Lighthouse by Virginia Woolf, for example, the
reader gains insight into the thoughts running through Mrs Ramsay’s mind as
she is planning her day:
‘She had a dull errand in the town; she had a letter or two to write; she
would be ten minutes perhaps; she would put on her hat.’

Stress (stressed) The emphasis placed on a particular syllable, word, or phrase. For example, a
word may contain stressed syllables which are higher in pitch or slightly louder,
as in iMMOral. Stressed syllables are important in identifying the metric pattern
within a poem.
(see metre)

Structuralism An intellectual movement of the 1950s and 1960s where literary critics
considered that the structure of texts (that is, the plot, characterization, setting)
placed them into larger systems of texts sharing similar traits. As such, the
meaning of a text is dictated by the rules of the system to which it belongs. For
example, if a poem is written in sonnet form, then the meaning of the poem is
shaped by the conventions of the sonnet as a genre.

Structure 1 The way content is organized within a written, spoken, or visual text. In
Paper 1 (for Literature and Language & Literature), for example, you are
expected to analyse how structure shapes the meaning of the text(s). This
means that you must consider the structural conventions of the text (which
might include, for example, narrative, poetic, and visual) as well as other
elements such as linear or circular patterns, significant repetitions, layout,
etc.

2 How you organize your ideas in essay writing and oral presentations. High
marks are awarded for a coherent, logical structure.

Structured and A commentary that is well-organized and focused on a main idea, theme, or
focused commentary argument. This will enable you to score a high mark on Criterion C in Paper 1
and the IOC.

Style The way in which a text is written, based on the author’s own choices. This
could include diction, tone, linguistic devices, structural elements, layout,
etc. In the IB Diploma English, you are expected to have an awareness and
understanding of the writer's style in a variety of different text types.

Stylistic devices The techniques that define the style and contribute to the meaning of a text.
These include figurative language, rhetorical strategies, connotative diction,
etc. In Paper 1 and the IOC, it is not enough to identify the stylistic devices
in the text(s); you must also discuss their effect on the reader and how they
develop larger ideas in the text(s).

Subject 1 The topic of a text which could be, for example, love, revenge, or social
injustice.
2 A word or a phrase followed by a verb in a sentence. For example:
The essay is due in one week.
Subordinate clause A dependent clause in a complex sentence, usually introduced by a conjunction:
The student scored high marks in the final exams because he studied very
hard throughout the year.

Subplot A secondary plot that supports the main plot in a novel, play, or film. It may
involve the protagonist, the antagonist, and other minor characters in the
narrative. The subplot adds more complexity to the story as it can develop
certain themes, or add more depth to the characters, for example.

Subsequent Describing something that happened or occurred after an event, a discussion,

or a moment. For example, during your lOC, your commentary is followed by a
subsequent discussion with your teacher.

Substantiate To provide evidence in support of an argument or an opinion. In Paper 1 and

the IOC, your analysis must be substantiated with references to the text(s) or
extract.

Subtlety (p/ura/ Detail that is not so obvious but very important. In Paper 2, you are expected
subtleties) to address the subtleties of the question in order to score a high mark on
Criterion B. This means that you have to pay attention not only to the main
focus of the question but also to its possible implications.

Succinct Brief and to the point, concise. It is recommended that your IB Diploma essays
for English are written in succinct language.

Suffix A letter or a group of letters added to the end of a word. This can either place
the word into a different grammatical category, as in:
love (noun) to lovely (adjective)

or change the entire meaning of the word, as in:

love and loveless

Suitable (suitability) Being appropriate to a particular occasion, task, etc. For example, the register
of your lOC must be suitable to the discussion of literary texts.

Summary Also known as synopsis, it is a very brief overview of the main points in a text.
An effective, focused summary addresses the following aspects about the
text: where, when, who, what, why, and how. A summary should not include
personal opinion or analysis, nor should it contain quotes from the original
text.

Summative assessment A test, essay, project, or oral presentation used to evaluate the student's
learning, knowledge, and skill at the end of a unit, term, or semester,
for example.

Superficial Broad, general, without much depth or attention to detail. For example, ‘a
superficial attempt at interpretation’ will only receive two marks on Criterion A
in Paper 1 (HL) in the Literature course.

Supervised Under someone's observation or guidance. For example, supervised class time
will be allotted for some of the writing of your Written Assignment or the
Written Tasks.

Supported Made stronger with the help of something. For example, your analysis of Paper
1 texts must be supported by detailed references in order to score a high mark
on Criterion A.

Suspense A feeling of excitement, tension, or nervousness in anticipation of something

which is about to happen. In literature, suspense acts as a narrative hook that
captures the interest of the reader. Suspense usually leads to the climax of a
narrative.
Sustained Continuous, uninterrupted over a period of time. During the IOC, you must
demonstrate a sustained focus on the text or extract under analysis.

Syllable A spoken unit or part of a word that contains at least one vowel. For example,
the word in-ter-pre-ta-tion has five syllables.

Syllabus A document that outlines the content of a course, such as the topics to be
covered, the assessment pieces, etc.

Symbol (symbolism, An object, place, concept, or action that carries an extra layer of meaning
symbolic, symbolize) usually dictated by the theme or the message of the text. For example, in Edgar
Allan Poe’s The Masque of the Red Death, the seven rooms in seven different
colours may be symbolic of the seven deadly sins.

Synaesthesia A type of imagery that appeals to at least one of the five senses (sight, smell,
touch, taste, and sound). For example, in Seamus Heaney’s Death of a Naturalist,
visual, sound, tactile, and olfactory imagery is used in
‘bluebottles / Wove a strong gauze of sound around the smell.’

Synecdoche A literary device where a whole thing or concept is referred to by one of its
parts. For example, in Daddy by Sylvia Plath, the synecdoche of the black shoe
portrays the speaker's father as a figure of high authority.
‘Any more, black shoe / In which I have lived like a foot /For thirty years’

Synonym A word that shares a similar meaning with another word or group of words. For
example, trustworthy is a synonym for reliable, honest, or truthful.

Syntax (syntactical) A system of rules and principles that dictate the structure of a sentence. For
example, the basic structure of a sentence consists of a subject followed by a
verb. A good knowledge and understanding of syntactical rules enable you to
construct effective sentences in essay writing and oral presentations.

Synthesis (synthesize) The ability to combine different ideas from a variety of sources in order to
articulate a new argument and draw unique conclusions. This is a useful skill for
Paper 2 and your Extended Essay.

Systematic Performed according to a plan or a system.

A systematic review process will enable you to score high marks in the
final exams.
Tabloid A type of newspaper with small pages, short articles, and many illustrations,
usually covering topics of a more sensationalist nature, such as celebrity gossip.
A tabloid is generally regarded as a less serious publication than regular
newspapers. In the UK, some examples of tabloid newspapers include the Daily
Mail, Daily Mirror, and The Sun.
(see broadsheet)

Taboo language Language considered to be inappropriate or unacceptable in certain situations.

Swear words are considered common examples of taboo language.

Tactile imagery A type of imagery that refers to the sense of touch.

She enjoyed the coolness of the sand under her feet as she walked on the
beach in the early morning hours.

Target audience The intended reader, viewer, or listener of a text.

Tautology The repetition of the same idea in a different way within the same sentence.
This can make the sentence unnecessarily wordy.
The student had to rewrite the essay again.

Technique The way in which a text is written, a stylistic device. Techniques include point of
view, tone, word choice, figurative elements, rhetorical devices, etc.
The writer's techniques are effective in conveying the message of the text.

Temporal setting When the story takes place, which is not necessarily the same as when it was
written. For example, the play The Crucible is set in 1692, during the witch trials
in Salem, Massachusetts, although it was written in 1953 by Arthur Miller.

Tense A feeling of anxiety, stress, and anticipation.

The narrator’s depiction of the haunted house creates a tense
atmosphere.

Tension A narrative technique that hooks the reader by creating a feeling of

excitement, fear, or expectation (similar to suspense). Tension occurs once the
main conflict is introduced and reaches its highest point with the climax of the
narrative.

Tercet A three-line stanza within a poem. For example, in The Snow Man by Wallace
Stevens:
‘One must have a mind of winter / To regard the frost and the boughs / Of
the pine-trees crusted with snow;’

Terminology The group of terms used in a particular subject, for a specific task. In the IB
English course, you must ensure that your essays and oral presentations use
terminology appropriate to the discussion of literary or non-literary texts.

Testimonial A persuasive technique used particularly in advertising, where an individual

describes his or her own experience in order to endorse a product, service, or
idea.

Text Any form of written, oral, spoken, or visual communication that conveys a
message to an audience for a particular purpose. This may include literary and
non-literary print and online texts, radio and televised broadcasts, films, or
advertisements.

Text type A form of writing, such as descriptive, narrative, expository, or argumentative.

Each text type has its own set of conventions and is written for a specific
purpose and for a particular target audience.
Textual bias The hidden agenda of a persuasive text. Identifying the textual bias is an
important skill in the analysis of journalistic texts.
(see bias)

Textual conventions A set of rules that governs the style, content, and form of a text. For example,
a narrative text contains a set of characters, setting, and a plot, whereas a
newspaper article consists of a headline, byline, lead, information about the
topic, and illustrations. A strong knowledge and understanding of the textual
conventions of a broad range of text types will enable you to do well in your
Paper 1 essay, particularly in the Language & Literature course.

Textuality (p/ural The traits specific to a particular text. Elements of textuality include content,
textualities) style, as well the reader’s own interpretation of the text.

Theatre of the absurd A theatrical movement that emerged after War World II where playwrights
moved away from the traditional dramatic conventions to depict the
meaninglessness and the absurdity of life. For example, Eugene lonesco’s
play The Bald Soprano consists of illogical or repetitive conversations where
characters fail to connect with one another in a meaningful way.

Thematic Related to a particular theme or subject. Your ability to make thematic links
between two or more texts is an important skill for Paper 2. For example, a
thematic link between Antigone by Sophocles and A Doll’s House by Henrik
Ibsen is the sacrificial role of women in society.

Thematic focus The way everything in a text relates to one particular theme. For instance, the
way the main characters are portrayed in Emily Bronté’s Wuthering Heights
helps to develop the theme of the destructive nature of love.

Theme An idea developed in a text, such as the destructive effect of ambition. In a

broad sense, a theme is a universal statement about human nature and the
human experience. A text contains a main theme, but other minor themes may
also be present. The author's choice is always intended to develop a theme and
to convey a message on a particular subject.

Thesis A statement that communicates the writer’s main argument in a persuasive

text, such as an essay, dissertation, speech, etc. It is recommended that you
formulate a thesis in your Paper 1 and Paper 2 essays (for both Literature and
Language & Literature) in order to provide a focused response.

Thinkers Individuals who engage in deep thinking. Also considered a trait of the IB
Learner Profile where students are encouraged to use a variety of thinking skills
in order to solve complex problems and make ethical decisions.

Thinking skills The mental processes that enable us to make sense of the world, formulate
opinions, make decisions, generate new ideas, etc. In the IB Diploma
programme, it is important to develop your thinking skills in order to navigate
successfully through the course.

Third-person limited A third-person narrative where the narrator tells the story from the point of
narrative view of the main character. For example, in George Orwell's 1984 the readers
only have access to the experiences of the protagonist, Winston Smith.

Third-person A story told from the perspective of a narrator who knows all the characters’
omniscient narrative thoughts and feelings, as in Sons and Lovers by D H Lawrence.

Third-person point of A narrative style where the story is told from the point of view of a narrator
view/narrative who is not directly involved in the story and refers to characters through third-
person pronouns, such as she, he, and they.
Thoughtful Showing a profound awareness and understanding. A thoughtful discussion of
the literary features in a text will help you score high marks in your Paper 1 and
the 1OC.

Time When the action of a story takes place. Time is an important element of setting
as it creates a certain mood and can be a source of conflict or tension in the
narrative, for example:

The silence of the night made the house even more unbearable.

Time may be the topic of a Paper 2 question where you are expected to discuss
the significance of time and place in two works you have studied.

Timeless Something that does not decrease in value or importance with the passing
of time; enduring. For example, many literary themes have a timeless quality
because they reveal human nature and experience as universal, beyond time
and space.

To what extent To what degree, how much. For example, a Paper 2 question may ask you to
discuss to what extent you agree with a particular statement in relation to the
works you have studied. The phrase ‘To what extent...?’ in an exam question
is almost saying ‘To what degree?’ or ‘How much...?’ and requires you to
evaluate a range of evidence (usually at different extremes or points of view as
determined by the question itself) and then arriving at your conclusion which
will give a qualified judgement of the evidence.
(see list of command terms on page 94)

Tone The speaker's attitude or feelings towards the subject of the work. A detailed
discussion of the tone should also take into consideration how it shifts
throughout the text. For example, a poem can begin with a dreamy tone and
yet end with a determined tone.

Tongue in cheek Ironic, not meant be taken seriously (even though it might appear that way).
The teacher made a tongue-in-cheek comment about how she spent two
sleepless nights to get the exam marking finished.

Tradition (traditional) A set of values, beliefs, and customs that are passed down from one generation
to the next. In literature, tradition consists of a set of works that belong to the
same genre or share a similar style, as in the tradition of the classical drama.

Tragedy (tragic) A play that develops dark themes about human nature and has an unhappy
ending marked by the downfall or demise of the protagonist. The most famous
tragedy is Oedipus the King by Sophocles.

Tragic flaw A weakness (for example, a lack of judgment, or pride) that leads to the
downfall or demise of a character. For example, in William Shakespeare’s
Othello, Othello’s tragic flaw is his jealousy which prevents him from
recognizing Desdemona’s innocence and results in her murder and his
subsequent suicide.

Tragic hero The hero of a tragedy; a character who makes an error in judgment that leads
to his or her own downfall or demise.

Tragicomedy A literary genre that incorporates both tragic and comedic elements. For
(tragicomic) example, in William Shakespeare’s The Merchant of Venice the antagonist
(Shylock) could be viewed as a tragic hero whose downfall at the end of the
play is contrasted to the happy ending for the protagonist (Bassanio).

Translation The process of converting a word, phrase, sentence, or entire text from one
language into another. In literature, the process of translation is more complex
because the figurative meaning of the words in the text must be considered,
too.
Travel writing A literary genre that depicts the author’s travel experiences.

Trends Recurring patterns within a text or across a number of texts belonging to the
same genre or written by the same author. Recognizing trends is an important
skill in the process of interpreting texts.

Tricolon A series of three words, phrases, or sentences, similar in structure and intended
to make a strong impact on the reader or audience. For example, in US
President Abraham Lincoln's famous Gettysburg Address in 1863:
‘government of the people, by the people, for the people’

Truism A sentence that states an obvious truth, sometimes used as a persuasive

technique.
We all make mistakes, so please forgive me.

Turning point A significant point in the development of a story, such as the climax.

Typical (typify) Specific to or representative of something. For example, in the IOC you may
receive an extract from a novel or a play which is typical of the work as a whole.
From the verb typify (to be representative of something).
Unambiguous Clear and precise use of language.
language You have to write your essay in unambiguous language.

Unconnected Unrelated; lacking focus and coherence, as in unconnected points in an essay.

Unconvincing Lacking credibility, or being difficult to believe.

The presidential candidate delivered an unconvincing speech to the steel
factory workers.

Uncover To bring to light, to discover.

Researchers uncovered new information about the author's life.

Uncritical Without the use of critical thinking skills.

We are often uncritical when we watch television.

Understanding The ability to grasp the meaning of something. In the IB Diploma programme,
your understanding of texts is assessed on Criterion A across all the assessment
components in both Literature and Language & Literature.

Understanding and The ability to understand the meaning of a text and explore how that meaning
interpretation was constructed. To achieve a high mark on Criterion A in Paper 1 or the IOC,
you must demonstrate a good level of understanding in order to provide a
relevant interpretation of the text(s) or extract.

Understatement A statement that minimizes the importance of something or someone in order

(understated) to achieve a certain effect. For example, Othello, in William Shakespeare’s
play of the same name, uses understatement when he addresses the Venetian
Council to portray himself as modest and gain the trust of his audience:
Rude am! in my speech, / And little blessed with the soft phrase of peace,’
(Act 1, Scene 3)

Unedited In its original form, without editing.

My friend submitted an unedited copy of her Extended Essay by mistake.

Unison Happening at the same time.

The chorus in a classical Greek play always speaks in unison.

Unreliable narrator A first-person narrator who is a character in the story and depicts the events
from his or her own subjective perspective, which raises questions of credibility.
For example, in J D Salinger’s The Catcher in the Rye, Holden Caulfield narrates
his experiences in New York City by making subjective, sometimes contradictory
statements about the people he meets.

Unresolved Lacking a clear answer or solution.

The student had some unresolved questions about the novel.

Unseen text A text you have not seen before. The Paper 1 exam involves the analysis of
unseen texts, such as poems and prose extracts for the Literature course and any
text type in the Language & Literature course.

Uplift To encourage and inspire.

The principal's speech had an uplifting effect on the students in the
auditorium.
Utopia (utopian) An imaginary place with a perfect, ideal society. Utopian literature is usually
intended to make the readers reflect on the flaws in their own society. For
example, in Candide, French author Voltaire depicts the utopian setting of El
Dorado where all streets are paved with gold and everyone lives in absolute
harmony and peace.
(see dystopia)

Utterance (utter) Any spoken word, phrase, or sentence.

The patient was too weak and only uttered a few words before he fell
asleep.
Values (value system) A set of moral principles considered to be very important in life. As part of the
IB learner profile, we are encouraged to be ‘open-minded’ and respect the
values and traditions of others.

Varied (variety) Consisting of different elements, diverse, or mixed. In the IB Diploma

programme, you are assessed on your use of varied language in essay writing
and oral presentations.

Verb A part of speech that describes an action (for example, to write), or a state of
being (to be). Verbs are the most important component of a sentence and they
appear in various forms and tenses.

Verb phrase A phrase that consists of the main verb and an auxiliary or modal verb.
The exam could have been more difficult than previously anticipated.

Verb tense A verb form that shows when something occurred or is existing. Within the
three main tenses in English (that is, past, present, and future), there are a
few more categories with progressive and participle forms to indicate the time
of action with more precision. Overall, there are twelve tenses in the English
language.

Verbal irony A literary device where the author’s use of a phrase or word intends a literal
meaning, but also to mean something quite different. Verbal irony may be
used to express an emotion such as sarcasm or humour. For example, Algernon’s
sarcastic remark in Oscar Wilde’s play The /mportance of Being Earnest:
‘More than half of modern culture depends on what one shouldn’t read.’

Verbose Wordy, or using a large number of unnecessary words that often affects the
clarity of expression.
The essay was too verbose and sometimes difficult to understand.

Verisimilitude Fictional events or characters that appear to be real, recognizable, and

relatable.
Fantasy literature contains several elements of verisimilitude, such as
characters with recognizable human traits.

Vernacular The everyday language used by a certain group of people. In literature,

vernacular is used to make the character's language appear more authentic. For
example, in The Adventures of Huckleberry Finn by Mark Twain the characters
speak in either Southern White or African American vernacular.
(see dialect)

Verse A single line in a poem, written in metrical form. Sometimes used in reference
to a stanza or even the whole poem.
(see metre)

Victim Someone who is negatively affected by someone else or a set of unfortunate

circumstances, as in the victim of a fire or the victim of physical abuse. In
literature, writers sometimes portray characters as victims in order to convey
their criticism of the inequalities in society. For example, in Zora Neale Hurston’s
Their Eyes Were Watching God, Nanny is the victim of an abusive marriage.

Villain A character who exhibits evil, destructive traits. Sometimes the villain can be
the antagonist in the story, but not always. For example, in Vladimir Nabokov’s
Lolita the villain is Humbert Humbert, the narrator himself, who has a
destructive effect on Lolita’s character.

Virtually Almost, nearly, or close to.

The student demonstrated virtually no awareness of the stylistic features
in the text.
Visual skills Being able to understand and interpret visual texts, particularly important
for Paper 1 and the FOA in the English Language & Literature course. Visual
skills include the ability to analyse how colour, shape, font, layout, and other
illustrations convey meaning in an advertisement, propaganda poster, cartoon,
or any other type of visual text.

Visual text A text that contains visual elements (for example, colour, graphics, pictures,
illustrations, etc) and written texts (that is, captions, speech bubbles,
descriptions, etc). As with any other text, a visual text is produced in a certain
context, with a specific purpose and for a clearly determined target audience.

Vivid Clear and realistic, having a powerful effect.

One of the qualities of this novel is its vivid description of life in the
countryside.

Vocabulary All the words in a particular language. In order to score high marks on the
language criterion in the assessment components of the course you must use a
varied vocabulary.

Voice A writer's unique style, such as point of view, narrative technique, tone, word
choice, etc.

Voiceover The voice of a narrator or commentator in a film, documentary, etc.

Vowel A unit of sound produced by a flow of air through the mouth, without the use
of the lips, teeth, or tongue, such as /a/, /ae/, /e/, /i/, /o/, etc.

Vulgar Rude, inappropriate use of language, lacking refinement or sophistication.

His vulgar language did not gain him many friends at the office.
Web page The page of a website that contains information on a particular topic, with
hyperlinks to related texts, advertisements, and sharing options via social media
or email.

Website A set of related web pages administered by an organization, a group of people,

or an individual. For example, the website of The New York Times newspaper
covers many web pages of news articles, editorials, and opinion columns ona
variety of topics relevant to the United States and the rest of the world.

Weighted grades Grades that are given numerical value in order to calculate an overall average
for the course.

Well-chosen Carefully selected. Your textual analysis in Paper 1 and the lOC must be
supported by well-chosen references to the text(s) in order to score a high mark
on Criterion A.

Whimsical The state of being playful, fanciful, and unpredictable.

She liked the whimsical lyrics better than the song itself.

Wiki A website where content is created and modified by a group of individuals,

such as Wikipedia.

Wit (witty) A cleverly constructed, profound statement that has a humorous effect. In
literature, authors sometimes portray witty characters in order to insert their
own commentary on social expectations. For example, in Oscar Wilde’s The
Importance of Being Earnest, Algernon Moncrieff conveys his sceptical views on
marriage when he says:
‘The very essence of romance is uncertainty. If ever | get married, I'll
certainly try to forget the fact.’

Word choice The writer's deliberate choice of words in order to convey a message and
achieve a particular effect. Word choice is an element of style and must be
considered carefully in the close reading of texts, as in Paper 1 and the IOC.

Word limit The acceptable number of words in a written text. For example, the Written
Task has a word limit of 800-1000 words.

Wording The way a statement is worded or phrased.

My wording was not very clear, which is why you did not understand
what | said.

Work The term used by the IBO to refer to a literary text or texts.

Work of art A work with artistic, aesthetic qualities. Although the term is often used in
reference to visual arts, literary texts can also be considered works of art.

Writer’s choices The deliberate choices an author makes with literary features, the structure, or
the language to influence the audience's experience. The IB Diploma English
course requires candidates to show appreciation for a writer's choices, so when
making a statement about a literary work, you need to be able to use literary
terms correctly to identify features of the work (perhaps with quotes, but not
always), and to explain how the feature is used.

Writing The ability to produce written texts. Writing skills involve an awareness of
grammatical, syntactical, and lexical conventions that contribute to effective
communication. Good writing skills are developed over a period of time
through a process of reflection and multiple drafting.
Written Assignment Both SL and HL Literature students are required to write an assignment that
explores a significant aspect of one of the works studied in Part 1 of the course.
The assignment consists of a reflective statement and the essay itself. The
written assignment is worth 25% of your final grade for the course and it is
externally assessed.

Written The process of conveying information through writing. Some examples include
communication literary and non-literary texts, letters, emails, etc.
(see oral communication)

Written Task 1 Both SL and HL Language & Literature students are required to write an
imaginative piece which demonstrates their understanding of the conventions
of various text types. For example, you could write an imaginative letter
exchange between two characters in a novel in order to explore a particular
theme. The Written Task 1 consists of a rationale and the imaginative response.
Throughout the programme, students write at least three written tasks for
different parts of the course and then they select the best piece to submit to the
IBO for assessment.

Written Task 2 Higher level Language & Literature students are required to write a critical essay
in response to a literary or non-literary text studied in any part of the course.
The essay must address one of the six prescribed questions for the task. Students
can write more than one Written Task 2 throughout the programme and then
choose the best piece to submit to the IBO for assessment.
Zeitgeist The cultural, intellectual, and political spirit or attitude during a particular
period of time in history. For example, F Scott Fitzgerald’s The Great Gatsby
depicts the zeitgeist of 1920s America. (From the German word, Zeitgeist
literally meaning ‘time spirit’.)
Command terms used as part of IB Diploma English A
Analyse Break down a text to identify the writer's techniques and to consider their
effect on the reader and how they contribute to the larger meaning of the text.
This command term is often used in IB Diploma English, particularly as part of
your Paper 1 and the IOC.

Comment Present an informed opinion where you make a judgment to follow up on a

statement or series of statements. This term often appears in your IB Diploma
English course when, for example, you may be asked to comment on the
effectiveness of the writer’s techniques.

Compare As a command word in the IB Diploma English course, compare means you need
to examine the similarities between two texts.

Compare and contrast Provide a discussion of the similarities and differences between two (or more)
texts.

Contrast To compare or provide a summary of the differences between different states,

people, phenomena, or things. As a command word in the IB Diploma English
course, contrast means you need to be able to identify the differences between
the items highlighted in the question.

Demonstrate To clearly show evidence or proof that something is true. As part of your IB
Diploma English course, this is a frequently used command word. When you are
asked to demonstrate, you need to make sure that you explain your points by
providing relevant references from the text(s) or extract.

Describe Provide a detailed account in words of an event, issue, place, or person. As part
of your IB Diploma English course, this is a frequently used command word. For
example, you may be asked to describe the setting of a novel, the traits of a
particular character, or the feelings depicted in a text.

Discuss As a command word in the IB Diploma English course, discuss means that you
provide a reasoned argument in response to a text or a question.

Evaluate To list the different factors or issues and provide an assessment of their priority
or impact, in order to arrive at a judgment. In your study of English, if you are
asked to evaluate, you need to make sure that you consider the stylistic features
in a text and select those that have the strongest impact on the meaning of the
text as a whole and best support your argument.

Examine To study and inspect closely the issues around a topic or issue in order to give
details about the facts and arrive at a conclusion. This is a command word
frequently used as part of your IB Diploma English (Literature and Language &
Literature) course. When you are asked to examine, you need to make sure that
you select and discuss detail that is relevant to the question and the works you
have studied (as in Paper 2).

Explain To give more detail or information about something to help make it easier to
understand. To show that you have a good understanding of something, you
need to be able to provide this level of detail and information to back up your
opinions, rather than simply describing the content or summarising a text.

Explore To discover or uncover through a rational, systematic process. As part of your

IB Diploma, this is a command word frequently used as part of a Paper 2 essay
question. When you are asked to explore, you need to make sure that you
investigate how meaning is created through specific literary techniques in
the
text(s) under analysis.
Interpret To read, understand, and infer meaning from, for example, a literary text or
poem. As a command word in the IB Diploma English course, interpret (for
example in a task on Paper 2) means that you need to make sure that you infer
the connotative meaning by taking into consideration the context as well as the
literary features of the text(s) under analysis.

Investigate To study, explore and examine a topic in more depth rationally and
systematically in order to find out the facts or resolve a problem or query. As
a command word in the IB Diploma English course, investigate means that
you explore how stylistic features shape the meaning of a text, how context is
important to the interpretation of texts, and how texts relate to other texts, etc.

Justify To explain something in a rational and convincing way which would include
backing up your points with evidence from the text, and describing exactly
how this supports your hypothesis or explanation. As a command word in the
IB Diploma English course, justify means that you should provide reasons and
evidence for your points.

To what extent To what degree, how much. For example, a Paper 2 question may ask you to
discuss to what extent you agree with a particular statement in relation to the
works you have studied. The phrase ‘To what extent...?’ in an exam question
is almost saying ‘To what degree?’ or ‘How much...’ and requires you to
evaluate a range of evidence (usually at different extremes or points of view as
determined by the question itself) and then arriving at your conclusion which
will give a qualified judgment of the evidence.
For your own notes
This A-Z glossary provides students with to support them
throughout their IB Diploma study with:
° learning essential
° understanding
© writing academic
Suitable for both and , clear explanations are presented in
context, to help students master key academic vocabulary for their English Literature
and Language & Literature studies and achieve success.

has more than 17 years of teaching experience in a variety of international

schools in Egypt, Macau, and most recently in Dubai.

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