XMDEFINITIONS

TERMS OF USE
https://xmphysics.com/terms/

DISCLAIMER
This compilation of definitions is provided on an “as is” basis for your reference only. Every school
has its own “official” definitions. In many schools, it is almost impossible to score full marks for
definition questions without regurgitating verbosely the “official” definitions. You are advised to look
up the definitions provided in your school’s lecture notes to spot any discrepancy. The author accepts
no responsibility if any definition does not match your school’s expectations.

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Measurement .................................................................................................................................... 3

Kinematics ........................................................................................................................................ 3

Dynamics .......................................................................................................................................... 4

Forces .............................................................................................................................................. 5

WEP ................................................................................................................................................. 6

Circular Motion.................................................................................................................................. 6

Gravitation ........................................................................................................................................ 7

Oscillation ......................................................................................................................................... 8

Waves .............................................................................................................................................. 9

Superposition .................................................................................................................................. 10

Thermal .......................................................................................................................................... 11

Electric Field ................................................................................................................................... 13

CoEDC ........................................................................................................................................... 14

EM and EMI .................................................................................................................................... 15

Quantum ......................................................................................................................................... 16

Nuclear ........................................................................................................................................... 17

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MEASUREMENT
1. Random Errors
Errors which are probabilistic in nature. They have varying magnitude and directions and can be
reduced by averaging.

2. Systematic Errors
Errors which are predictable and reproducible in nature. They have fixed magnitude and direction and
cannot be reduced by averaging.

3. Precision
A precise measurement is one with a small uncertainty.
A precise data set is one whose data are close to one another.
A precise best-fit-line is one with small scatter.

4. Accuracy
An accurate measurement is one with a small error.
An accurate data set is one whose (averaged value of the) data is close to the true or correct value.
An accurate best-fit-line is one which is close to the theoretical line.

5. Vector
Vector quantities have both magnitudes and (spatial) direction.

6. Scalar
Scalar quantities have only magnitudes and no direction.

KINEMATICS
7. Velocity
Velocity is the rate of change of displacement
ds
v=
dt

8. Acceleration
Acceleration is the rate of change of velocity.
dv
a=
dt

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DYNAMICS
9. Momentum
The linear momentum of a body is the product of the body’s mass and its velocity.
( p = mv )

10. Newton’s 1st Law

A body’s momentum does not change unless acted upon by a net external force.
OR
A body at rest remains at rest and a body in motion remains in motion at the same speed and in the
same direction (unless acted upon by a net external force).

11. Newton’s 2nd Law

The rate of change of (linear) momentum of a body is directly proportional to the resultant force acting
on the body in the direction of the resultant force.
dp
(F = )
dt

12. Newton
SI unit for force. A 1 N (net) force accelerates a 1 kg mass at 1 m s-2.

13. Impulse
Impulse of a force acting on a body is the product of the (average) force and the duration of time for
which it acts on the body.
(J = F t )

14. Newton’s 3rd Law

Two bodies can only exert equal but opposite forces on each other.
OR
Whenever body A exerts a force on body B, body B exerts an equal but opposite force on body A.

15. Principle of Conservation of Momentum

The total momentum of a system is constant if no net external force acts on it.

16. Elastic Collision

An elastic collision is one in which the total kinetic energy is unchanged by the collision.
In a two-body head-on elastic collision, the relative speed of approach is equal to the relative speed
of separation.

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17. Perfectly Inelastic Collision
A perfectly inelastic collision is one which results in the maximum loss in total kinetic energy.
In a two-body head-on perfectly inelastic collision, the two masses will travel at the same velocity after
the collision.

18. Head-on Collision

A head-on collision is one in which the directions of motion before and after the collision are along the
same straight line.

FORCES
19. Centre of Gravity
The centre of gravity of an object is the point at which the entire weight of the object appears to act.

20. Friction
The force (acting in the parallel direction) that arises to oppose relative motion or tendency for relative
motion between two surfaces.

21. Upthrust
The net upward force exerted by a fluid on a body fully or partially submerged in the fluid.
OR
The resultant of all the pressure forces exerted by a fluid on a body as a result of the body displacing
the fluid.
COMMENT: The first one is the orthodox one found in most schools’ lecture notes. The second is mine.

22. Archimedes’ Principle

Upthrust (exerted by a fluid on a fully or partially submerged body) is equal in magnitude but opposite
in direction to the weight of fluid displaced by the body.
(U = Vg )

23. Law of Floatation

In the absence of other forces, the upthrust acting on a floating object is equal in magnitude to the
object’s weight. (W = U )
COMMENT: The “law” applies only to freely floating objects. Obviously it does not apply to a rock sunk at the
bottom of the sea, or a buoy tied to the sea floor.

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24. Moment
Moment of a force about a point is the product of the force and the perpendicular distance between
the line of action of the force and the point.
( = F .d )

25. Principle of Moments

For a body to be in rotational equilibrium, sum of clockwise moments about any point equals sum of
anticlockwise moments about that same point.
(   CW =   ACW )

26. Couple
Two parallel forces which are equal in magnitude but opposite in direction, whose lines of action do
not coincide.

WEP
27. Work
Work done by a force on a body is the product of the force with the displacement of the body in the
direction of the force.
(W = F s )

CIRCULAR MOTION
28. Angular Velocity
Rate of change of angular displacement.
d
( = )
dt

29. Radian
SI unit for angle. 1 radian is the angle subtended at the centre of a circle by
an arc which has the same length as the radius of the circle.
s
( = )
r

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GRAVITATION
30. Newton’s Law of Universal Gravitation
Every point mass attracts every other point mass with a force that is
directly proportional to the product of the masses and
inversely proportional to the square of the distance between them.
M1M2
(Fg = G )
d2
COMMENT: If you write “every body” instead of “every point mass”, you are likely going to be penalized because
distance between bodies is not so clear cut.

31. Gravitational Field

A region of space where a mass experiences a gravitational force.

32. Gravitational Field Strength

Gravitational field strength at a point is the force per unit mass acting on a (small) mass placed at that
point.
Fg
(g = )
m
COMMENT: It must be “force per unit mass”. “Force on a unit mass” is wrong. Because Cambridge says so.
According to Cambridge, “force on a unit mass” implies that the student is confused between gravitational field
strength (which has unit N kg-1) and gravitational force (which has unit N).
COMMENT: The word “small” is required by many schools. This requirement is probably influenced by the
definition of electric field strength.

33. Gravitational Potential

The gravitational potential at a point is the work done per unit mass
by an external force to bring a (small) mass from infinity to that point (without any change in KE of the
mass).
COMMENT: See the comment for gravitational field strength for “per unit mass” and “small mass”.
COMMENT: The “without any change in KE of the mass” clauses emphasizes that all the work done by the
external force changes only the GPE of the mass.

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OSCILLATION
34. Simple Harmonic Motion
An oscillatory motion where the acceleration
is directly proportional to the displacement (from the equilibrium position),
directed towards the equilibrium position.
(a = − 2 x )
OR
An oscillation whose displacement varies sinusoidally with time.
COMMENT: The first is the orthodox definition in most schools. The second one is mine. For some reason
which I don’t know, we seem to accept only definitions of SHM based on the a-x relationship instead of the x-t
relationship.

35. Frequency vs Angular Frequency

Frequency, f, is the number of oscillations per unit time.
Angular frequency, ω, is the rate of change of phase angle of an oscillation.
The two quantities are related by the formula  = 2 f .

36. Damping
The progressive decrease in amplitude of an oscillatory motion due to dissipative forces.

37. Critical Damping

The amount of damping that results in a displaced system returning to its equilibrium position in the
shortest possible time without any oscillation.

38. Forced Oscillation

An oscillation caused by an external periodic driving force.

39. Resonance
An oscillatory system driven to maximum amplitude when the frequency of the external periodic
driving force matches the natural (or resonant) frequency of the driven system.

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WAVES
40. Progressive Wave
A wave in which the wave crest advances, transferring energy in the direction of wave propagation.

41. Stationary Wave

A wave that does not transfer energy.
There are positions called the nodes and antinodes where the amplitudes of oscillation are zero and
maximum respectively.

42. Transverse Wave

A wave in which the direction of oscillation is perpendicular to the direction of energy transfer.

43. Longitudinal Wave

A wave in which the direction of oscillation is parallel to the direction of energy transfer.

44. Polarized Wave

In a polarized wave, the oscillations are in one direction only in a plane normal to the direction of
energy transfer.
COMMENT: The “one direction only in a plane normal to the direction of energy transfer” phrasing comes
directly from Cambridge. Many schools used to phrase it as “one plane only”. This was apparently rejected by
Cambridge.

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SUPERPOSITION
45. Principle of Superposition
When two (or more) waves overlap, the resultant displacement (at any point and instant)
is the (vector) sum of the displacements due to each individual wave (at that point and instant).
COMMENT: Actually, since displacement is a vector, the word “vector” is not really necessary. But it does clarify
how waves which are polarized in different directions superpose.

46. Phase Difference

The fraction of a complete cycle (expressed in radians) an oscillation/wave leads or lags another by.

47. Coherence
Two waves are coherent if the phase difference between them is constant.
COMMENT: “constant”, not “zero”

48. Diffraction
The spreading of a wave (into the “geometric shadow”) after passing through a slit or around an
obstacle.
COMMENT: “Spreading”. Not “bending”! Because bending suggests refraction.

49. Rayleigh’s Criterion

Two images are just resolved when the central maximum of one diffraction pattern coincides with the
first minimum of the other.

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THERMAL
50. Specific Heat Capacity
The amount of heat required to raise the temperature of a unit mass of a substance by one unit of
temperature.

51. Specific Latent Heat of Fusion

The amount of heat needed to convert a unit mass of a substance from solid to liquid form without
any change in temperature.

52. Specific Latent Heat of of Vaporization

The amount of heat needed to convert a unit mass of a substance from liquid to vapour form without
any change in temperature.

53. Internal Energy

The summation of
microscopic kinetic energy due to random motion of the molecules (in the system) and
microscopic potential energy due to intermolecular bonds.

54. Absolute Zero

The lowest possible temperature at which a substance has minimum internal energy.
COMMENT: “minimum”, not “zero”.

55. Absolute Scale vs Empirical Scale

An absolute scale is a thermodynamic scale which uses the theoretical minimum or absolute zero
temperature as a reference temperature.
An empirical scale uses two arbitrary fixed points based on the thermometric property of particular
substances.

56. Avogadro’s Constant

The number of atoms in 0.012 kg of carbon-12.

57. Mole
The amount of substance containing the Avogadro’s number of constituent particles (atoms or
molecules).

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58. Ideal Gas
A gas which obeys the equation of state pV = nRT
for all values of pressure p, volume V, amount of gas n and thermodynamic temperature T.
COMMENT: The second line is a requirement decreed by Cambridge. I guess it serves to emphasize that in
real life, most gases obey pV = nRT only at low pressure and high temperature.

59. 1st Law of Thermodynamics

The increase in internal energy of a system is the summation of heat supplied to the system and the
work done on the system.
COMMENT: It must be “increase”, not “change”. This is another requirement decreed by Cambridge. The
rationale is that the sign of each term must be conveyed in the definition. I personally don’t really agree with the
logic.

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ELECTRIC FIELD
60. Force Field
A region of space where an object experiences a non-contact force.

61. Electric Field

A region of space where a stationary charge experiences an electric force.
COMMENT: The word “stationary” is to rule out a moving charge experiencing a magnetic force.

62. Electric Field Strength

Electric field strength at a point is the force per unit positive charge acting on a small test charge
placed at that point.
FE
(E = )
q
COMMENT: It must be “force per unit positive charge”. “Force on a unit positive charge” means you are
confused between electric force (which has unit N) and the electric field strength (which has unit N C-1).
COMMENT: It must be “per unit positive charge”. There are two types of charges, and negative charges will
experience electric forces in the opposite direction.
COMMENT: It must be a “small” test charge. Electrical fields are often set up by charged metallic bodies. If the
test charge is too “large”, the mobile charges in the metallic bodies will shift their positions due to the electric
forces exerted by the test charge. This will distort the electric field.

63. Electric Potential

The electric potential at a point in the electric field is the work done per unit positive charge, by an
external force, in moving a small test charge, from infinity to that point in the field (without changing
the KE of the charge).
EPE
(V = )
Q

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COEDC
64. Coulomb
SI unit for electric charge. It is the amount of charge passing through a point in a circuit in 1 sec with
a current of 1 ampere.
(Q = It )

65. Electromotive Force vs Potential Difference

E.m.f. is the energy converted per unit charge from non-electrical to electrical when charge is moved
one round through the complete circuit.
P.d. is the energy converted per unit charge from electrical to non-electrical when charge is moved
between two points of a circuit.
W
(V = )
q

66. Volt
SI unit for electric voltages. 1 volt is 1 joule per coulomb.
OR
It is the amount of potential difference across a conductor if 1 J of energy is converted from electrical
to non-electrical when 1 C of charge is moved across the conductor.

67. Resistance vs Resistivity

Resistance R of a conductor is the ratio of the potential difference across it to the current through it.
(V=IR)
Resistivity ρ of a material is an intrinsic property of the material that opposes the flow of electric current.
L
The two quantities are related by the formula R =  where L and A are the length and cross-
A
sectional area of the conductor respectively.

68. Ohm
1 ohm is 1 volt per ampere.
OR
It is the resistance value of a conductor if applying 1 V of potential difference across the conductor
produces 1 A of current through it.
(V = IR )

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EM AND EMI
69. Magnetic Flux Density
The magnetic flux density at a point in a magnetic field is the force per unit length per unit current
acting on a straight current-carrying conductor placed perpendicular to the field.
F
(B = )
IL

70. Tesla
SI unit for magnetic flux density. 1 tesla is 1 newton per metre per ampere.
OR
The magnetic flux density of a magnetic field is 1 tesla, when a straight current-carrying conductor
placed perpendicular to the field experiences magnetic force per unit length per unit current of
1 N m1 A-1.
F
(B = )
IL

71. Magnetic Flux

The magnetic flux through a plane surface is the product of the area of the plane surface with the
magnetic flux density normal to the area.
( = BA)

72. Weber
SI unit for magnetic flux. 1 weber is 1 tesla metre-square.
OR
1 weber is the magnetic flux through a 1 m2 surface when a magnetic field of flux density of 1 T is
perpendicular to it.
( = BA)

73. Magnetic Flux Linkage

The magnetic flux linkage of a coil is the product of the number of turns of the coil and the magnetic
flux through each turn.
( = NBA)

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74. Faraday’s Law
The total induced emf is directly proportional to the rate of change of flux
linkage (for a coil), or rate of cutting of flux (for a moving wire)
d
( = − ) or ( = BLv )
dt
COMMENT: The official definitions for Faraday’s Law vary wide across schools. You have been warned.

75. Lenz’s Law.

The polarity of the induced emf is such that it serves to oppose the cause of induction.
COMMENT: The official definitions for Lenz’s Law vary wide across schools. You have been warned.

QUANTUM
76. Photoelectric Effect
Liberation of electrons
from a cool metal surface
when electromagnetic radiation of sufficiently high frequency is illuminating it.
COMMENT: The word “cool” is to exclude the liberation of electrons by thermionic emission.

77. Photon
A quantum of electromagnetic radiation energy.
The quantum is directly proportional to the frequency of EM radiation (E=hf).

78. Work Function vs Ionization Energy

Work function is the minimum energy required
to liberate (the least tightly bound) electrons
from a metal surface.
Ionization energy is the energy required
to remove an electron
from an isolated atom.

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NUCLEAR
79. Isotopes
Nuclei with the same number of protons
but different number of neutrons.

80. Radioactivity
An unstable nucleus randomly and spontaneously emitting radiation, changing into a different nucleus
(for alpha and beta decay) or a more stable nucleus (for gamma radiation).

81. Nuclear Fission

A nuclear reaction in which a nucleus splits into two smaller nuclei of comparable nucleon number.

82. Nuclear Fusion

A nuclear reaction in which two nuclei combine to form a single more massive nucleus.

83. Spontaneous Process

Radioactive decay is not triggered or influenced by external factors.
So environmental conditions (such as pressure and temperature) have no effect on the rate of decay.

84. Random Process

Radioactive decay is probabilistic in nature but the probability of decay is uniform for all nuclei in the
sample.
While it’s impossible to predict when a particular nucleus will decay, the decay rate of a radioactive
sample as a whole can be predicted accurately.

85. Activity
Number of disintegrations per unit time.

86. Decay Constant

Probability per unit time that a nucleus will decay.

87. Half-life
Average time taken for the activity of a sample of radioactive nuclide to halve.
OR
The average time taken for the number of undecayed nuclei to decrease by half.
COMMENT: The word “average” is to emphasize the random nature of radioactive decay.

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88. Binding Energy
Binding energy BE is the energy required to separate the nucleus into its constituent neutrons and
protons.

89. Mass Defect

Mass defect Δm is the difference between the mass of a nucleus and the total mass of the individual
neutrons and protons that form it.

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