XMQUALITATIVE

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DISCLAIMER
This compilation of qualitative questions is provided on an “as is” basis for your reference only. Your
exam paper is set and marked by your own teachers. There is no guarantee that every teacher is on
the same wavelength as the author. The author accepts no responsibility if his answers do not score
full marks in your school’s examinations.

© Chua Kah Hean xmphysics.com 1

WARNING ........................................................................................................................................ 3

Kinematics ........................................................................................................................................ 4

Dynamics .......................................................................................................................................... 4

Forces .............................................................................................................................................. 5

Circular Motion.................................................................................................................................. 6

Gravitation ........................................................................................................................................ 7

Oscillation ......................................................................................................................................... 9

Superposition .................................................................................................................................. 10

Thermal .......................................................................................................................................... 14

Electric Field ................................................................................................................................... 15

CoEDC ........................................................................................................................................... 16

EM .................................................................................................................................................. 17

EMI ................................................................................................................................................. 18

AC .................................................................................................................................................. 21

Quantum ......................................................................................................................................... 21

Nuclear ........................................................................................................................................... 26

© Chua Kah Hean xmphysics.com 2

 WARNING

The intention of this compilation of qualitative questions is to help you learn to verbalize your
responses, to the level of clarity and detail required. You may also use this compilation to identify your
knowledge gaps or misconceptions.

Tempting as it may be, DO NOT memorize the answers. This compilation is not exhaustive. New
questions are being written every year. Even if the same question is asked, the level of detail required
in the answer also depends on the total marks allocated. The flow or context of the question may also
result in different emphasis leading to different marking points in the marking scheme.

So, use this compilation as a revision aid to hone your verbalization skill and test your understanding,
not as a bible to be quoted and recited. By the way, the skill of verbalization is useless (even not
dangerous), if you have no knowledge and understanding of the subject content. Speak your mind.
Don’t be a parrot. Cheers!

© Chua Kah Hean xmphysics.com 3

KINEMATICS
1. Explain why a stone dropped from rest and falling through air eventually reaches terminal velocity.
- The stone experiences two forces: downward weight W and upward air resistance R.
- W is constant but R increases with speed of stone, so net force Fnet = W − FR decreases as the

stone speed ups.

- When the stone is falling so fast that R matches W, net force becomes zero and the stone’s
velocity becomes constant (thus reaches terminal velocity).

2. Explain how one can deduce from the graph that the stone experiences increasing air resistance
R as it falls.

- The gradient of the v-t graph is acceleration.

- Since the gradient is decreasing, the stone must be experiencing decreasing acceleration and
thus decreasing net force Fnet.
- Since weight W is constant and Fnet = W − FR , FR must be increasing.

DYNAMICS
3. Explain why the stopping distance for a car is longer on a downward slope (despite the same
constant braking force).
- The component of weight of car along the slope
- acts forward in opposite direction to the braking force,
- reducing the net force and thus deceleration.

4. Explain why it is not possible for both nuclei to stop at the same instant (during the “collision”).

- The total initial momentum is not zero.

- Without a net external force, the total momentum is conserved (PCOM).

© Chua Kah Hean xmphysics.com 4

- If both nuclei stop at the same instant, total momentum at that instant is zero (which is impossible
because this violates PCOM).
• COMMENT: In fact, throughout the interaction, total momentum is always 3uv − 2uv = 1uv
(rightward)

5. Use momentum considerations to explain how a rocket can produce a forward force.
- The net change in momentum of a system is zero if there is no net external force.
- Since the propellant experiences a backward change in momentum, the rocket must experience
a forward change in momentum.

FORCES
6. Explain the origin of upthrust.
- The fluid exerts pressure forces perpendicularly against every point on the (submerged) object.
- Since Fluid pressure increases with depth ( p = h  g )
- the upward forces acting on the lower surfaces (of an object immersed in the fluid) is always
stronger than the downward force acting on the upper surfaces,
- resulting in a net upward force called upthrust.

7. State the two conditions for a body to be in equilibrium.

- Net force acting on the body is zero.
- Net moment acting on the body (evaluated about any chosen pivot point) is zero.
COMMENT: If you write “Net moment acting about any point on the body is zero”, you may be penalized for
implying the pivot point cannot be a point outside the body.

8. Body is in equilibrium. Explain why forces T and mg cannot be the only two forces acting on it.
T

mg

- To be in equilibrium, net force must be zero.

© Chua Kah Hean xmphysics.com 5

- mg is a vertical force and has no horizontal component to balance the rightward component of T.

CIRCULAR MOTION
9. Explain why uniform circular motion requires a non-zero resultant force.
- Even though the speed is constant, the direction of velocity is changing continuously.
dv
- Since acceleration is the rate of change of velocity (a = ) , acceleration is non-zero.
dt
- Resultant force is proportional to acceleration. ( F = ma )

10. Explain why the net force acting on a body undergoing uniform circular motion must be in the
centripetal direction.
- Acceleration is non-zero since the direction of velocity changes continuously.
- Since the speed is constant, there is no acceleration in the tangential direction.
- Hence acceleration must be in the centripetal direction only.

11. In a pendulum swing, why is the tension in the string largest at the lowest point of the swing?
- The required centripetal force is provided by the tension force minus the component of weight in
the centrifugal direction.
- At the lowest point, the swing is at its highest speed, so the required centripetal force is largest.
v2
(Fc = m )
r
- Also, at the lowest point, the entire weight acts in the centrifugal direction.
(Fnet = T − mg )

• COMMENT: At other positions, the tension force only needs to overcome the component of weight
in the centrifugal direction. At the lowest point, the entire weight is in the centrifugal direction.
• COMMENT: Please remember that the tension in the string is NOT equal to the weight (since
acceleration is not zero). At the lowest point,
(Fnet = ma )
v2
T − mg = m
r
v2
T = mg + m  mg
r

© Chua Kah Hean xmphysics.com 6

GRAVITATION
12. Why does the Moon not land on Earth despite the Earth’s gravitational pull?
- The Moon has a tangential velocity and is undergoing circular motion.
- The Earth’s gravitational pull on the moon is just enough to provide the required centripetal force
for circular motion.

13. Why is the acceleration of free fall g at the equator smaller than that at the poles?
- Unlike objects at the poles, objects at the equator are undergoing circular motion.
- Part of the gravitational pull is “used” to provide the required centripetal force for circular motion
• COMMENT: In fact, the acceleration of free fall is decreased by an amount equal to the centripetal
acceleration. g ' = g − r  2

14. Why does an astronaut in an orbiting spacecraft feel weightless?

- Both the astronaut and spacecraft are free falling at the same acceleration around the Earth.
- There is no contact force between the astronaut and the spacecraft. Hence the astronaut feels
weightless.
OR
- The astronaut is undergoing circular motion.
- The Earth’s gravitational pull on the astronaut is “completely used up” to provide the required
centripetal force for circular motion.

15. State three conditions for an orbit to be geostationary

- Orbital period of 24 hours
- Orbit is in the equatorial plane
- Orbits from west to east.

16. Comparative advantages of high and low altitude orbits

Low altitude
- Can take higher resolution images of Earth.
- Transmit and receive signals/messages with shorter delay.
- Requires less fuel and cheaper to launch into orbit.
High altitude
- Wider coverage because can maintain direct line of sight with a large portion of Earth’s surface at
any one time
- Suffers less atmospheric drag and requires less frequent orbital boosts.

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17. State THE advantage and disadvantage of geostationary orbits
- Geostationary satellites stay at a fixed point above the Earth, which is convenient for
communication satellites because they appear stationary when viewed from Earth.
• COMMENT: So ground antennas don’t have to continuously track their movement across the sky.
- Unfortunately, being constrained to the equatorial plane also means geostationary satellites
cannot serve the polar regions.
• COMMENT: Because from the polar regions they are below the horizon and cannot be sighted.

18. Explain why GPE for a system of masses is always negative.

- GPE is defined to be zero when the masses are at infinite distances from one another.
- Since gravitational force is always attractive, the masses will gain KE but lose GPE if they are
allowed to gravitate towards one another.
- This means that the GPE of the system has the highest value of zero at infinity but lower and thus
negative values everywhere else.

19. Explain why gravitational potential ϕ is always negative.

- ϕ at a point is the work done per unit mass by an external force to bring a small mass from
infinity to that point without any change in KE of the mass.
- Gravitational force is always attractive.
- Hence positive work must be done by an external force to pull a mass out of the field towards
infinity, implying the potential ϕ in lower in the field compared to at infinity.
- Since ϕ is defined to be zero at infinity, ϕ at any other point must be lower than zero and thus
negative.
OR
- ϕ at a point is the work done per unit mass by an external force to bring a small mass from
infinity to that point without any change in KE of the mass.
- Gravitational force is always attractive.
- To match the gravitational force, the external force must always act towards infinity, as the mass
is brought from infinity to any point in the field.
- Since force and displacement are in opposite directions, work done is negative, hence ϕ is
negative.

20. A satellite is moved from a higher orbit to a lower orbit. State and explain the effect on GPE, KE
and TE of the satellite.
- GPE decrease (becomes more negative) since it is now nearer to the centre of the Earth.
GMm
(GPE = − )
r

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 1 GMm
- KE increases because orbital speed is faster at smaller orbital radius. (KE = )
2 r
1 GMm
- Overall TE decreases because the gain in KE is half the loss in GPE. (TE = − )
2 r
• COMMENT: Note that the TE is not constant because work is done by rocket fuel to alter the
orbital radius of a satellite. Positive work is required to boost the altitude of a satellite. Likewise,
negative work is required to lower the altitude of a satellite.

21. A satellite orbiting close to the Earth’s atmosphere is undergoing orbital decay due to resistive
forces. State and energy conversion(s) taking place during the decay.
- GPE is continuously converted into KE and heat.
• COMMENT: Note that a satellite actually speeds up during an orbital decay, just like any mass
falling towards the ground.

OSCILLATION
22. Explain how it may be deduced from the graph that the oscillation is simple harmonic?

- (To be shm, a = − 2 x .)
- Graph is a straight line passing through the origin. This shows that a is directly proportional to x.
- Graph has a negative gradient. This shows that a is opposite in direction to x.
• COMMENT: The “through the origin” part is necessary because a straight line merely implies a
linear relationship, i.e. y = kx + c .

23. Explain how it may be deduced from the expression below that the oscillation is simple harmonic?
 Ag
a=− x
m

- (To be shm, a = − 2 x .)
 Ag
- is a constant. This shows that a is directly proportional to x.
m
- The negative sign shows that a is opposite in direction to x.

© Chua Kah Hean xmphysics.com 9

24. Why does increasing the mass of a vertical spring-mass system lowers its natural frequency?
- Since the spring is unchanged, the restoring force (at each x) is unchanged. (Fnet = −kx )

Fnet
- But with the larger inertia, the acceleration (at each x) is lower. (a = )
m
- Period is longer, since it takes longer for the mass to accelerate from the extreme position to the
equilibrium position, and decelerate from the equilibrium position to the extreme position.
1
- Since f = , this results in a lower frequency of oscillation.
T
k
• COMMENT: You may not be allowed to quote the  = formula, unless it is presented earlier
m
in the question.

SUPERPOSITION
25. State the conditions for 2 waves to produce observable interference pattern.
- The 2 waves (of the same kind) must overlap,
- be coherent,
- and have comparable amplitudes.
- (For polarised waves, the direction of polarisation of the 2 waves must not be perpendicular to
each other.)

26. State two situations when 2 waves superpose but do not produce interference pattern.
- The 2 waves are incoherent.
- The 2 (polarised) waves are polarised perpendicularly to each other.

27. Explain why 2 wave do not produce a distinct interference pattern if they do not have comparable
amplitudes.
- The minima does not have zero amplitude.
- The percentage difference in the amplitudes of the maxima and minima may be too small.

28. State the conditions for two waves to undergo constructive and destructive interference.
- Constructive interference occurs if the phase difference between them is ϕ =2nπ, n=0,1,2,..
- Destructive interference occurs if ϕ =(2n+1)π, n=0,1,2,….

29. Explain how waves emitting from two wave sources can give rise to an interference pattern.

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- Waves from the two coherent sources travel different distances to superpose at different points,
resulting in different path difference  and thus phase difference ϕ at each point.
- Constructive interferences occur at points where ϕ =2nπ, n=0,1,2, resulting in maxima.
- Destructive interferences occur at points where ϕ =(2n+1)π, n=0,1,2, resulting in minima.
• COMMENT: Since question does not specify if the phase relationship between the two waves at
the sources, we cannot give the conditions in terms of path difference.

30. Explain the formation of double-slit fringe pattern along PR.

- Waves from the two slits are coherent and in-phase.

- They travel different distances to superpose at different points along the screen.
- The path difference δ increases along PR
- Constructive interference occurs at points where δ =nλ, n=0,1,2…
- Destructive interference occurs at points where δ =(n+1/2)λ, n=0,1,2…
- Resulting in alternating bright and dark fringes along the screen.
• COMMENT: Since we know that the light waves are in-phase at the sources, we are expected to
state the conditions for C.I. and D.I. in terms of path difference (instead of the more general phase
difference).

31. As the sliding tube is moved outward, the sound intensity at D fluctuates. Explain.

- Two coherent sound waves arrive and superpose at D through two different paths A and B.

© Chua Kah Hean xmphysics.com 11

- The path difference δ increases as the sliding tube is moved outward.
- Constructive interference occurs when δ =nλ, n=0,1,2.
- Destructive interference occurs when δ =(n+1/2)λ, n=0,1,2
- Resulting in alternating loud and soft sounds at D.

32. State the condition for the formation of stationary waves

- When two identical waves of the same frequency and wavelength traveling in opposite directions
superpose, the result is a standing wave.

33. As the microphone is moved along XY, fluctuations in loudness is detected. Explain.

- Sound wave is reflected back by the wall.

- Incident and reflected waves traveling in opposite direction superpose, resulting in stationary wave
along XY.
- At pressure nodes, zero variation in pressure results in a soft sound.
- At pressure antinodes, maximum variation in pressure results in a loud sound.

34. As the water is drained out, loud sound is heard only when the water level is at particular levels.
Explain.

- The tuning fork produces a sound wave of one particular wavelength λ.

- This sound wave is reflected repeatedly back into the air column at both the open end and the
closed end.
- Multiple incident and reflected waves travelling in opposite directions superpose to result in
standing waves in the air column.
- Resonance occurs only when the length of air column is equal to (2n+1)λ/4, n=0,1,2…

© Chua Kah Hean xmphysics.com 12

- (This is because the open end must be a displacement antinode and the closed end must be a
displacement node)

35. When a guitar string is strummed, only sounds of particular pitches is heard. Explain.

- When the string is strummed, waves of an entire range of wavelengths travel along the length of
the string.
- These waves are reflected at both (fixed) ends of the string.
- Multiple incident and reflected waves travelling in opposite directions superpose to result in a
standing waves along the string.
- Resonance occurs only for wavelengths λ such that the length of the string is equal to nλ/2,
n=0,1,2….
- (This is because both ends of the string must form displacement nodes)
- Since v = f  , resonance occurs only for certain frequencies (pitches).

36. Explain how a guitarist plays different notes by pressing his finger against the guitar string at
different points along the string.
- The finger changes the position of (one of) the fixed end, allowing us to change the vibrating length
of the string L.
- This allows us to change the resonant wavelengths, since resonance occurs only when L

corresponds to integer number of half-wavelengths. (L = n )
2
- The speed of the wave travelling along the string is constant. So having different resonant
v
wavelengths result in different resonant frequencies (and pitches) (f = )


37. Explain how a guitarist tunes the guitar to a higher pitch by tightening the guitar string.

- Resonance occurs when L corresponds to integer number of half-wavelengths. (L = n )
2
- Since the length of the guitar string L is unchanged, the resonant wavelengths remain unchanged
- However, increasing the tension in the string increases the speed v at which the wave travels
along the string.
v
- For the resonant same wavelength, the resonant frequency is now higher. (f = )


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THERMAL
38. Use the kinetic theory to explain why pushing the piston of a cylinder inward may increase the
temperature of the gas in the cylinder.
- When gas molecules collide with the incoming piston, they rebound with higher speed than before
the collision
OR
the incoming piston does positive work on the gas molecules, increasing their KE.
- The average KE of the gas molecules in the gas thus increases.
- Temperature increases since the thermodynamic temperature is directly proportional to average
3
KE (  KE = kT ).
2

39. Use the kinetic theory to explain why pressure of a gas increases with temperature (for a constant
volume).
3
- Higher temperature means higher average KE of the gas molecules (  KE = kT ).
2
- Since the gas molecules collide with the wall at higher speeds, the change in momentum per
collision is larger.
- Since the time between collisions is shorter, the number of collisions per unit time is higher.
- These result in a higher average rate of change of momentum, and a higher pressure force (on
p F
the wall). (  F = , p= )
t A

40. A gas contained in a cylinder with a frictionless piston is heated and undergoes isothermal
expansion. Use the first law of thermodynamics to explain why the temperature of the gas can
remain constant.
U = Q + Won
-
- As the gas expands, work done on the gas is negative.
- Even though an amount of heat is supplied to the gas,
- An equal amount of work was done by the gas as it expands.
- The change in internal energy is zero (so no change in temperature).

© Chua Kah Hean xmphysics.com 14

ELECTRIC FIELD
41. At equilibrium condition, why is the electric potential constant throughout a conductor?
- The electrons in a conductor are mobile
- and always distribute themselves until the resultant electric field is zero throughout the conductor.
- Zero field strength implies constant potential, since the magnitude of field strength is equal to the
dV
potential gradient. (E = − )
dx
• COMMENT: If the field is not zero, the electrons in the conductor will experience an electric force
that will cause electric currents in the conductor. The fact that the electrons have “settled down”
implies that the electric field in the conductor has been cancelled out.

42. The graph below shows the variation of electric field strength between two charged spheres P
and Q. State and explain whether the two spheres have charges of the same, or opposite sign.

|E|

0 P Q x

- Opposite signs.
- If they had the same sign, their electric fields will be acting in opposite directions in the region
between them
- and there ought to be point between them where the resultant field is zero.

43. The graph below shows the variation of electric field strength between two charged spheres P
and Q. State and explain whether the two spheres have charges of the same, or opposite sign.

|E|

0 P Q x

- Same signs.
- If they had different signs, their electric fields will be acting in the same directions in the region
between them
- and there should not be a point between them where the resultant field is zero.

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44. State the relationship between electric field strength and electric potential.
- Electric field strength is equal to the negative of the potential gradient.
OR
- The magnitude of electric field strength is equal to the magnitude of the potential gradient.
- The direction of the electric field is towards lower potential.
dV
(E = − )
dx )

COEDC
45. Explain why resistance of a filament increase with voltage applied.
- The higher voltage results in higher current and power dissipation,
- causing the filament to reach a higher temperature.
- The lattice thus vibrates more vigorously,
- resulting in higher frequency of collisions between the drifting electrons and the lattice (and thus
higher resistance).

46. The temperature of the thermistor is increased. Explain the change to the value of Vout.

- The resistance of the thermistor decreases with temperature.

- This decreases the effective resistance of the parallel circuit across Q.
- By the potential divider principle, Q gets a smaller share of the 9.0 V. Vout decreases.
OR
- The resistance of the thermistor decreases with temperature.
- The current from the cell increases since the total resistance of the circuit has decreased.
- The potential difference across P increases. Vout decreases.

47. The sensitive ammeter shows a zero reading when the jockey contacts the slide wire PQ at J.
Explain why there is a reading on the ammeter when J is moved towards P.

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- The p.d. between PJ (VPJ) must be equal to the voltage across cell C (Vt), since they are directly
connected together.
- If the currents in circuit remain as before, VPJ would be would be lower than Vt, since PJ is shorter
than the balance length.
- So cell C must push additional current into PJ so that VPJ is increased until it matches Vt.

48. Explain why there is a reading on the ammeter when J is moved towards Q?
- The p.d. between PJ (VPJ) must be equal to the voltage across cell C (Vt), since they are directly
connected together.
- If the currents in circuit remain as before, VPJ would be would be higher than Vt, since PJ is longer
than the balance length.
- So some current must be diverted from PJ into cell C so that VPJ is decreased until it matches Vt.

EM
49. Explain why a charge moving under the influence of a magnetic field moves at a constant speed.
- The magnetic force acting on a moving charge (if not zero) is always perpendicular to the direction
of velocity. (FLHR)
- The force does zero work, so the KE of the charge does not change.

50. Explain why the path of the particle in the magnetic field is circular.

- The charged particle is moving perpendicular to the magnetic field.

- The magnetic force acting on it is always perpendicular to the direction of its velocity. (FLHR)

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- This provides the required centripetal force for circular motion.
• COMMENT: if the particle is moving parallel to the field, it would have travelled along a straight
path.
• COMMENT: if the particle is moving at an angle to the field, it would have travelled along a helical
path.

EMI
51. Explain why the induced e.m.f. across CD is sinusoidal if the coil is rotated at a constant speed.

- As the coil rotates,

the component of magnetic field perpendicular to the area of the coil changes
OR
the area of the coil perpendicular to the magnetic field changes,
resulting in a sinusoidally changing magnetic flux linkage in the coil. (Φ = NBA sin ωt)
- The magnitude of the induced emf is directly proportional to the rate of change of flux linkage
(Faraday’s Law).
- Since the rate of change of a sinusoidal function is also sinusoidal, the induced emf is also
sinusoidal. (ε = -dΦ/dt = -ωNBA cos ωt)
• COMMENT: The induced emf lags the flux linkage by a quarter cycle.

52. Use Faraday’s Law to explain why the oscillation is damped when the switch is closed.

- As the sheet oscillates, it cuts the magnetic flux of the solenoid perpendicularly. This leads to an
induced emf in the sheet. (Faraday’s Law)

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- Since the sheet is a conductor, an induced current flows in the sheet.
- Since the cause of the induction is the motion of the sheet, the induced current must result in the
sheet experiencing a magnetic force that retards and damps the motion of the sheet. (Lenz’s Law)
OR
- Since electrical energy (in the sheet) is being converted from the KE of the oscillating plate, the
oscillation loses energy over time.

53. Use Faraday’s Law to explain why the oscillations are damped.

- As the ring approaches or leaves the electromagnet, it experiences a changing magnetic flux
linkage. This leads to an induced emf in the ring. (Faraday’s Law)
- Since the ring provides a closed conducting path, an induced current flows in the sheet.
- Since the cause of the induction is the motion of the ring, the induced current must result in the
ring experiencing a magnetic force that retards and damps the motion of the sheet. (Lenz’s Law)
OR
Since electrical energy (in the ring) is being converted from the KE of the oscillating ring, the
oscillation loses energy over time.

54. Use Faraday’s Law to explain the direction of induced current in the copper ring as it is entering
the magnetic field.

- As ring enters the field, its magnetic flux linkage increases This leads to an induced emf in the
ring. (Faraday’s Law)
- Since the ring provides a closed conducting path, an induced current flows in the ring.
- To oppose the increasing flux linkage, the induced current is anti-clockwise so as to produce a
magnetic flux that is in opposite direction to the flux linkage. (Lenz’s Law)

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55. Use Faraday’s Law to explain the direction of induced current in the copper ring as it is leaving
the magnetic field.
- As ring leaves the field, its magnetic flux linkage decreases. This leads to an induced emf in the
ring. (Faraday’s Law)
- Since the ring provides a closed conducting path, an induced current flows in the ring.
- To oppose the decreasing flux linkage, the induced current is clockwise so as to produce a
magnetic flux that is in same direction as the flux linkage. (Lenz’s Law)

56. Use Faraday’s Law to explain the direction of induced current in the entire copper ring is moving
in the magnetic field.
- When the entire ring is in the field, the ring experiences a constant magnetic flux linkage. Since
the rate of change of flux linkage is zero, there is no induced emf in the ring. (Faraday’s Law)

57. By considering the energy changes taking place as the ring enters/leaves the field, explain why
Lenz’ Law is a manifestation of the principle of conservation of energy.
- When the ring enters/leaves the field, the induced emf and current results in a retardation force
on the ring.
- This slows the ring down. The gain in electrical energy in the ring (and ultimately heat energy) can
thus be accounted for by the loss in KE of the ring.
OR
- An external force in the direction of motion is required to keep the ring moving at a constant speed.
The gain in electrical energy (and ultimately heat energy) can thus be accounted for by the positive
work done by the external force.

58. Explain how a constant emf can be induced in the search coil.

- If the current in the solenoid is increasing at a constant rate, the magnetic flux density of the
solenoid’s magnetic field will be increasing at a constant rate.
- The search coil will experience a magnetic flux linkage that increases at a constant rate.
- The magnitude of the induced emf is directly proportional to the rate of change of flux linkage
(Faraday’s Law).
- Since the flux linkage is increasing at a constant rate, the emf induced is constant in magnitude.

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59. Explain the effect of inserting an iron core into a solenoid.
- The permeability of iron is much higher than that of air, thus increasing the magnetic flux density
and thus magnetic flux of the solenoid’s magnetic field.
OR
Iron is ferromagnetic so it will be magnetised in the same direction as the solenoid’s magnetic
field. The summation of the iron’s and the solenoid’s magnetic flux results in a higher magnetic
flux.

AC
60. Explain the significance of root-mean-square value of an alternating current.
The RMS value of an AC current is the equivalent (constant) DC current which dissipates the same
average power (as the AC current) in a given resistive load.

61. Explain how an emf is obtained across the secondary coil (of a transformer)
- The alternating voltage in the primary coil sets up an alternating magnetic flux in the core.
- The secondary coil experiences an alternating magnetic flux linkage (since it is wrapped around
the core).
- (By Faraday’s Law, an alternating emf is induced across the secondary coil.)

62. Explain why the voltage across the secondary coil of a step down transformer is lower than the
primary voltage.
- Both the primary and secondary coils experience the exact same changing magnetic flux (since
they are wrapped around the same iron core).
- But the secondary coil has a smaller changing magnetic flux linkage (compared to the primary
coil) because it has fewer turns. (  = N )
- With a lower rate of change of magnetic flux linkage, the induced emf is also lower compared to
d d
the primary coil. (  = =N )
dt dt
- For an ideal transformer, the induced emfs are equal to the input and output voltages.

QUANTUM
63. Describe how the double slit experiment provides evidence for the wave nature of EM radiation
- When light is shone through two narrow slits, alternating bright and dark fringes are observed.

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- And the fringe spacing is proportional to wavelength.
- This shows that light is a wave, capable of undergoing constructive and destructive interference
to form bright and dark fringes.

64. Describe how photoelectric effect provides evidence for the particulate nature of EM radiation
- No photoelectron is ejected if EM radiation is below the threshold frequency, regardless of
intensity.
- The maximum KE of ejected electrons depends on the frequency of EM radiation and not its
intensity.
- Electrons are ejected with zero time delay, regardless of intensity.
- All these provide evidence that photoelectric effect occurs when one electron absorbs the energy
of one photon, whose energy is dependent on its frequency (E=hf)

65. Explain why photoelectric effect does not occur if the frequency of illumination is too low.
- Energy of a photon is directly proportional to frequency. (E=hf)
- Below the threshold frequency f0, each photon carries energy less than the work function, which
is the energy required to liberate the least tightly bound electron. (hf0=Φ).
- Since one electron absorbs the energy of one single photon only, not a single electron can be
liberated (regardless of the rate of arrival of photons).

66. Explain why KEmax is dependent on the frequency of illuminating light.

- By increasing the frequency, the energy of each photon is increased. (E = hf )
- When one bound electron absorbs more energy from one photon, it is ejected with higher KE.
(KEmax = hf −  )

67. Explain why KEmax is independent of the intensity of illuminating light.

- Increasing the intensity of light (without changing its wavelength) only increases the rate of arrival
of photons
- but does not change the energy of each individual photon.
- Since one electron absorbs the energy of one single photon only, KEmax is unchanged.

68. Explain why even at very low intensity of light, photoelectrons are still ejected without noticeable
delay.
- Lowering intensity (without changing the wavelength) only lowers the number of photons arriving
at the metal surface per unit time, but does not change the energy of each photon.
- The moment one photon arrives, one electron can absorb the energy of that one photon and
become liberated.

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• COMMENT: Needless to say, changing the intensity does not change the speed of light. So it still
takes negligible amount of time for the photons to arrive at the metal surface.

69. Explain why photoelectrons are ejected with a range of KE even though a monochromatic light
source is used.
- Each photon in a beam of monochromatic light does contain the same amount of energy E.
(E=hc/λ)
- However the electrons in the metal surface are bound to different degree, and different amount of
energy W is required to liberate them.
- The KE of the emitted photoelectron, which is equal to E – W, is thus a range of values.

70. Explain why increasing the positive bias cannot increase the photoelectric current beyond the
saturation current.
- A positive potential on the collector attracts photoelectrons from the emitter towards the collector.
- Once the positive bias is strong enough, every single photoelectron is already collected at the
collector.
- The maximum (saturation) current is thus limited by the number of photoelectrons leaving the
emitter per unit time.
• COMMENT: Increasing the positive bias after saturation current is reached merely increases the
KE at which the photoelectrons arrive at the emitter, but it does not increase the number of
photoelectrons arriving per unit time.
• COMMENT: At saturation current, the number of photoelectrons leaving the emitter n is the same
as the number of photoelectrons arriving at the collector n. So n = Isat  e

71. Explain why increasing the negative bias reduces the photoelectric current.
- A negative potential on the collector sets up an electric field which repels photoelectrons from the
collector.
- As such, photoelectrons must lose KE in order to gain EPE as they travel towards the collector.
- Only those photoelectrons which are ejected at high enough initial KE are able to overcome the
potential energy barrier to arrive at the collector.
• COMMENT: At the stopping potential Vs, even the most energetic photoelectrons do not have
sufficient initial KE to overcome the potential energy barrier. The photoelectric current drops to
zero. By the principle of conservation of energy, we can calculate KEmax by equating it to the
electric potential energy gained by the electron as it moves from the emitter to the collector.
( KEmax = eVs )

72. State and explain the effect on Isat and Vs, of increasing the intensity of illuminating light.

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- Increasing the intensity of light (without changing its wavelength) increases the number of photons
per unit time, but does not change the energy of each photon.
- Isat increases since the higher rate of arrival of photons results in higher rate of emission of
photoelectrons.
- Vs is unchanged since an individual electron still absorbs the same amount of energy from one
photon so KEmax is unchanged.

73. Explain why the line emission spectrum provide evidence for the quantization of energy levels in
atoms.
- When an atom de-excites from a higher energy level EH to a lower energy level EL,
- a photon with energy Ephoton = ΔE = EH-EL is emitted.
- If an atom has discrete allowable energies levels, it can explain why the atom can only emit
photons of particular energies.
- (Since E=hc/λ, it can explain why only light of particular wavelengths are emitted)

74. A beam of white light shines through a cloud of gas. The spectrum of the transmitted light contains
a number of dark lines. Explain why these dark lines occur.
- White light consists of photons with a continuous spectrum of photon energies.
- A gas atom has discrete energy levels.
- It can only absorb photons whose energy matches one of the energy gaps between two energy
levels of the atom. (E photon = EH − EL )

- The dark lines in the absorption spectrum correspond to the particular wavelengths that
hc
correspond to those photon energies. (E photon = )


75. Explain the significance of the negative signs in the energy levels of a hydrogen atom.
- The negative total energies correspond to the fact that the electron is still bound to the proton.
- Energy must be supplied to increase the total energy to zero in order to free the electron from the
atom.
• COMMENT: The energy levels represent the total energy. Based on the Bohr’s model, which has
the electron orbiting the proton at specific radii, the total energy would be the KE of the orbiting
electron plus the (negative) EPE of the electron-proton system.

76. Explain how a beam of light can exert a force on a wall

- Each photon in the beam of light is a wave-particle with an associated (de Broglie’s) momentum.
(p=h/λ )

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- Upon hitting the wall, the photons undergo a change in momentum, which implies the wall exerted
p
a force on the photons (Newton’s 2nd Law). (F = )
t
- By Newton’s 3rd Law, this implies the photons exerted an equal but opposite force on the wall.
• COMMENT: The change in momentum can range from p (if photon is absorbed) to 2p (if photon
is reflected perpendicularly to the wall).

77. Explain the formation of characteristic lines in the X-ray spectrum

- In the X-ray tube, highly energetic (>10keV) electrons are directed towards a target metal.
- These electrons can knock out electrons from the innermost shell of a target atom
- When electrons from a higher shells cascade down to fill the vacancies in the lower shells, X-ray
photons are emitted.
- Since the energy of these X-ray photons must be equal to the energy gap between transitioning
shells, this process only produces photons of particular energies and thus wavelengths (thus
resulting in characteristic lines in the x-ray spectrum).

78. Explain the formation of the background radiation in the X-ray spectrum.
- In the X-ray tube, highly energetic (>10keV) electrons are directed towards a target metal.
- Some of these electrons get very close to the nuclei (of the target metal) and experience very
strong acceleration.
- Charged particles undergoing acceleration must emit EM radiation. So these electrons undergoing
such extreme acceleration emit X-ray photons.
- Since each electron can lose any fraction (between 0% and 100%) of its initial KE, this process
produces photons with a continuous range of energy.
• COMMENT: The most energetic (and thus cut-off wavelength) X-ray photon, is produced when
hc
an incoming electron converts all its KE to produce one single X-ray photon. ( = eVA )
min

79. Explain why the view that all molecular motion ceases at absolute zero temperature violates the
Heisenberg Uncertainty Principle.
- If motion ceases, it is implied that momentum is exactly zero.
- This implies zero uncertainty in the momentum of the molecules, which is forbidden by the HUP.

80. An outdated model of the hydrogen atom is that of an electron orbiting around the proton at fixed
radii. Use the HUP to explain why this is not possible.
- According to this model, the electron has a precise position and momentum at any point in time.
- Having precise knowledge of both the position and momentum at the same time is forbidden by
the HUP.

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NUCLEAR
81. Describe the experimental evidence for a small charged nucleus in the atom.
- When α-particles are directed at a thin gold leaf,
o Almost all (> 99%) pass through with negligible deflection.
o But a small percentage (about 1 in 8000) are deflected at large angles, even reflected
backward.
- These observations show that
o An atom is largely made up of empty space
o Except for a tiny but massive positively charged nucleus.

82. Considering the mass of nuclei, describe the energy changes taking place during a beta decay.
87
37 Rb → 38
87
Sr + −10
- The total mass of the daughter nucleus and the alpha particle is smaller than the mass of the
parent nucleus.
- By the principle of mass-energy equivalence, the decrease in rest-mass implies energy is released
by the beta decay.
- The energy is released as the KE of the beta particle, the KE of the recoiling daughter nucleus
(and the anti-neutrino).

83. Considering the binding energy, describe the energy changes taking place during an alpha decay.
239
44 Pu → U + 24
235
92

- The total BE of the daughter nucleus and the alpha particle is larger than the BE of the parent
nucleus.
- The increase in BE represents the energy released during the alpha decay.
- A large portion of the energy is released as KE of the alpha particle, with the remaining going to
the KE of the recoiling daughter nucleus.

84. Describe the energy changes taking place during a gamma decay.
- Many nuclear reactions produce nuclei which are in an excited state.
- When the nucleus de-excite, energy E is released as a gamma photon.
E
- By mass-energy equivalence principle, the mass of the nucleus decreases by .
c2

85. Explain why the daughter nucleus of a beta decay has the same mass number as the parent.

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 228
88 Ra → 228
89 Ac + −01e

- During beta-decay, a neutron in the parent nucleus transforms into one proton (which remains in
the nucleus) and one electron.
- Since the parent nucleus loses one neutron but gains one proton, the number of nucleons does
not change.

86. Explain why the observation that beta-radiation has a range of energy suggests a third particle
(later found to be the anti-neutrino) is emitted.
- If the beta-particle and the daughter nucleus are the only two particles, then they must have equal
but opposite momentums, as dictated by PCOM.
- This constrains the beta-particle to always get the same fraction of the total energy released.
- If there is a third particle, the total momentum and thus total energy released can be shared
differently each time among the three particles, allowing for the beta-particle to have a range of
momentum and KE.
• COMMENT:
• Since total momentum before decay is zero, PCOM dictates that pd = p .

pd 2 p 2
• Since the total energy released during a beta-decay E is fixed, PCOE dictates E = +
2md 2m

• Together, the PCOM and PCOE equations can have only one possible solution, meaning the
beta-particle can only have one specific energy.

87. Explain how the BE/A graph indicates that fission of large nuclei releases energy.

- During fission, a very large nucleus undergoes fission to form two smaller nuclei.
- The binding energy per nucleon of the fission product nuclei are larger than that of the parent
nucleus.
- Since the total number of nucleons is unchanged, this implies the total binding energy of fission
product nuclei are larger than that of the parent nucleus.

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- A larger total binding energy implies a larger total mass defect and thus a smaller total mass.
(BE = m.c 2 )
- By the mass-energy equivalence principle, the decrease in mass implies that energy is released
in such a reaction.

88. Explain how the BE/A graph indicates that fusion of small nuclei releases energy.
- During fusion, two very small nuclei undergo fusion to form a larger nucleus.
- The graph shows that the binding energy per nucleon of the fusion product nucleus is larger than
that of the parent nuclei.
- Since the total number of nucleons is unchanged, this implies the total binding energy of fission
product nuclei are larger than that of the parent nucleus.
- A larger total binding energy implies a larger total mass defect and thus a smaller total mass.
(BE = m.c 2 )
- By the mass-energy equivalence principle, the decrease in mass implies that energy is released
in such a reaction.

89. State whether the fission of uranium-235 is a spontaneous process.

U + 01n → 141
235
92 56 Ba + 36 Kr + 3 0 n + energy
92 1

- No. Fission of uranium-235 is triggered by the absorption of a slow neutron.

• COMMENT: In fact, each fission releases more neutrons which can trigger more fissions, resulting
in a chain reaction.

90. Explain why the binding energy of neutrons need not be taken into account when calculating
energy released during nuclear fission.
- The BE of neutrons are zero.
- Neutrons are already the constituent particles.

91. Explain why hydrogen fusion can only happen at very high temperature.
2
1 H + 31H → 24H + 01n

- The two positively charged hydrogen nuclei must overcome the repulsive forces in order to come
close enough for fusion to occur.
- This requires a large initial kinetic energy to overcome the large electric potential energy barrier.
- A large KE implies a high temperature since the average kinetic energy is directly proportional to
temperature (<KE> = 3kT/2).

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92. State one advantage and disadvantage of hydrogen fusion and uranium fission for the purpose of
power generation
- Hydrogen fusion
o Advantage: Energy released per unit mass of fuel is higher (even though the energy
released per reaction is lower)
o Advantage: The fusion products (helium, etc) are safe and clean.
o Disadvantage: Fusion can only occur at very high temperature (~40x106 K). Attaining this
high temperature pose engineering and safety challenges.
- Uranium fission
o Advantage: Well developed technology (because relatively easy to achieve).
o Disadvantage: The fission products are radioactive. Storage of nuclear waste pose
environmental and security issue.

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