Applied Climatology.

APPLIED CLIMATOLOGY
Applied climatology can be defined as the study of the effect of weather and climate on all plants
and animals in general and human beings in particular, on one hand, in turn the impact of human
activities on different elements of weather and climate whether effected in a careful manner (for example,
weather modification programs) or unintentionally such as atmospheric pollution through various
sources resulting into changes in weather and climate on the other hand.
Environmental systems of different orders always control the evolution and sustenance of different
forms of life in the biospheric ecosystem. This environmental system consists of three basic components
which are physical or abiotic components, energy component and biotic components (plants and
animals). The abiotic components consist of three major components such as land, air and water where
these three represent lithosphere, atmosphere and hydrosphere respectively. It is, thus, evident that
the weather and climate are significant aspects of the atmospheric system.
It is also proven that weather and climate have always determined and controlled human activities,
thoughts and ideologies, human health, culture and civilization and hence it becomes imperative to
discuss certain aspects of close relationships between weather and climate and human health and
activities and other significant aspects of the biosphere (the life layer) such as climate and biosphere,
climate and urban planning, climate and weather modifications, climate and transport, climate and
industry, climate and culture, climate and recreation and tourism, climate and transport system, etc.
Definition and Scope

The field and scope of applied climatology are so vast that it becomes difficult to include such aspects
which relate climate to social and economic spheres of human society on one hand and other organisms
on the other hand. The following definitions give some insights of applied climatology:
z According to K. Smith, applied climatology may be defined as the use of achieved and real-time
climatic information to solve a variety of social, economic and environmental problems for clients
and managers, in fields such as agriculture, industry and energy.
z According to H. Landsberg and W. C. Jacobs, applied climatology is the scientific analysis of climatic
data in the light of useful application for an operational purpose.
z According to G. A. Marotz, applied climatology is the scientific use of climatic data and theoretical
constructs for the solution of problems.
z According to J. E. Hobbs, the field of applied climatology can then the considered to encompass four
broad groups of problems, as follows:
Design and specification of material or equipment
Location and use of equipment or structures
Planning of a particular operation
Climatic influences on biological activities
z A model has presented by S.A. Changnon to highlight the field of applied climatology. This model
consists of an inner core, inner ring and larger outer circle which includes the nature of activities
and study as follows:
Inner Core: It represents the basic components of applied climatology wherein the processes
of climatic data collection, processing, assessment and maintenance of such data are considered:
Selection of appropriate meteorological instruments
Collection of meteorological data
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Transmission of data to various stations and storage centers

Quality assessment of data
Spatial and temporal representativeness
Archival storage of data
Accessing of data.
Inner Ring: It mainly related to analysis and interpretation of meteorological data and derivation
and generation of useful information related to weather and climate in spatio-temporal context
from the climatic data core.
Outer Circle: The larger outer circle of the field of applied climatology represents the third phase
wherein the application of climatic information is given importance. This circle includes different
types of users of climatic data and information, such as scientists, engineers, the business
community, farmers, people involved in recreation and tourism industry etc. in different fields
of science such as hydrology, agriculture, ecology, geography, energy supply, architecture,
transportation, leisure and recreation, tourism and government (J. E. Hobbs).
Importance
No subject can survive if it is purely academic. That subject should make some practical contributions
to society. Considering climatological applied aspects, a considerable amount of work is being done by
climatologists these days.
Applied climatology is of recent origin as this term was commonly used in the decade 1941-1950 as
claimed by K. Smith. By 1951-1960, the scope of applied climatology further widened when the impact
of climate was studied in relation to human activities. It is also true that climate has a lot of bearing on
human lifestyle. It determines the type of food human beings eat, the type of clothes they wear and the
type of houses they live in. These three things, i.e., food, clothes and houses, are the basic necessity of
human beings.
For example, the igloos or the snow-houses built by the Eskimos of Tundra region because of the
sub-zero temperatures prevailing there which prevents the house from melting and also keeps the inside
warm due to the insulating property of snow. These snow-houses are quite different from houses built
in tropical regions which are quite open and aerated, having lots of windows for wind and sunlight to
enter the house.
Similarly, vegetation is the index of climate. So, the type of crops which are grown has a lot of bearing
on the climatic conditions of a place. Take for example, people living in the extremely cold conditions
say in Tundra region cannot grow crops for major time in a year as the sub-soil remains frozen in
those areas and whatever grows is nothing more than mosses and lichen. So, these are eaten by the
local people through food gathering, who also resort to other means like hunting to supplement their
food needs. On the other hand, a wide range of crops can be grown in humid tropical regions because
climatic conditions are favorable there. So, agriculture and allied activities serve as a major portion of
livelihood and food needs of the people of the tropics.
Also, why do people in warm tropics wear cotton clothes and people in the cold regions wear warm
and well insulated clothes. Since, in warm areas, people wear light cotton clothes to keep themselves cool
and prevent themselves from excessive sweating while in cold regions people wear warm or insulated
clothes in order to retain their body temperature from excessively cold temperatures and winds.
Therefore, in present time, applied climatology has become more popular and useful due to the
development of specific skills and techniques using modern methods of data handling linked with
improved understanding of statistical theory, particularly as related to extreme (weather) events and
probability analysis (J. E. Hobbs).
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Sources of Climatological Data

Recently, there is greater dissemination of climatological data due to the services provided by several
weather agencies and meteorological departments. This has enabled climatologists to get access to
climatic data for their studies. Some relevant climatic data are also on the internet either free of cost
or at a marginal fee. So far as sources of collection of climatic data are concerned, it is broadly divided
into two types which are as follows:
z Primary Sources: Primary sources of climatic data collection include the processes where the
investigator himself/ herself goes to the field and collects climatic data using various instruments
like thermometers, radiometers, moisture sensors, etc.
z Secondary Sources: Secondary sources of data are the data collected elsewhere and then compiled
and quality checked which then gets ready for the climatologists and researchers for use.
So, the climatologists in this case do not collect the data themselves but rely on external sources,
agencies or various meteorological departments spread across the world like World Meteorological
Organization (WMO), National Centre for Atmospheric Research (NCAR), National Oceanic and
Atmospheric Administration (NOAA), India Meteorological Department (IMD), etc.
The data is finally reanalyzed by the climatologists and various atmospheric variables are
segregated for use in research or other climate related studies.
Climate and Natural System

The natural system comprises of all five spheres, viz., lithosphere, hydrosphere, atmosphere,
biosphere and cryosphere. There is a continuous interaction between these spheres and climate plays
a major role in affecting different processes that occur within these systems.
Lithosphere
z Lithosphere comprises of the rigid, outermost crust and the upper portion of mantle of the earth.
z Various geomorphological processes take place in the lithosphere. Also, climate happens to be a
significant driving factor that has a direct impact on these geomorphological processes.
z Exogenetic processes include denudational processes of weathering and erosion which basically
originates due to climate factors.
z Climatic geomorphology is an emerging field these days and researchers study how moisture and
temperature affect the rate of weathering, soil formation, sub-surface freeze and thaw etc. In 20th
century, it was started as a distinct branch of geomorphology in France and Germany.
z Components of climate like temperature, humidity, wind circulation etc. affect various erosional
processes like marine, fluvial, aeolian, groundwater, glacial, peri-glacial etc.
z Moreover, spatial variations in climatic parameters like temperature, humidity, precipitation, etc.
lead to variations in the landforms in different climatic regions. Some of the examples are given
below:
A region with high mean annual temperature and humidity favours steep slopes and deep
chemical weathering in these regions. This results in the presence of gullies.
Also, high humidity and high temperature favours dense vegetation on such slopes. Therefore,
soil erosion, sheetwash and other erosional activities are reduced to a great extent in slopes
having dense vegetation. Contrary to this, the slopes which have been cleared of natural vegetation
would experience active erosion.
Humidity also results in events like soil creep, landslides and other mass wasting activities along
the slopes.
Also, winds and glaciers shape the landforms.

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Atmosphere
z The atmosphere is a gaseous envelope that surrounds the Earth and comprises a variety of gases
as well as minute suspended solid and liquid particles (aerosols).
z These are kept together by earth’s force of gravity and support life.
z Nitrogen and oxygen are two significant component gases, accounting for approximately 99% of
the dry air in the lower atmosphere.
z Argon, carbon dioxide, helium, methane, hydrogen, nitrous oxide, ozone, etc. constitute the remaining
1%.
z Few are greenhouse gases like carbon dioxide, methane, nitrous oxide, water vapor, etc. out of these
1% gases.
Due to human activities like burning fossil fuels, gases emanating from industries etc., the
percentage of greenhouse gases has increased.
This has in turn increased the temperature of the atmosphere as these gases are transparent to
incoming solar radiation but traps the outgoing longwave terrestrial radiation and creates a
warming effect.
A change in temperature would affect other climatic elements like humidity, pressure etc. and
have an adverse effect on all the other spheres.
It would bring change in landscape, water bodies, ice sheets, as well as biogeochemical cycles.
Biosphere
z The biosphere is the life supporting layer which surrounds our planet earth and consists of all living
organisms (the biotic component), energy (the energy component) and physical environment (abiotic
component).
z Climatological impacts are felt in the biosphere in several ways which affects the interactions between
living organisms themselves as well as interactions between living organisms and physical
environment.
These interactions can be in the form of predator-prey relationships, disease and insect
infestations, etc.
The atmospheric processes are also responsible for these large-scale input-output mechanisms
through biogeochemical cycles.
They also have an influence on the soil composition, its vertical profile, soil moisture and its
erosion.
Cryosphere
z Cryosphere is the frozen part of the earth’s system.
z It includes ice and snow on land as well as that found on water bodies.
z Snow covered areas on land includes continental ice sheets found in Greenland, Antarctica as well
as other areas of snow and permafrost.
z The other part of cryosphere found on water bodies includes the frozen parts of oceans near polar
regions and also includes frozen rivers and lakes.
z Climate has a lot of effects on the cryosphere.
Snow has very high albedo or reflectivity of the incident shortwave solar radiation.
This means that it reflects about 90% of the incident light or it can be said that it has an albedo
of 90%.
The slightest increase in temperature conditions would melt some snow and this would decrease
the albedo of that part of the cryosphere which increases the rate of melting of snow further.
The conditions are just the reverse when there is a decrease in temperature conditions of the
cryosphere.
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Hydrosphere
z Hydrosphere is the discontinuous layer of water at or near the earth’s surface and includes all liquid
and frozen waters on surface and underground, in rocks and soil as well as atmospheric water vapor.
z The processes operating in hydrosphere are hydrological processes due to which water is in a constant
state of motion and gets transferred from one realm and form to another in a hydrological cycle.
z Climate is also a major determinant of hydrological processes.
Temperature and precipitation are the two important climatic parameters that directly affect
the amount, seasonality and distribution of water available in different realms of hydrosphere
like surface run-off, overland flow, soil water retention or infiltration of rainwater, channel flow,
storage etc.
If there is any change in the global climate system, it affects the water on earth’s surface and this
changes the water balance in different realms.
This also affects the human systems like agriculture, fisheries, environmental management, etc.
Changes in climatic parameters affect salinity which also affects the hydrosphere.
They also have an impact on fisheries and coastal and marine ecosystems.
Climate change also affects the deep-water circulation in the oceans by altering thermohaline
circulation.
The hydrological processes also get affected due to human activities like deforestation,
urbanization, industrialization, concretization, etc. which results into a change of climatic
parameters either directly or indirectly.
Climate and Natural System
Climate and Societal System

Climate has a lot of impact on societal systems. Some of them are impacted in a primary manner
or directly while others are affected in a secondary manner or indirectly.
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Climate and Agriculture

z Agriculture is the primary occupation of human beings and marks the beginning of their sedentary
life.
z Prior to agriculture, human beings spent a nomadic life wandering about from one place to another
and practiced hunting and food gathering for their sustenance.
z Climatic elements like temperature, humidity, precipitation, etc. determines the type of crops that
are grown in a particular area and also determines their distribution at places having similar climatic
conditions. It also determines farming practices.
z Today in the technological era, a lot of advances have been made in the field of agriculture and it has
been possible to grow crops in quite adverse conditions.
z However, the impact of climate cannot be ignored.
Temperature, which acts as one of the major climatic parameters and affects the crops at different
successive stages of their development right from sowing and germination to their maturity.
An optimum temperature is required at every stage of development of crops, otherwise the
quality and yield of crops are affected.
For example, in India, a sudden increase in temperature from the beginning of March speeds
up the ripening of wheat which also reduces its yield.
Similarly, frosts and hailstorms are also very dangerous for crops. Frosts are responsible for
damaging certain crops like potatoes, tomatoes, oil seeds, peas, etc.
In the same way, fruit orchards in the mountain valleys are also damaged due to frosts which
results due to temperature inversion.
Hailstorms associated with western disturbances also pose a serious threat to the standing
crops of wheat, vegetables, oilseeds and other rabi (winter) crops.
Moisture is another important climatic parameter that affects the cultivation of crops. As plants
derive their nutrients from the soil, so soil moisture is very important for plants.
The amount of soil moisture varies from being in saturated stage to field capacity stage to wilting
stage.
Saturated stage refers to the stage when all voids and pores of soil are filled with water and
such conditions are preferred by crops like paddy and sugarcane which are water intensive
crops.
In the field capacity stage about 50% of the total voids and pore spaces are filled with water
and the rest is occupied by air. Such a soil condition is favorable for millets, maize, wheat,
mustard seeds, etc.
Lastly the wilting stage, as the name suggests, refers to the stage when soil water is lost
through continuous evaporation and the crop wilts. So, such a type of soil is not conducive
for any crops.
Apart from soil moisture, atmospheric moisture and precipitation also affects agricultural
productivity.
There are normally three types of droughts resulting due to rainfall deficiency.
First is the permanent drought which is a characteristic of arid regions.
Second is the seasonal drought which is associated with two distinct periods of wet and dry
seasons and the third is the occasional drought which is associated with rainfall variability.
Besides moisture, incoming solar radiant energy is also an important parameter which is
controlled by climate.
Productivity of any crop depends on the efficiency of plants to convert solar energy into chemical
energy.
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Solar energy also regulates the temperature conditions of a particular place and decreases from
equator to poles.
So, it is also a major determinant of the types of crops grown at a particular place as well as its
productivity.
Climate and Natural Vegetation
z Natural vegetation is an indicator of the climate. But they are interrelated as one influences the other
to a great extent.
z The knowledge of optimum climatic conditions in different stages of the growth of forest trees is
essential for those engaged in the task of afforestation for timber and watershed management.
z In silvicultural practices, the interrelationship between forests and climate must be considered. The
microclimate of forest is considered for getting higher yields
Climate and Transportation
z Transportation systems form the backbone of any country as it depends on the movement of raw
materials, finished products, food grains, commodities, people, etc.
z Machine or fossil fuel-based transportation systems include air transport, water transport and land
transport (roads and railways).
z Air transportation makes tremendous use of weather conditions like temperature at varying altitudes,
snowfall, winds and turbulence, overcast sky and low visibility, heavy rainfall, etc. The field is also
known as aviation climatology, which includes average weather at different altitudes and over
different locations on the earth.
Air transport uses climatic data at all stages like take-off stage, flying stage and landing stage.
z Similarly, highway meteorology or highway climatology which studies the relationship between
weather and climate and road transport.
Temperature is an important climatic parameter which impacts road transport.
Freezing temperatures cause frosting of road materials while increasing temperatures causes
the non-concrete roads to melt.
A dip in temperature below -20°C also brings about waxing of diesel which makes the vehicular
movement impossible.
Cyclonic winds also block the roads by uprooting trees along the roadsides or bringing other
debris and accumulating them on the roads.
Sandstorms and dust storms also play havoc to the road traffic as visibility becomes very low.
Excessive rainfall also causes flooding of the roads which brings a lot of inconvenience to the
roads traffic and sometimes even halts it completely.
z Elements of weather like temperature, rainfall and conditions leading to fog, snow etc. also affect
the rail transport.
Rail tracks are severely affected due to seasonal variations in temperature conditions.
Freezing temperatures sometimes bring about fractures in the tracks, the condition being more
prevalent in the states of Punjab, Haryana, Western Uttar Pradesh, Rajasthan, etc. in India.
Fog creates severe visibility problems and delays the trains as they move about very slowly.
Heavy rainfall also causes flooding along the railway tracks and also damages them.
z Weather induced oceanic phenomenon of tides, waves etc. affect the oceanic transport or shipping.
Weather elements like air temperature, precipitation and atmospheric disturbances like cyclones,
hurricanes, tornadoes etc. badly affect the water transport along oceans and seas.
Dense fog also reduces visibility and creates hassles in the water transport.
Temperatures below the freezing point leads to the formation of icebergs which creates obstacles
in water navigation.

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Climate and Recreational Activities and Tourism

z Climate affects several forms of recreation and tourism industry.
Some of the recreational activities like skiing, directly depend on sub-freezing temperatures and
snowfall.
Similarly, sports events, especially outdoor ones, also depend on good weather. So, activities like
hill tracking, skiing, gliding, surfing, etc. are weather dependent sports.
On the other hand, sports like football, cricket, rugby, volleyball, etc. are weather-interference
sports as they are interfered with or interrupted by weather activities like rainfall, thunderstorms,
dust storms, fog, etc.
z It is obvious that climatic factors affecting tourism and recreation are air temperature, sunshine,
humidity, cloudiness, wind speed, etc.
z Based on these tourisms can be grouped into two categories, viz, climate- dependent tourism and
attractiveness-dependent tourism.
Visits to hill stations like Kullu, Manali, Dharmshala in Himachal Pradesh, during summers are
examples of climate dependent tourism while visits to Sahastradhara falls in Dehradun is an
example of attractiveness-based tourism.
z Religious Tourism: It is also dependent on weather and climatic conditions as several religious
places are situated at high altitudes which are landslide prone.
Usually, rainy seasons are avoided by tourists as landslides are more frequent due to rain.
Besides, some religious places situated at high elevations are open only for a limited duration
during the summers to avoid extreme freezing temperatures prevailing there.
For example, visit to Char Dham (Kedarnath, Badrinath, Yamunotri, Gangotri), Kailash
Manasarovar, etc.
Climate and Energy Requirement
Climate has a direct impact on the amount of energy consumed.
Extremes of temperatures lead to greater consumption of energy.
The human body needs an optimum amount of temperature.
If the temperature rises to an intolerable extent, then power is needed to run air-conditioners
to cool the room to an optimum level so that it becomes comfortable. Reverse is the condition if
a place experience freezing temperature. In that case extra power is required to operate blowers
and air-conditioners that produce a warming effect in the room.
z Power companies often take suggestions from climatologists so as to get an estimate of the power
needed for a particular season based on climatic forecasts.
z Climatologists also give suggestions regarding the feasibility of exploring the use of non-conventional
sources of energy for a particular place which could in fact reduce burden on fossils fuels and save
environment by providing green energy.
Climate and Animal Husbandry
z Meat and Milk products are obtained by animals which are dependent on pastures and feed crops.
z Pastureland and crops are highly influenced by climatic factors.
z Of all the climatic elements affecting animal husbandry, temperature factor is indeed the most
important.
If the temperature is very high, milk produced from animals is less.
It is required to maintain the temperature otherwise continuous high temperature reduces yield
of flesh and fat from animals.
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z Precipitation has a direct effect on animals.

Availability of grass in the pastures is much reduced because of snowfall.
Animals feel discomfort in extreme relative humidity conditions.
z In animal husbandry, natural or artificial shelters are built to keep the animals safe from the negative
effect of climate.
By heating or air conditioning, temperature is controlled in animal shelters.
Climate and Insurance Sector

z The insurance and risk management sector are also directly influenced by weather and climate.
z Disasters do happen when people settle in areas vulnerable to hazards. Recently a lot of developmental
activities have come up in hazard prone areas.
This has led to greater inhabitation or settlement of those areas compared to the past.
Sometimes even the carrying capacity of those regions has exceeded and any hazard would result
in severe loss of life and property.
A very good example of this can be seen in the given figure which shows Kedarnath area in 1882
and 2011.
Settlements around Kedarnath Temple Area in the Year 1882 (left) and 2011 (right)
So many settlements have come up in these years around the temple area which is landslide
prone especially during the rainy season.
This was one of the main reasons why so many people lost their lives in the heavy rains in 2013,
when the area experienced multiple landslides and also breach of Chorabari Lake which washed
away the entire settled area around the Kedarnath temple.
z So again, consultancy of atmospheric scientists is taken by insurance and risk management companies
as well as National Disaster management agencies of government in the form of prewarning given
by them.
This helps in prior evacuation of the areas and save life and to some extent curtail the loss of
property too.
Climate and Health
z The human body can survive in certain suites of climatic conditions therefore an optimum amount
of light, sunshine, temperature, humidity, precipitation and above all a requisite amount of oxygen
are required.
z If any of these parameters are above or below an optimum level, there is an adverse effect on human
health. Some of the examples are given below:
At high altitudes, that is, in mountainous regions, there is lack of oxygen, due to low air pressure
in those regions.
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Also, while travelling towards higher altitudes, one often gets nausea or experience bleeding
from the nose. This is also called mountain sickness. This happens because body pressure is high
compared to the surrounding atmospheric pressure in the regions and in order to maintain a
balance between the body and the environment, things like nausea and bleeding occurs and
create a lot of discomfort.
At extremely high altitudes, breathing might be even impossible without the aid of oxygen
cylinders.
Moreover, mountaineers going for higher expeditions like Mt. Everest are often armed with
oxygen cylinders and wear proper insulated dresses to combat the extremely cold winds.
Climate and Health
Climatic Adaptation
z Humans and many other mammals have unusually efficient internal temperature regulating systems
that automatically maintain stable core body temperatures in cold winters and warm summers.
z In addition, people have developed cultural patterns and technologies that help them adjust to
extremes of temperature and humidity.
z Less massive individuals are more often found in warm climates near the equator, while those with
greater bulk, or mass, are found further from the equator in colder regions. This is due to the fact
that big animals generally have larger body masses which result in more heat being produced.
z People living in cold climates prefer drinking alcohol as it increases blood flow to the body extremities,
thereby providing a feeling of warmth.
z With the help of technology, researches are able to stay throughout the year in extremely cold
Antarctica and Arctic regions.
z People are able to live in extremely hot climate of tropical region by using air conditioner.
URBAN CLIMATE
z The urban areas across the world experience a climate distinctive from the regional pattern.
z The process of urbanization changes the physical surroundings and induces changes in the moisture,
energy and motion regime near the earth surface.
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z The clustering of buildings interferes with the wind and atmospheric characteristics to a degree at
least equal to that of a large forest.
z An urban area alters the air’s composition, temperature and precipitation graphs.
z Wind speed is lower in cities or urban areas than in open areas due to the obstructive nature of the
morphology of cities. The actual effect varies with the street design, the season, the time of day, etc.
z The wind tends to channel down streets parallel to the general direction of flow, especially in a city
with canyon like streets (high rise buildings). While if the street pattern is perpendicular to the
wind, strong lee effects may be experienced.
z During the day, city wind speeds are considerably less than surrounding areas, but at night, turbulence
over the city makes contrasts less apparent.
z Rural-urban contrasts are most marked with strong winds and the effects are therefore more evident
in winter than in summers.
There is much greater variation in barometric pressure during the winter than the summer.
On average, high-pressure systems have higher pressure and low-pressure systems are lower
pressure. This leads to a more rapid flow of air between the systems.
This fluctuation is caused by much greater variation in temperature during the winter season.
While most summer days are roughly the same temperature, winter season temperatures fluctuate
dramatically.
z Cities absorb much less water per area as compare to rural areas, as much of the urban area is paved
or built on.
z In some areas this creates a necessity for specific measures to reduce the risk of localized urban
flooding during periods of heavy rainfall.
z Heavy construction activities in flood plains of rivers flowing through urban areas increase the
period and intensity of flooding.
z Urban areas tend to have lower humidity in contrast to rural or forested areas.
z Due to concrete surface, rapid surface run-off removes water.
z The lower density of vegetation, general absence of water bodies, etc. also contribute to lower
humidity and evaporation.
z On the other hand, it seems likely that under certain conditions, thermal and turbulence over urban
areas may trigger off precipitation or thunderstorms.
z Many urban areas encounter more drizzles and thunder than surrounding areas, resulting in a slight
increase in total precipitation.
Urban Heat Island

z The heat island connotes built up areas that are hotter than nearby surrounding areas. An Urban
Heat Island (UHI) is a metropolitan area or urban area that is significantly warmer than its surrounding
rural areas due to anthropogenic activities.
z The phenomenon was first investigated and described by Luke Howard in the early 19th century.
z The temperature difference usually is larger at night than during the day and is most visible when
the winds are weak.
z The typical temperature difference is several degrees between the center of the urban area and
surrounding fields. It can be as high as 10°C.
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Urban Heat Island Profile

z There are mainly three factors responsible for this which are as follows:
The direct production of heat in urban areas from fires, industry, home, etc.
Heat conserving properties of the bricks and fabric of the urban areas.
Blanketing effect by atmospheric pollution (dust dome) on outgoing radiation.
z Heat trapped in concrete buildings and pavements during daytime is released very slowly in the
atmosphere in the form of long wave radiation, making cooling a slow process.
z With a decreased amount of vegetation, urban areas also lose the shade and cooling effect of trees,
the lower albedo of their leaves and the removal of carbon dioxide.
z The tall buildings within many urban areas provide multiple surfaces for the absorption and reflection
of sunlight, increasing the efficiency with which urban areas are heated or get warmed.
z Tall buildings also create resistance to cooling process by convection and pollution from dissipating.
z Chemicals emitted by industries, vehicles, etc. affect sunshine in different ways, often trapping it
and creating more heat.
z All these factors contributed to changes in the energy balance of the urban area.
z As the population of urban center grows, it tends to expand its area and increase its average
temperature.
For instance, Los Angeles has been largely affected by its UHI. The city has seen its average
temperature rise approximately 0.5 °C every decade since World War II (the beginning of super-
urban growth of the city).
Other cities or urban areas have seen increases of 0.1°-0.4°C each decade.
z Each city’s UHI varies based on the morphology of the city and thus the range of temperatures within
the UHI varies as well.
z Parks, greenbelts, etc. reduce temperatures while the commercial areas, Central Business District
(CBD) and even suburban housing tracts are areas of higher temperatures.
z Every building, road, house alters the microclimate around it, contributing to the UHI of the cities.
z Impact on Urban Dwellers
The increased heat and temperature of urban areas increases discomfort for everyone inhabiting
the area.
Building and houses require an increase in the amount of energy used for cooling purposes.

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The UHI decreases quality of air by increasing the production of pollutants such as ozone and
decreases quality of water as warmer and hot waters flow into streams and create stress on their
ecosystems.
Increased heat enhances photochemical reactions, which increases the particles or condensation
nuclei in the atmosphere and thus contributes to the formation of smog and clouds.
For instance, London receives around 270 fewer hours of sunlight than the surrounding
countryside due to clouds and smog.
Ways to Curb UHI Effect
The UHI effect can be counteracted in several ways which are as follows:
z To enhance the albedo, the most prominent is to use light or white color or reflective materials in
construction activities that is in roof tops, houses, road, pavements, etc.
Black or dark surfaces can be up to 21°C warmer than light or white surfaces and that excess
heat is transferred to the building itself, making an increased need for cooling. By switching to
light colored roofs, buildings can conserve around 40% less energy.
z Use of green roof is another measure to the mitigation of the UHI effect.
The roof of a building is completely or partially covered by vegetation and a growing medium,
planted over a waterproofing membrane.
To treat grey water, rooftop ponds (another form of green roof) is used.
Apart from mitigating the UHI effect, green roofs serve several purposes for a building like
providing insulation, absorbing rainwater, creating a habitat for wildlife, helping to lower urban
air temperatures, etc.
Economically, it reduces energy usage, increases life span of roof, brings tax incentives provided
by the government, etc.
z Green Building is constructed in a way that is resource-efficient and environmentally sustainable.
Sunlight is used efficiently within the building. It lessens the building’s overall energy consumption,
which aids in lessening the impact of UHI.
z An increased amount of well-watered vegetation is also an option to mitigate UHI effect. It has been
empirically proven that areas with more trees have the greatest cooling potential per unit area. The
air temperature drops as a result of their increased evapotranspiration. Trees can lower energy
expenses by 10% to 20%.
z Typically, UHI mitigation is part of a community’s energy, air quality, water or sustainability effort.
z Activities to reduce heat islands involves voluntary initiatives, such as cool pavement demonstration
projects, to regulatory actions, such as requiring cool roofs via building codes.
z Most mitigation activities have numerous benefits, including cleaner air, improved human health
and comfort, reduced energy costs, lower greenhouse gas emissions, etc.
Urban Climate and Global Climate Change

z Urban climatic changes are closely related to the effects of global climate change.
z Urban areas, which are hubs for socioeconomic activity, emit significant volumes of greenhouse
gases, most notably CO2, as a result of human activities including transportation, development (such
as the production of concrete) and waste related to heating and cooling requirements, etc.
z Urban areas are the biggest consumers of energy that is primarily derived from fossil fuels.
z Most of the cities are vulnerable to the projected consequences of climate change (sea level rise,
changes in temperature, storm frequency, precipitation) as most develop on or near coastlines,
nearly all produce distinctive UHIs and atmospheric pollution.

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APPLIED CLIMATOLOGY

Definition and Scope

Collection of meteorological data

641, Mukherjee Nagar, 21 Pusa Road, Tashkent Marg, Tonk Road,

Transmission of data to various stations and storage centers

Spatial and temporal representativeness

Archival storage of data

Sources of Climatological Data

Climate and Natural System

641, Mukherjee Nagar, 21 Pusa Road, Tashkent Marg, Tonk Road,

Climate and Natural System

Climate and Societal System

Climate and Agriculture

641, Mukherjee Nagar, 21 Pusa Road, Tashkent Marg, Tonk Road,

Climate and Recreational Activities and Tourism

z Precipitation has a direct effect on animals.

Climate and Insurance Sector

Climate and Health

Urban Heat Island

Urban Heat Island Profile

641, Mukherjee Nagar, 21 Pusa Road, Tashkent Marg, Tonk Road,

Urban Climate and Global Climate Change

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Applied Climatology.

Uploaded by

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Applied Climatology.

Uploaded by

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Available Formats

APPLIED CLIMATOLOGY

Definition and Scope

 Collection of meteorological data

641, Mukherjee Nagar, 21 Pusa Road, Tashkent Marg, Tonk Road,

 Transmission of data to various stations and storage centers

 Spatial and temporal representativeness

 Archival storage of data

Sources of Climatological Data

Climate and Natural System

641, Mukherjee Nagar, 21 Pusa Road, Tashkent Marg, Tonk Road,

Climate and Natural System

Climate and Societal System

Climate and Agriculture

641, Mukherjee Nagar, 21 Pusa Road, Tashkent Marg, Tonk Road,

Climate and Recreational Activities and Tourism

z Precipitation has a direct effect on animals.

Climate and Insurance Sector

Climate and Health

Urban Heat Island

Urban Heat Island Profile

641, Mukherjee Nagar, 21 Pusa Road, Tashkent Marg, Tonk Road,

Urban Climate and Global Climate Change

You might also like

Collection of meteorological data

Transmission of data to various stations and storage centers

Spatial and temporal representativeness

Archival storage of data