: AN OVERVIEW OF LOGIC

Course Objectives:

At the end of the chapter, the students are expected to:

1. Explain the importance of reasoning;

2. Define logic;
3. Compare and contrast the kinds and divisions of logic; and
4. Appreciate the importance of logic.

Man gets to know reality in a partial and step by step manner. This process of knowing
which he engages into is called reasoning. Reasoning would not have been necessary if only
man has all the knowledge about the whole of reality. But since his knowledge is limited,
reasoning plays an important role to his life. Reasoning enables him to get in touch with reality;
it enables him to gain more knowledge; and it enables him to fulfil his purpose or essence, that
is, to know.

In his day to day life, he uses reasoning. Actually, it is a part and parcel of human
existence. When man studies his lessons, for example, he reasons out, he rationalizes. When
he argues about life, he reasons out. When he chats with his friends, or when he investigates
simple or complex things, he uses reasoning. And there are two kinds of reasoning that man
uses consciously or unconsciously.

TWO KINDS OF REASONING

1. INDUCTIVE REASONING – the kind of reasoning from which man gains a universal
knowledge based on particular knowledge.

1
 Example:

Pedro is a man and he is mortal.

Lando is a man and he is mortal.
Letty is a man and she is mortal.
Sheila is a man and she is mortal.

The above truth claims are all particular knowledge. If they are true, then the
proper universal knowledge that can be derived from them is that “Every man is mortal”.

2. DEDUCTIVE REASONING – the kind of reasoning from which man gains a particular
knowledge based on a universal knowledge.
Example:

Every student is a learner. - Universal Knowledge

But Godofredo is a student. - Particular Knowledge
Therefore, Godofredo is a learner. - New Particular Knowledge

In the above syllogism, “Every student is a learner” is a known fact. If it is true

that Godofredo is a student, then it is a necessary consequence that he is a learner.

LOGIC DEFINED

Reasoning and Logic are oftentimes synonymous. Actually, when a person says to
another that he has no logic, it means that he (the other) has no reasoning. Logic requires a
person to be reasonable and to be a critical thinker. But although the two terms are alike with
one another, and sometimes interchangeable, they are not totally the same. The act of
reasoning is endowed to man and logic is being studied in order for man to polish his reasoning.

2
 1. Logic, etymologically speaking, comes from the Greek words logike which means a
treatise pertaining to matters of thought. Hence, we can say that logic is an activity of the
mind.

2. Logic is order and consistency. It is the science of those principles, laws and methods
which the mind of man must follow in its thinking for the secure and accurate attainment
of truth. In short, logic is the science and art of correct thinking.

ELEMENTS IN THE DEFINITION OF LOGIC

1. Logic is a science because it is a body of organized methods of tried and true knowledge
which is concerned with the rectitude of reasoning.

2. Logic is an art because argument in logic is done beautifully with habitual validity, ease,
clarity, correctness, objectivity, and certainty.

3. Logic is correct thinking because it conforms to the rules of correctness; in an argument,

premises have sufficiently grounds as basis for conclusion.

THE FORMAL OBJECT OF LOGIC

Logic deals with reasoning. It is true that there are valid arguments which can build valid
or invalid inferences. The soundness of reasoning is important. A sound argument is the one
which is valid and true. Thus, logic is concerned with sound arguments.

Example: All sharks are mammals.

But some mammals are sea-creatures.
Therefore, some sea-creatures are sharks.

3
 Another argument follows:

All politicians are corrupt.

But Mayor Malaki is a politician.
Therefore, Mayor Malaki is corrupt.

This inference is not sound, but maybe considered valid. A valid argument is one whose
premises, if they are assumed to be true, entail this conclusion. The major premise: “All
politicians are corrupt” is not universally true because there are still politicians who are not
corrupt.

Logic is concerned only in the correctness and validity of the reasoning since it is the
formal object of logic. It is not concerned with the truth and falsity of the premises or of the
conclusion. For reasoning to achieve consistency, it must be in accordance with the rules,
patterns, and principles which logic teaches.

TYPES OF LOGIC

1. FORMAL LOGIC – that which is concerned with the aspect of form, its structure,
correctness, sequence and following of the rules. It looks whether or not there is
conformity with the given standards, or with the existing rules of logic.

Examples: Every man is mortal.

But Pedro is a man.
Therefore, Pedro is mortal.

If it rains, the ground will be wet.

It rained.
Therefore, the ground is wet.

The above inferences are sound and valid because they follow all the rules set forth by
logic. (The rules will be explained as we reach the topic about inference)

4
2. MATERIAL LOGIC – that which is concerned with the subject matter, content, or truth.
It looks at whether there is conformity with reality.

Examples: All heroes are brave.

But Andres Bonifacio is brave.
Therefore, Andres Bonifacio is a hero.

Some men are swimmers.

But all swimmers are athletic.
Therefore, some athletic are men.

In material logic, the validity of the inference does not depend on the rules applied but,
rather, on the conformity of the arguments with reality. The propositions in the above
syllogisms are all true.

3. DEDUCTIVE LOGIC – that which a conclusion logically flows from the premises. It is
also called formal deductive logic. It is from universal to particular. It implies necessity.

Examples: All crocodiles are reptiles.

But Lolong is a crocodile.
Therefore, Lolong is a reptile.

Every dog is not a pig.

But Kabang is a dog.
Therefore, Kabang is not a pig.

4. INDUCTIVE LOGIC – that which the argument flows from specific to general or
particular to universal. Inductive logic implies a sense of probability.

Example: Cellphone falls; This key falls; This toothbrush falls; This ball falls;
Therefore, bodily objects fall.

5
 THREE MENTAL OPERATIONS

1. SIMPLE APPREHENSION – the act by which the intellect grasps the essence of a thing.
This act produces ideas or concepts which are materialized through terms. In this
process, perception is important. Perception is the direct contact of the senses with the
objects of knowledge. Philosophers argue that “nothing is in the intellect which one does
not have in the senses.” For example, a person who is born blind is impossible to have
the idea of colors, shapes, lines and the like. It is true that in order for simple
apprehension to come about, perception must first take place.

Examples of ideas or concepts: red, table, big, cell phone, Pedro

2. JUDGMENT – the act by which the intellect pronounces upon the agreement and the
disagreement between two or more ideas, which the mind has formed and compared.
Judgment produces enunciation and is externalized though proposition.

Examples of judgment or propositions:

The table is red.

Pedro’s cell phone is big.

3. REASONING – the act by which the intellect relates several judgments to arrive at a
new judgment that necessarily follows from the relationships established. The product of
reasoning is argument and its material expression is syllogism.

Example: Every cell phone is an electronic gadget.

But Blackberry is a cell phone.
Therefore, Blackberry is an electronic gadget.