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Table of Contents
I nteg ri ped i a
A community-sourced encyclopedia of Asset
Integrity Management terms and definitions. 10 NextGen Credentials: Shaping the Workforce of the Future
We need your help continuing to expand our
Andri Orphanides, API
library of terms.
12 What Differentiates an Average Inspectioneer from a
inspectioneering.com/topics High-Performing One?
John Reynolds, Intertek AIM and Inspectioneering SME
The In sp ec t i o n e e r
A free weekly e-newsletter containing 19 Process Heater Tube Temperature Monitoring Overview,
featured content, news recaps, industry Best Practices, and Examples
updates, and upcoming events. Grant Jacobson, Becht
inspectioneering.com/newsletters \26 An Inspection Planning Process for Equipment Susceptible

to Sulfide Stress Cracking
Neither this publication nor any part of it may Jeffrey DeMet, Phillips 66
be reproduced, stored in any retrieval system, or
transmitted in any form or by any means, electronic, 34 Comparing Conventional AUT and Phased Array AUT
mechanical, photocopying, recording or otherwise, Corrosion Mapping
without the prior permission of Inspectioneering, Chase David, Gecko Robotics
LLC. Inspectioneering Journal (ISSN 1082-6955)
is published bi-monthly, by Inspectioneering, LLC,
39 NDE Methods for Detecting In-Service FRP Damage
24900 Pitkin Road, Suite 325, Spring, TX 77386 Geoff Clarkson, P.Eng., UTComp Inc.
USA. Inspectioneering Journal is a registered
trademark of Inspectioneering, LLC.
44 The New API 579 Part 15, Piping Vibration: An Interview
with Lyle Breaux, Team Lead
Postmaster: Send address changes to
Fitness-for-Service Forum with Greg Garic, PE, Stress Engineering Services
Inspectioneering, LLC, 24900 Pitkin Road,
Suite 325, Spring, TX 77386 USA.
49 High-Temperature Creep Detection
Design and layout by Heather Cobb. Damage Control with Phillip E. Prueter, PE, The Equity Engineering Group, Inc.
Printed by Alliance Graphics and Printing,
5225 Hollister, Houston, TX 77040 USA
Copyright © 2024 Inspectioneering, LLC.

All rights reserved.
Other Fe atures
04 Floor Plan 09 Publisher's Note
05 Exhibitor Listing 57 Puzzle Time
07 Corporate Members
2024 API INSPECTION & MECHANICAL INTEGRITY SUMMIT Inspectioneering Journal 3

INSPECTION & MECHANICAL INTEGRITY SUMMIT BOOTH CO
01/23/24 - 01/25/24 Inventory as of 12/05/2023
0 SqFt Rented
15,100 SqFt Available
HENRY B GONZALEZ
FLOORCONVENTION CENTER - EXHIBIT HALL 4B - SAN ANTONIO,
Dimension Siz
10'x10' 10
EXHIBIT HALL PLAN

10'x20' 20
20'x20' 40
TX
Totals
BLDG. LEG
FIRE & SAFETY

FH - FIRE HOSE
FX - FIRE EXTIN
FS - FIRE STRO
SLIDING DOOR FA - FIRE ALARM
COLUMNS DE
3'
3'-8"
FX FX
8' High x 70'L Drape
8'-4"
4'-10"
FX
8' High x 23'-4"L Drape

733 731 729 727 725 723 721 719 717 715 713 711 BUILDI
INTERIOR BUILDING S
72" TABLE
W/10 CHAIRS
72" TABLE
W/10 CHAIRS
72" TABLE
W/10 CHAIRS
72" TABLE
W/10 CHAIRS
72" TABLE
W/10 CHAIRS 10' 9' = FLOOR PORTS
735 10' 709 PL = PLANTER
Exhibitor Presentation Theater

= NARROW AISLE
72" TABLE 72" TABLE 72" TABLE 72" TABLE 72" TABLE Attendee Lounge 7' 5'
FLOOR PORTS AR
737
W/10 CHAIRS W/10 CHAIRS W/10 CHAIRS W/10 CHAIRS W/10 CHAIRS
CENTER.
PO
DI
UM
GEN
5.8' x 10' SCREEN

10'
20' 20'
LCD
10' 9' · ALL DRAPE LINES
72" TABLE
W/10 CHAIRS
72" TABLE
W/10 CHAIRS
72" TABLE
W/10 CHAIRS
72" TABLE
W/10 CHAIRS
72" TABLE
W/10 CHAIRS
PER ON-SIGHT FI
20' 30'
INT'L
72" TABLE 72" TABLE 72" TABLE 72" TABLE 72" TABLE 732 730 728 726 724 722 720 718 716
712
20'
ATM RESTAURA
15'
INFORMATION
MACHINE
633 631 629 625 623 621 619 617 615

WOMENS MENS ESCALAT
RESTROOM RESTROOM
72" TABLE
W/10 CHAIRS
72" TABLE
W/10 CHAIRS
72" TABLE
W/10 CHAIRS
72" TABLE
W/10 CHAIRS
72" TABLE
W/10 CHAIRS 613 Boneyard
10'
SERVICE NURSING CONVENT
ELEVATOR SERVICE
65' x 39'
ROOM
STORAGE FREIGHT ELECTR
20' 20' 20' ENTRANCE
72" TABLE
W/10 CHAIRS
72" TABLE
W/10 CHAIRS
72" TABLE
W/10 CHAIRS
20'
632 624 622 620 614 LINETYPE LEG
20'
30' 20' 513 ROLL-UP DOO
4' AIRWALLS
531 525 523 521 519 515 6' T Draped 6' T Draped 6' T Draped 6' T Draped
LOW CEILING
LUNCHEON 10' KEEP CLEAR

Partner Row
6' T Draped
13' 25'
20'
6' T Draped 6' T Draped 6' T Draped 6' T Draped
72" TABLE 72" TABLE 72" TABLE 72" TABLE 72" TABLE
4'
520 518 514 512 510 508 506 504 500 78'-10"
20'
419 415 413 411 409 407 405 403 401

W/10 CHAIRS W/10 CHAIRS W/10 CHAIRS W/10 CHAIRS W/10 CHAIRS 7'-11"
Mechanical
10' Room
72" TABLE
W/10 CHAIRS
72" TABLE
W/10 CHAIRS
72" TABLE
W/10 CHAIRS
72" TABLE
W/10 CHAIRS
72" TABLE
W/10 CHAIRS
OFFICE
20' 20'
OFFICE
418 414 412 410 408 406 404
20'
10' 20'
20'
FX
319 315 313 311 309 305 301

10'
20' 20' 20' 20' ENTRANCE

72" TABLE 72" TABLE 72" TABLE
W/10 CHAIRS W/10 CHAIRS W/10 CHAIRS
306
20' 30' 20' 20'
INSPECTIONEERING
LUNCHEON 320 211 207 205 201
FX
10'
20' 20' 20' 13'-3"
6' TABLE
218 214 212 210 206 204 200

6' TABLE
20' 20' 20' REGISTRATION FS
W/10 CHAIRS W/10 CHAIRS W/10 CHAIRS W/10 CHAIRS W/10 CHAIRS 6'H
6' TABLE
121 119 115 111 109 105 101

72" TABLE
W/10 CHAIRS
72" TABLE
W/10 CHAIRS
72" TABLE
W/10 CHAIRS
72" TABLE
W/10 CHAIRS
72" TABLE
W/10 CHAIRS 10'
20' 20'
114 112 110 108 106 104
20' 10' 20'

20' EXIT
9'7"H
72" TABLE
W/10 CHAIRS
72" TABLE
W/10 CHAIRS
72" TABLE
W/10 CHAIRS
72" TABLE
W/10 CHAIRS
72" TABLE
W/10 CHAIRS
019 015 013 011 009 007 001
81 - 72" Round Tables
19'
w/ 10 chairs each ENTRANCE
Seating Total 810
FA
FIRE EXIT FIRE EXIT FX FIRE EXIT FX FS FX
HALL 4A HALL 4B HALL 4B UTILITIES OFFICE
ENTRANCE ENTRANCE ENTRANCE

H
NC
BE
IS2401\Event\Floor Plans\IMIS24.dwg | Tab Name: L10706302 FP
DRAWING I
PREFUNCTION
Passport Line Item
Inspectioneering raffle participant #10706

FX Facility:
HENRY B GON
CENTER
Facility Location:
EXHIBIT HALL
City & State:
SAN ANTONIO
Scale: CUSTOM
Project #: 524711
4 Inspectioneering Journal 2024 API INSPECTION & MECHANICAL INTEGRITY SUMMIT Acct. Sales: MAD
Acct. Mgmt.: MAD
Started: 11/16/20
Started By: JO AN
EXHIBITOR LISTING
COMPANY BOOTH COMPANY BOOTH COMPANY BOOTH

Abyss Solutions 211 Guided Ultrasonics Ltd. 110 SMC Industries 731
Access Plug Flange, LLC 725 Guided Wave Analysis, LLC 508 Sonaspection 726
Acuren Inspection 11 HMT Inspection 9 Sonatest, Inc. 410
Aegeus Inspections HUVRData 713 Southwest Research
19 512
Solutions Inductosense Ltd 711 Institute
Alban NDE 724 STATS Group 723
INGU 311
Alleima 13 Streamline Inspection
INPRO 309 721
Amerapex 319 Limited
Integrity EPC 622
American Society for Stress Engineering Services 632
405 Ionix Advanced Technologies 119
Nondestructive Testing Team Industrial Services,
IRED 719 513
AMETEK/Creaform 104 Inc.
Iris Inspection Services, Inc. 727 TechCorr USA Management,
Arctic Testing & Inspection 613 621
IRISNDT 101 LLC
AsInt 415
JIREH 112 TesTex, Inc. 620
Audubon Companies 712
KnightHawk Engineering, Texas Stress 520
AUT Solutions 115 305
Inc. The Phased Array Company,
Becht 218 414
Lake Superior Consulting 615 LLC
Bilfinger 733
Lavender International NDT Thermo Fisher Scientific 519
Carestream NDT 717 514
USA Tier 1 Integrity Engineering
ClampOn 617 MFE Inspection Solutions 716 and Inspection 633
Cognascents Consulting MISTRAS Group 320 Professionals
207
Group TLV Corporation 401
MMT 315
Cokebusters 412 Trinity Consultants |
mPACT2WO, a Molex 715
Collins Engineers, Inc. 205 114 Provenance
Business
Conco Services, LLC 214 NDT Seals, Inc. 413 Trinity Rental Services 204
CoreStar International Corp. 737 NDT Spot, Inc. 403 TRU Solutions 15
Cygnus Instruments Ltd 518 NVI 106 Turnaround Consulting
200
DÜRR NDT GmbH & Co. KG 525 Oceaneering 105 Services
E²G | The Equity Engineering Olivier International 722 Turner Specialty Services,
301 732
Group, Inc. LLC
Oplii 510
Eddyfi Technologies 614 USA DeBusk 1
Phoenix Inspection Systems
EMB Management 108 500 UTComp 404
Ltd
Emerson 523 Pinnacle 201 Varex Imaging 408
Encorus Group 406 PK Technology 109 Vermon NDT 729
Engineering & Inspection Pond & Company 121 ViewTech Borescopes 313
206
Services VisualAIM, LLC 619
Pro-Surve Technical
ENR Pipeline Products 730 631 Vysus Group 629
Services
Evident Scientific, Inc. 504 PROtect, LLC 515 Waygate Technologies 709
Fixed Equipment Reliability Qi2 Elements 506 WJE Associates 411
625
(FER) QSA Global, Inc. 531 Wood 521
FlawTech America, LLC 624 Quality Equipment
728
Flyability 718 Distributors
Foerster Instruments Inc. 407 Quest Integrity 306
FUJIFILM North America ROSEN USA 7
623
Corporation SciAps 111
G.R. Stucker & Associates, Sentinel Integrity-Solutions,
409 419
Inc. Inc.
Gecko Robotics 418 SKIPPER NDT 210

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Of f i ce
Raising the Bar at the Inspection
Please address all correspondence to:
24900 Pitkin Road, Suite 325
and Mechanical Integrity Summit
Spring, TX 77386 USA
Welcome to the 2024 API Inspection and Mechanical Integrity Summit! This is the ninth
Journa l S ta f f edition of the biennial conference that started way back in 2007. Since its inception, the
Summit has become a cornerstone event for inspection and MI professionals. The ninth
Chief Editor
biennial conference in 2024 continues this tradition of excellence, bringing together
Gregory Alvarado
the legends and leaders of the industry. Certainly, you are here because of your own
VP and Technical Director thirst for knowledge and continuous improvement—you are here to raise the bar.
Nick Schmoyer
Born out of the SCIMI committee members and industry leaders with the idea that
VP and General Counsel inspectors should be brought together to collaborate and learn from one another,
Jeremiah Wooten the first iteration of this event kicked off on February 7, 2007 as the “API Inspector
Summit.” The conference organizers had lofty goals and a mission to create a recurring
VP, Sales & Marketing
meeting place for the best and the brightest MI practitioners, although the first few
Christopher Levy
events were focused on downstream operations—primarily refining. Over the years, as
Business Development Manager interest grew, additional tracks were added for upstream and midstream verticals, as
Josh Means well as specialty tracks for important areas to cover the entire industry (e.g., risk-based
inspection). Then, it was expanded to span training courses, panel discussions, and
Ed i to ri a l B o a r d
technology demonstrations to become the Summit we know today.
Senior Editor
The first edition of the Summit had roughly 40 technical presentations and around
John Reynolds
400 attendees. Since then, with increased attendance and interest, we’ve outgrown the
original home of the conference in Galveston and relocated to San Antonio, a vibrant
Technical Editors
cultural center with a strong energy presence. In 2022, over 1,600 attendees stepped
Mark Geisenhoff
foot into the Henry B. Gonzalez Convention Center to participate in 279 technical
John Harville
sessions, 17 training courses, and 12 panel discussions, not to mention the exhibition
Art Jensen
hall containing 99 product and service companies. This time around, don’t be surprised
Lynne Kaley
if we surpass 2,000 attendees!
John Nyholt
Dave Osage The 2024 Summit offers an array of technical sessions divided into four tracks:
Chad Patschke Upstream, Midstream, Downstream, and Multi-Sector. There are over 300
Brent Ray presentations on the calendar, all of which have been rigorously reviewed and approved
Shane Roysum by the planning committee. Additionally, we’re hosting nearly 30 training sessions
Clay White (4- and 8-hour courses) covering topics ranging from tank inspection to turnaround
George Williamson planning, and hosting over 100 exhibitors setting up in the Exhibit Hall. Expect to see
Josh Yoakam software demonstrations, state-of-the-art NDT technologies, and the occasional robotic
dog roaming around the hall.
Su bs cri p ti o n
Perhaps more important than the educational possibilities provided by this event are
For our latest subscription pricing visit the immense networking opportunities. What better chance is there than this one to
inspectioneering.com/subscribe be around so many like-minded individuals? We hope you are able to catch up with old
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For subscription service, please
contact by telephone or email at We appreciate you joining us for the 2024 Inspection Summit, and invite you to
the details below: share your feedback on how we can improve between now and the 10th anniversary
Inspection and Mechanical Integrity Summit, which will take place in 2026. You can
Phone: +1 (281) 397-7075
provide general feedback in the conference app, and you’ll be able to provide remarks
Email: inquiries@inspectioneering com
about specific sessions after attending them. We take your words to heart.
Andri Orphanides
Director, Individual Certification Programs at API
Nick Schmoyer
Managing Partner at Inspectioneering

NextGen Credentials: Shaping the Workforce
of the Future
Andri Orphanides, Director, Individual Certification Programs at API
Technology is producing profound impacts on our world, chang- engage with the industry for input and insights as we start to
ing the way we live and work. This transformation is equally build the roadmap of possibilities. An industry survey will follow
visible in the oil and gas industry, which has embraced technolog- to help inform and guide the group’s work. As with all of our pro-
ical innovations to increase efficiency. More and more jobs now grams, we will look for the appropriate committee consensus on
utilize cutting-edge tools that require a deeper knowledge from steps to take and actions to prioritize.
those operating or overseeing asset integrity, helping to keep the
industry safe and reliable. Future Forward Success
Sustained success in the oil and gas industry will reflect our abil-
Recognizing these changes, over the last year, API embarked on
ity to develop a skilled and future-ready workforce. The NextGen
exploring the concept of NextGen Credentials to assist in trans-
Credentials Concept is a strategic initiative that fosters this ambi-
forming the workforce that is and will be needed. Technology has
tion, a commitment to help industry professionals gain the skills
become an integral part of our industry, with emerging trends
to excel in a rapidly evolving technological landscape.
that include big data analytics, robotics, drones, and automation,
to name just a few. As these trends unfold, new job functions are I will be presenting a deep dive into the NextGen Credentials
emerging, and new departments are forming to address IT needs Concept at the 2024 Inspection Summit (see below). I invite you
and new equipment. With new techniques and procedures intro- to learn more about this transformative journey. Together, we can
duced, the requisite skillsets are being reassessed. shape a workforce that can meet our industry’s emerging chal-
lenges and opportunities. n
Technology and AI will not replace the individual’s job; rather, the
individual who knows how to apply these tools will be in high For more information on this subject or the author, please email
demand. Several factors merit consideration: attracting new tal- us at inquiries@inspectioneering.com.
ent to our industry, understanding how traditional field inspector
roles are changing, and helping upskill the current workforce to
remain relevant for emerging job functions. The author of this article, Andri Orphanides,
Our industry has, at times, struggled to attract talent from Science, will be speaking at a session called “NextGen
Technology, Engineering, and Mathematics (STEM) fields. As the
aging workforce exits the industry, the knowledge gap will widen. Credentialing: Bridging the Technology Gap” at
Gen Zers seem skeptical and slow to embrace job opportunities in the API Inspection & Mechanical Integrity Summit.
oil and gas.
The session is scheduled for Thursday, January 25
How do we bridge this gap? at 1:30 PM CST in room 210B. Please refer to API’s
The ICP Program has partnered with industry experts to under-
stand how it can further support the oil and gas industry by conference program for more information.
expanding its certification programs to incorporate new prac-
tices that rely on emerging technologies. The goal was to create
a senior-level, member-driven workgroup across all industry
streams to discuss and research new job functions.
What question are we trying to answer?

Is there a need to marry professional credentials with the tech-
nological needs of the industry to establish a base standard for
qualified individuals?
The workgroup has begun researching and discussing emerging
technologies. They are identifying areas within the oil and gas
industry where qualified professionals are required, determining
the job categories and functions, and assessing areas where certi-
fication of individuals is necessary. After prioritizing those roles,
we will see if there is industry support to move forward.
We are not undertaking this journey alone. We will continue to
10 Inspectioneering Journal 2024 API INSPECTION & MECHANICAL INTEGRITY SUMMIT

We have more seats on
codes and standards
committees than all the
majors combined.
LEADERSHIP
POSITIONS
ACTIVE
MEMBERSHIPS
VALUE
AMPP AMPP More than just general knowledge as to
EXPERTISE what the standards specify; we provide
API API expert insight as to why.
ASCE ASCE A deeper understanding of code

RISK
ASME ASME REDUCTION
requirements yields improved solutions
that reduce risk.
GPA
ASTM Compliance is ensured with an advanced
MTI COMPLIANCE insight to the depth and breadth of industry
AWS requirements.
CSA Gain deep industry knowledge without

LEADERSHIP COST the time and cost to attend hundreds of
DOE SAVINGS industry code committee meetings each
POSITIONS year.
GPA
(Former) We promote code development and
MTI ADVOCACY improvements based on client feedback
API and industry needs.
ASME PVP
ASTM US TAG
OTHER
BECHT.COM/CONTACT
/COMPANY/BECHT
Originally published in the November/December 2022 issue of Inspectioneering Journal
What Differentiates an Average Inspectioneer

from a High-Performing One?
John Reynolds, Principal Consultant at Intertek AIM and Inspectioneering SME
Introduction
Are you a high-performing Inspectioneer? First of all, what is an
Inspectioneer? In my mind, it is someone whose primary career/
skill focus is fixed equipment mechanical integrity (FEMI) which
would include a lot of skill sets and titles (e.g., inspector, inspec-
tion supervisor, inspection specialist, inspection engineer, NDE
specialist, FE reliability engineer, RBI engineer, corrosion/mate-
rials specialist, metallurgist, etc.). With that in mind, this article
is all about what I believe it takes to become a high-performing
Inspectioneer.
To begin with, there are a lot of characteristics that differentiate
Figure 1. Distribution of performance among all FEMI Inspectioneers.
high-performers from the “Johnny Paycheck” type (not the sing-
er-songwriter of old, but rather the person who’s just doing a
FEMI job to collect a paycheck). Figure 1 is a bell curve that shows
where high-performing Inspectioneers usually place on the dis-
tribution of the three primary performance levels of all FEMI
personnel.
This bell curve does not mean that acceptable performers (the
middle gold zone in Figure 1) don’t possess any of the following
high-performance characteristics. They often do, and their con-
tributions to the FEMI discipline are much appreciated and even
necessary. We cannot run our industry with only the top 20% of
high-performing Inspectioneers. It takes a lot of valuable FEMI
contributions from that 60% in the middle zone of Figure 1.
However, high performers typically have more of the following
characteristics and are usually higher up on the performance rat-
ing scale. As a result, they typically enjoy their jobs/careers more,
often have greater success in keeping operating facilities safer
and more reliable, and make greater contributions to the advance-
ment of the FEMI discipline. They are also typically more appre-
ciated by their management and, therefore, are usually paid more
over the long run. Also, I recognize that as a career Inspectioneer,
people can progress through the ranks from trainee to journey-
man to senior-level contributors, and even to subject matter
experts (SMEs). As they make this progression, they will have the Figure 2. The six categories of characteristics of high-performing
opportunity to attain and display more of these characteristics. Inspectioneers.
With that said, let’s look at some of the characteristics in which

discipline. They are not listed in any order or priority within each
these higher performing Inspectioneers often exhibit. Below, for
of the six categories.
the sake of organization, I’ve tried to categorize these higher per-
formance characteristics into six broad categories as shown in Passion for FEMI Success
Figure 2.
High-performing Inspectioneers have a passion for FEMI suc-
However, I recognize that many of these attributes can fall into cess, often exhibited by:
more than one of the general categories shown in Figure 2. My
• A passion for doing the best possible FEMI job each day to
selected categories are just for the purpose of organization of
make sure that equipment continues to be safe to operate.
this article and certainly not cast in concrete. With that said, here
are over 70 characteristics that I have observed over the past 50+ • Viewing their involvement in FEMI as a very desirable career
years as being more typical of higher performers in the FEMI and not just a nine-to-five job to earn a living.

• A passion for promoting FEMI ownership/stewardship to other especially for turnarounds staffed by inspectors unfamiliar
FEMI stakeholders (e.g., operations, maintenance, engineering, with the plant.
process technical, management) for all the equipment within
• They are well-versed in the RBI software and standards at those
their area of responsibility. They believe in and promote a con-
sites that are applying RBI for inspection planning.
cept of shared stewardship of assets, where all FEMI stakehold-
ers have an important role and contribute to keep equipment • They apply risk assessment analysis on applicable damage
operating safely and reliably (Look for a ‘Reynolds Wrap Up’ mechanisms to make sure they understand the potential for the
article on shared stewardship in 2023). occurrence of the highest consequence FEMI events [5].
• Deriving a lot of their job satisfaction from being involved in • They are keenly focused on the Big Five FEMI Risk
their FEMI contributions and interacting with other FEMI Management Programs to ensure they are robust enough to
stakeholders. avoid LOPC [6].
• A passion for making sure that all FEMI roles and responsibil- • They understand what FEMI risks are reasonable and cost-ef-
ities are documented, understood, and executed by all applica- fective and what risks are not appropriate. When proposing
ble FEMI stakeholders (e.g., not only the FEMI group, but also changes that affect FEMI risk, they assess both the upside and
operations, maintenance, engineering, and process technical). downside issues related to adopting such changes.
They know that this effort will facilitate all stakeholders
• They apply risk assessment in order to determine the amount
becoming fully aware of the entire scope of the FEMI program
and type of QA/QC needed for fabrication, repairs, and
at the site, and not just those roles/responsibilities directly
replacements [7].
attributable to the FEMI group [1].
• They are well organized, plan ahead, and prioritize most issues
• A passion for FEMI Quality as job one. Top performers consider
on their Do List to help them determine where they will spend
quality an equal or higher priority along with schedule and cost
their time (often using the Eisenhower matrix for important vs.
and are not just focused on getting the job done.
urgent tasks as shown in Figure 3).
FEMI Technical Skill Set
High-performing Inspectioneers typically possess an exceptional
FEMI skill set, often evidenced by the following:
• They are technically savvy and increasingly proficient in the
use of modern FEMI technology and methodology, especially
related to computer analysis and software applications.
• They are dedicated to being the best they can be with their tech-
nical skills (e.g., including those associated with The 101 Essential
Elements in a Pressure Equipment Integrity Management Program
and are always trying to improve their technical skills [2].
• They are highly skilled at writing good quality reports contain-
ing appropriate facts and recommendations without emotional
or subjective terminology.
• They put a priority on a high-quality set of documented FEMI
procedures and practices, keeping them up to date as needed
Figure 3. Eisenhower Matrix for prioritizing FEMI tasks/needs.
and insisting on the need for adherence to them.
• They are “skilled users” of the operating site IDMS system and
• They advocate for appropriate changes to make improvements
insist on high-quality data and information being inputted into
in FEMI practices where they are cost-effective (i.e., they make
the IDMS to produce high-quality analysis and data output.
improvements to outdated FEMI procedures as opposed to just
ignoring them) FEMI Strategic and Technical Leadership
• They proactively keep up-to-date on the latest editions of API High-performing Inspectioneers typically possess strategic and
FEMI codes/standards [3]. technical FEMI leadership skills, such as:
• They are well versed in FEMI risk assessment techniques and • They are advocates for adherence to the principles in API 510,
practice them routinely in FEMI analysis and decision-making, 570, and 653 for in-service inspections and FEMI management
independent of RBI [4]. practices.
• They insist upon detailed inspection planning (with or without • They recognize the value of implementing recommended
RBI), especially for higher-risk equipment and piping, and they practices (‘should’ statements) in API codes and standards
don’t solely rely on other inspectors to know what to look for, and push back on those that are only interested in compliance

with mandatory requirements (‘shall’ statements). They will likely be approved and supported by those that control the
are focused on achieving FEMI excellence and not just available resources needed for project implementation).
minimum requirements.
• They can reach a logical conclusion and make recommenda-
• They are not only skilled at FEMI tactics (i.e., carrying out tions based on collected evidence, analysis and reasoning; they
necessary FEMI instructions/ procedures/ directions), but they avoid biased, subjective, or emotional thinking.
also have more strategic FEMI skills (i.e., can readily envision,
• They are fearless, fact-based decision-makers. They are not
analyze and plan what needs to be implemented after observ-
indecisive or paralyzed in the face of some degree of uncer-
ing a FEMI need or deficiency).
tainty, meaning that they do not suffer from continuous
• They have a significant ability to influence others. They can hesitation (i.e., unlike others who suffer from analysis paralysis
effectively communicate and recommend appropriate changes in that they always want more information before they can
in FEMI work processes, strategies, and tactics with clarity decide what to do). They are willing to make course corrections
in a persuasive manner that will be easily understood, not as needed when valid new information surfaces.
only within their FEMI group, but also across the spectrum
• They set realistic and stretch goals (personal growth and busi-
of other FEMI stakeholders within the organization (e.g.,
ness improvement goals) and review them regularly making
operations, maintenance, engineering, process technical,
appropriate modifications as work dynamics evolve. They also
and management).
set intermediate, realistic milestones to facilitate the achieve-
• They provide technical leadership for adapting and implement- ment of larger goals. They also understand that the road to
ing newer FEMI technology and methodology. Recognizing the achieving their goals is likely to be zigzagged and not a
importance of such efforts, they volunteer for such technical straight line.
leadership roles, often undertaking such roles without being
• They insist upon FEMI involvement in detailed MOC assess-
directed to do so.
ments to evaluate any changes being proposed for FEMI
• They think like a FEMI entrepreneur (i.e., they can put together hardware or changes in the process procedures/conditions that
a structure and work process for an optimum FEMI project that could impact FEMI [8].
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• They recognize and reinforce the importance of having a • They spot and control unnecessary distractions to FEMI efforts
good quality, up-to-date CCD in accordance with API 970 and goals in the workplace. They identify and eliminate low-
that provides a solid foundation for understanding and value work activities and time-wasters.
assessing the impact of applicable damage mechanisms
• They realize that creativity, innovation, and imagination
in each process unit [9,10].
needed to make FEMI improvements are most active at quiet
• They recognize and reinforce the importance of having a times. They don’t let the constant “noise” of busyness block
detailed, up-to-date set of IOWs in accordance with API 584 out valuable quiet time to sit and think about FEMI issues that
for each process unit so that operations fully understands and need improvement.
implements the need for specific operating boundaries such
• They are advocates for cost-effective FEMI solutions (pro-
that operating outside established IOWs will not adversely
ducing the best results without costing too much money (i.e.,
affect the impact of damage mechanisms on FEMI [11].
gaining the greatest benefit for a FEMI practice at a reasonable
• They are advocates for the importance of having a rigorous cost). They make the best use of available resources to solve
investigation process based on API 585 in order to understand FEMI problems.
the reasons for each leak, near-miss, or failure in order to avoid
• They are observant and can identify FEMI problems that need
repeat FEMI failures [12].
resolution to improve cost-effectiveness and efficiency and
• They know the difference between fixed equipment reliability they have the necessary analytical skills for effective FEMI
(FER) and fixed equipment mechanical integrity (FEMI) and problem-solving (collecting, evaluating, and understanding
prioritize FEMI efforts accordingly [13]. information).
FEMI Work Habits and Attitude • They practice situational awareness so that they know what is
going on around them in their workplace regarding FEMI
High-performing Inspectioneers exhibit a strong work ethic and
issues and threats [14].
attitude, often evidenced by the following:
• They understand that other FEMI stakeholders (e.g., operations,
• They creatively figure out how to leap over obstacles in their
management, maintenance, management) often view FEMI
path to the successful implementation of FEMI improvement
staff as “bearers of bad news” and see us as “always asking for more
goals, while less capable Inspectioneers may struggle to get
of their scarce budget resources for FEMI needs” that those stake-
past such obstacles.
holders would rather spend on other competing needs.
• They plan ahead. They anticipate potential roadblocks that But in spite of that perception, high-performing Inspectioneers
may inhibit FEMI success and plan on how to avoid or over- are willing to do what needs to be done to obtain the resources
come them. When preparing to present a new proposal, they and attention they need to cost-effectively improve FEMI
anticipate questions and challenges and have thought out their where needed.
responses in advance to those challenges and questions.
• They find time in their busy schedule to think and act proac-
Personal Characteristics
tively on how to improve the FEMI program for which they High-performing Inspectioneers often exhibit certain personal
have responsibility. characteristics, such as:
• They understand and promote the need for sufficient FEMI • They know how to handle stress and don’t let work pressures
staffing to achieve proactive FEMI improvements as opposed “get to them.” They can accept what is clearly out of their influ-
to just enough staffing to cope with only reactive and day-to- ence or control. They have patience in handling stressful situa-
day needs [14]. tions and avoid losing their cool. They know that once a person
loses their temper, someone else will take charge of the issue.
• They work effectively and collaboratively on teams for
problem-solving associated with FEMI threats. • They give credit to others where credit is due and don’t
make it sound like they are completely responsible for all
• They go above and beyond FEMI requirements and expectations.
FEMI successes.
They meet and exceed management expectations.
• They have good communication skills; they can be persuasive
• They are good time managers; they meet deadlines but give as
and convincing without being demanding or overbearing.
much advance notice as possible to other FEMI stakeholders if
they anticipate that a deadline will need to be extended because • They avoid being derogatory or being a demagogue in pursuit
of business dynamics. of their FEMI goals.
• They are employees that need very little supervision (i.e., do not • They do not primarily try to please those higher up in the
consume much management time). They are self-motivated organization as opposed to building strong, collaborative work-
and self-directed and take initiative to propose and make ing relationships with peers, subordinates, and other FEMI
appropriate improvements on their own. stakeholders.

• They treat everyone with the respect that they deserve. knowledge to the next generation and others in their organiza-
tion who need to know, generally exhibited in the following ways:
• They always endeavor to stay positive but realistic; they have a
positive demeanor, and they avoid negativity while still being • They are advocates for and pursue continuous improvement
realistic. They can deal effectively with negative people without in FEMI knowledge and skills [16]. They never stop learn-
being sucked into their negative emotions. ing; never stop improving their FEMI knowledge base and
contributions.
• They are self-confident without being arrogant or stubborn.
• They enjoy being a teacher (mentoring and coaching others).
• They have humility and practice empathy.
They share their knowledge openly rather than being someone
• They realize that we typically learn more from our mistakes who “guards their knowledge” as a method of “protecting
than our successes; they are determined to bounce back from their territory.”
work-related setbacks. They push themselves to think out-of-the-
• They advocate for all FEMI personnel to become thoroughly
box and learn from previous unsuccessful FEMI endeavors.
familiar with and apply FEMI RAGAGEP in the latest editions
• They avoid only following standard practices because “that’s the of API codes/standards which are being updated every 5-7 years
way we’ve always done things” if there is potentially a better way with improved requirements and recommended practices for
to accomplish a FEMI task. They challenge themselves to move the industry [3,17].
out of their comfort zone and be creative; they challenge long-held
• They understand that one of the benefits of teaching is “twice
beliefs and encourage themselves to push into unfamiliar ter-
learning” (i.e., preparing and delivering training for others
ritory to do things that they wouldn’t normally do where that
usually improves, extends, and reinforces their own personal
makes good business sense.
knowledge of FEMI issues).
• They demonstrate flexibility and adaptability to changing
• They network within their FEMI community of practice/
environments.
interest (COP/COI), both internally within their company and
• They spend more time listening than telling/talking. As such, externally within our industry. They contribute to and learn
they learn from others. They understand that we have two ears from others in their FEMI networks.
and one mouth which should be applied in that ratio.
• They understand and practice the importance of keeping key
• They have above-average interpersonal skills (i.e., skills used to members of management up-to-date on FEMI issues and pro-
communicate and interact with others effectively). Their people grams as well as letting management know what can happen
skills not only include active listening, but also the ability to if any FEMI programs start to lag. They promote the need to
mediate disputes, and be tolerant of differences of opinion in a have periodic FEMI status review meetings with management
business setting. to keep them apprised of progress on FEMI goals and review
FEMI budgeting and staffing relative to current and future
• They desire input from other FEMI stakeholders and listen
needs [18]. They understand that enlightened managers
to feedback (constructive and negative) on issues where they
respect our contribution and can then become
can improve. They can then put plans/goals in place to make
Inspectioneering promoters.
changes where appropriate. They also avoid being overly defen-
sive in the face of constructive criticism. • They proactively propose appropriate annual budget items for
needed training for FEMI personnel to enhance their skill set.
• They have solid integrity (i.e., the quality of being trustworthy,
honest, and having strong moral principles). • They advocate and champion the need to keep other FEMI
stakeholders (e.g., operations, maintenance, engineering,
• They have sufficient self-awareness (i.e., the ability to keep a
process technical) informed of FEMI issues that they can use to
focus on oneself, one’s actions, one’s attitudes, thoughts, and
assist in avoiding FEMI incidents and keeping fixed equipment
emotions in order to be aware of how they align with their
safe and reliable. They understand that “we are not and cannot
personal standards). They can objectively evaluate their emo-
be the only protectors of FEMI.”
tions, allowing them to improve their workplace relations and
interactions and increase their productivity. • They understand that each group of stakeholders with a role
in shared stewardship of FEMI assets needs sufficient FEMI
• They stay mentally and physically fit; they are careful not to
knowledge to increase their awareness of vital FEMI issues,
become an excessive workaholic in spite of needing to put in
so they can be our vital “eyes and ears” for FEMI issues
extra hours to meet tight deadlines; they know the importance
in the field.
of “unplugging and recharging” as needed to clear their mind
and reduce work-related stress.
Final Thoughts
Learning and Knowledge Transfer Are you a high-performing Inspectioneer? Clearly, this is a
High-performing Inspectioneers understand and value the long list of attributes and not all high-performers are going to
need for continuous learning and effectively transferring FEMI score highly on each of these attributes. However, knowing the

importance of each of these characteristics should cause us to
continuously strive to improve our performance. Additionally,
We’ve walked even those in the middle of the bell curve in Figure 1 (the gold
zone of acceptable performers) may already possess a lot of these
attributes in their quest to move up into the higher-perform-
a mile in
ing category. Can you think of any high-performing attributes
that should be added to this list? If so, please let me know in the
comments section. n
For more information on this subject or the author, please email
your shoes.
us at inquiries@inspectioneering.com.
REFERENCES
1. Reynolds, J., 2020, “A Thousand Important Roles & Responsibilities of the Plant
Fixed Equipment Inspection and Mechanical Integrity Group,” Inspectioneering
Journal, 26(4), pp. 20-27.
2. Reynolds, J., 2015, 101 Essential Elements in a Pressure Equipment Integrity
Management Program, Second Edition, Inspectioneering, Spring, TX.
3. API, 2018, Mechanical Integrity: Fixed Equipment Standards and Recommended
Practices, American Petroleum Institute.
4. Reynolds, J., 2022, “Optimizing Your Level of FEMI Risk Tolerance and Risk
Mitigation Activities,” Inspectioneering Journal, 28(4), pp. 13-18.
5. Reynolds, J., 2021, “How to Reduce Your Exposure to High Consequence FEMI
Events,” Inspectioneering Journal, 27(3), pp. 19-23.
6. Reynolds, J., 2021, “How Effective Are Your BIG FIVE FEMI Risk Management
Programs?” Inspectioneering Journal, 27(1), pp. 24-33.
7. Reynolds, J., 2021, “Utilizing Risk Assessment to Determine the Scope of FEMI
QA/QC,” Inspectioneering Journal, 27(6), pp. 25-28.
8. Reynolds, J., 1997, “Effective MOC - The Vital Link in Process Piping Integrity,”
Inspectioneering Journal, 3(5), pp. 2-3.
9. Reynolds, J., 2012, “Corrosion Control Documents – One High Priority Approach
to Minimizing Failures of Fixed Equipment”, Inspectioneering Journal, 18(5), pp.
6-9.
10. Reynolds, J., 2022, “Reynolds Wrap Up: Do You Know What Type of Damage
Mechanisms May Be Your Highest Risk?” Inspectioneering Journal, 28(3), pp.
61-64.
11. Reynolds, J., 2020, “Potholes on the Road to IOW Implementation,”
Inspectioneering Journal, 26(1), pp. 25-28.
12. Reynolds, J., 2019, “Piping Leaks and Failures Can Be Substantially Eliminated –
Our trainers are industry-recognized subject Here's How,” Inspectioneering Journal, 25(5), pp. 13-15.
matter experts. And that experience is critical 13. Reynolds, J., 2022, “Reynolds Wrap Up: Does Your Site’s Fixed Equipment
Program Differentiate Between FEMI and FER?” Inspectioneering Journal,
when you’re seeking to gain a deeper under- 28(1), pp. 66-68.
standing and valuable context for your 14. Reynolds, J., 2017, “Fixed Equipment Mechanical Integrity (FEMI) Resources –
responsibilities as integrity and reliability Past vs. the Present,” Inspectioneering Journal, 23(3), pp. 26-30.
15. Reynolds, J., 2022, “Applying Situational Awareness to Achieve Excellence in
professionals. FEMI” Inspectioneering Journal, 28(2), pp. 17-21.
16. Reynolds, J., 2012, “The Role of Continuous Improvement in Achieving
Our courses are available online and offer Excellence in Pressure Equipment Integrity and Reliability,” Inspectioneering
Journal, 18(4), pp. 14-23.
optional live sessions with our trainers.
17.Reynolds, J., 2021, “Reynolds Wrap Up: Why Do We Have So Many API FEMI
Completion certificates include Professional Standards?”, Inspectioneering Journal, 27(4), pp. 59-62.
Development Hours (PDH) that qualify for API’s 18. Reynolds, J., 2020, “How Many Inspectors Do You Need at Your Operating
Site?”, Inspectioneering Journal, 26(5), pp. 13-17.
ICP recertification requirements.
Inspectioneering.com/training

Originally published in the July/August 2022 issue of Inspectioneering Journal
Process Heater Tube Temperature Monitoring

Overview, Best Practices, and Examples
Grant Jacobson, Division Manager, Fired Heater Services Division at Becht
Introduction
Fired equipment (e.g., fired heaters, fired boilers, flares, and
thermal oxidizers) are critical components in almost every
major refining or chemical process unit developed. These
fired systems tend to be a complex interaction of many disci-
plines, including process engineering, combustion engineer-
ing, metallurgical/mechanical engineering, operations, and
inspection, each of which play a role in how the systems are
operated, optimized, and maintained. These core disciplines
must interact consistently and effectively together to maximize
the value of fired equipment while also staying safe and reli-
able. “Siloing” information and not understanding the holistic
nature of equipment health tend to lead to poor safety, reliabil-
ity, and optimization of fired equipment which can easily cost
a medium-sized refinery (say 150 MBPD crude charge) 1 to 10
million dollars per year, depending upon circumstances. A crit-
ical tool in monitoring and remaining proactive on process and
mechanical concerns on fired heaters and boilers is infrared (IR)
Figure 1. Planks Radiant Function Illustration
thermography. It is one of the most important tools to leverage
across the cross-functional support teams to maintain safety
and reliability while operating the equipment within defined
operating limits to maximize margin capture and optimize
reliability. Many organizations use IR thermography via an
inspection department. The data may or may not be of dubious
accuracy. We have found that it is commonly not acted upon
or shared outside of the inspection department. A wide varia-
tion of measured temperatures, as high as +/- 150° F from actual
mid-wall temperature of the tube, will occur if data correction
of thermography is not performed correctly. By achieving the
needed levels of accuracy with IR thermography and engaging
cross-functional support teams, this data can be quite valuable
to safely and reliably operate.
Discussion Figure 2. Stefan-Boltzman Equation

High-temperature IR Thermography was pioneered as a method
for understanding tube temperatures inside fired equipment,
to accurately measure tube wall temperatures due to the variable
while in operation, in the 1970–1980s. The initial urgency of its
nature of surface scale, combustion characteristics, and reflected
development was tied to tube failures resulting in safety and
radiation. The underlying physics of how to correct for these fac-
reliability events. A method to accurately measure and monitor
tors can be understood by correct application of Planck’s Radiant
tube metal temperature was needed to identify issues and pre-
Function and the Stefan–Bolzmann equation, shown in Figures
vent failures proactively. There are some important parameters
1 and 2. Also critical to the analysis is understanding the underly-
to consider when trying to achieve the desired level of accuracy
ing process conditions of the subject heater. This complexity for
such as emissivity, technique, correction factors, etc. The accu-
correcting the data has led to inaccurate uses of thermography
racy of the analysis is dependent upon the accuracy of the tem-
throughout industry, which in general erodes the technology’s
perature measurements.
overall credibility. Given the correct equipment and technique,
Over time the equipment used for high-temperature thermog- proper application in the field, and correct data analysis, ther-
raphy has improved and it is now a mature technology. While mography can be very accurate. Some applications, with adequate
the equipment continues to improve, completing accurate anal- data and leveraging the proper tools, can be consistently accurate
ysis of the data remains very challenging. It is a complex process to within 5° C of true operating conditions. This can be a very

valuable approach to keep equipment safe and reliable and may water cooled to survive within a heater in operation and touches
enable operations to capture high-profit margin opportunities. the tube to obtain a more accurate measurement of the mid-wall
tube temperature. The goldcup can routinely reach accuracy of
Complimentary technologies can be leveraged alongside the
+/-5° F when applied correctly. Figures 3-5 show examples of
high-temperature IR cameras to improve the correction quality.
these different tools.
The most commonly used tools for these corrections are hand-
held pyrometers, IR borescopes, and contact (goldcup) pyrome- By combining these different measurement tools and leveraging
ters. IR borescopes tend to be air cooled for portable versions and their strengths, more complex situations can be monitored with
can survive within a heater for short durations to capture data. high accuracy. The following table helps summarize the strengths
They tend to be of similar accuracy to traditional high-tempera- and weaknesses of these available technologies.
ture IR cameras. The goldcup pyrometer is a unique tool as it is
Figure 3. High Temperature IR Camera (left), Handheld Pyrometer (right)
Figure 4. Gold Cup Pyrometer side view
Figure 6. Example of Gold Cup In Use
Figure 5. Gold Cup Pyrometer head assembly
Figure 7. IR Borescope Layout (Left) and In Use (Right)

Table 1. Summary of Strengths and Weaknesses What best practices should be applied when measuring tube
temperatures with these tools?
Technology Strength(s) Weakness(es)
• Expensive to • Be consistent with how the data is captured. Always use the
Traditional High- • Line of sight data
purchase same settings in the field with the various tools.
Temperature IR capture
• Less accurate than
Cameras • Portable • Capture all available angles and views of the subject heater
goldcup
tubes when using IR cameras and have an archive organized
• Expensive to
with historical data. This will allow comparison to prior inspec-
Can capture difficult purchase
tion and how conditions have changed over time.
viewing angles • Detectors and
IR Borescopes
traditional cameras lenses less • Follow original equipment manufacturer (OEM) recommenda-
cannot developed tions for equipment calibration and maintenance.
• Less portable
• When striving for high accuracy temperature data (+/- 10° F is
• Accuracy very
• Accurate in certain
dependent on
possible), partner with a qualified IR provider who also under-
services
correct use by
stands heater design/operations and process unit operations.
Pyrometers • Not expensive to
operator
purchase Case Studies
• Inaccurate with
• Portable Steam Methane Reformer (SMR) – Hot Tubes Due to
scale and distance
• Expensive to
Catalyst Poisoning
purchase Steam methane reformers are one of the most severe firebox
• Limited geometry
environments encountered in many refining or petrochemical
Contact Pyrometers Very accurate to use, must be
facilities. The tubes tend to be a high alloy to survive tempera-
able to touch
tures up to 1730° F. To complicate matters, each tube is filled with
a tube from a
a catalyst which provides an endothermic reaction when con-
viewport
verting steam and natural gas to hydrogen and carbon dioxide.
Short operation past the design maximum temperature of the
tubes can lead to a quick and unexpected failure. The creep dam-
How does one apply these tools to find high-value improvements?
age is exponential so operating just 100° F over maximum design
• Typically, areas of improvement are found by applying IR ther- temperature can shorten tube life from ten years to less than one
mography on heaters with a history of poor reliability or which year in some cases. Failures also tend to cause collateral damage
are consistently a limit for the associated process unit. to nearby tubes, with the leak of high purity hydrogen typically
resulting in a blowtorch effect to then impinge on/around and fail
• Routine IR checks tend to catch opportunities as well if the
nearby tubes.
data is reviewed by process engineers and operations staff who
are familiar with the process unit operation. If the catalyst within the tubes is damaged or poisoned unex-
pectedly, tube temperatures can be quite high unexpectedly. The
• Partnering with an IR provider who has a broad background in
two IR images shown in Figure 8 are an example of one of these
heater design/operations, process unit operations, and available
events, with the left side showing poisoned catalyst with hot
tools and techniques will help flag opportunities
tubes and the right showing that same area at similar hydrogen
for improvement and guide where the focus will provide
production but with healthy catalyst and much cooler tubes.
highest value.
Figure 8. Steam Methane Reformer before (left) and after (right) catalyst change.

Figure 9. SMR tube life versus temperature sensitivity curves.
While the hot tubes could be seen in the visible spectrum when forward, additional IR data will feed into understanding tube life
looking into this firebox, high accuracy IR thermography allowed based on the measured inspection data to fully optimize the tube
measurement of the temperature excursion to then help bet- life cycle before replacement to safely optimize the capital cost for
ter quantify risk and improve the accuracy the path forward. the next set of new tubes.
In this example, various cases comparing the expected time to
Delayed Coker – Accidental Heat Soak
failure at different temperatures and pressures were conducted
based on the metallurgical properties and operating pressures In this example, routine thermography caught an accidental tem-
(see Figure 9). perature excursion on a traditional four cell delayed coker heater.
Under normal operating conditions, the temperature profile
These cases helped show how long the tubes could be operated in
tends to present as shown in the composite IR image in Figure 10.
this manner versus risk of a tube failure. This helped confirm that
the unit could operate for a few months with a low likelihood of This heater block happened to have plug return bends (also
tube failure but shouldn’t run until the next major planned turn- known as “mule ears”) and one of the four passes had suffered a
around for this unit. The site then planned a limited scope catalyst leak at one of these connections which would not reseal via typ-
change out before the next unit turnaround. Additional inspec- ical online procedures. There were only a few weeks left before
tion of the tubes was also conducted. Spare tubes were on hand a major turnaround, so the site decided to keep the cell with the
in case of damage due to the temperature excursion being higher mule ear leak in a hot standby mode until the outage, and run
than expected. The additional time to perform a planned outage the unit at lower throughput on the remaining three cells. The
versus an emergency outage saved costs and provided time to offline cell had boiler feedwater flowing through it to keep the
schedule the extra offline inspection and procure the spare tubes. tubes cooled while some burners remained online due to an inte-
The extra inspection of the tubes showed only minimal damage, grated vent stream which had to be routed to the burners for
and no tubes were changed out during the quick outage. Having destruction from a Merox unit. There were tube skin thermocou-
the high accuracy IR data to support the tube life calculations was ples installed across the pass, but primarily on the lower eleva-
critical in understanding risk and optimizing the outage. Going tions as these are the highest heat flux locations during normal

Figure 12.Jumped tubes and online support shelves and hooks
Crude – Jumped Tubes and Leveraging High Accuracy

IR to Bridge to Outage Window
At times through operational upsets, heater tubes can move away
Figure 10. C
omposite Thermography of normal coker heater operations. from supports and deflect in or down into the firebox. The exam-
ple shown in Figure 12 is a case where a quick thermal cycle
resulted in two tubes moving and partially falling in one wall of a
four-pass cabin style crude heater.
The movement was caught quickly by the operations team and
hooks and shelves were added to ensure the tubes remained
secure and supported. As part of the stabilization effort, a detailed
creep and stress assessment of the deflected tubes was conducted.
This assessment utilized previous operating temperatures, mea-
sured with high accuracy thermography and tube skin thermo-
couples, to understand at what conditions the shifted tubes could
operate and for how long. The analysis showed the tubes could
operate safely to an upcoming planned maintenance window
with the new supports if temperatures remained below 1100° F on
the deflected tubes. Weekly temperature checks leveraging high
accuracy thermography were utilized to ensure the updated oper-
ating temperature limit was adhered to until the shutdown for
repair. With help from accurate IR, the risks for continued opera-
tion were well understood and the system remained safe and reli-
able until the repair could be completed.
Olefin Cracker – Goldcup Pyrometers Combined with
Figure 11. Composite Thermography of abnormal “heat soak” operations.
Thermography
operations. The as-found conditions of the pass operating in the Olefin cracking heaters are like the previously mentioned SMRs
hot standby mode are shown in Figure 11. The water flow was as they operate at very high temperatures with high alloy tubes.
low enough with the burners still online, that tube tempera- The extreme temperatures prevent practical use of tube skin
tures were operating near 1290° F. This was over the established thermocouples as the instruments cannot remain reliable at the
maximum temperature of 1250° F and unfortunately, due to the normal operating temperatures. Added to the complexity of this
tube skin thermocouple placement, it was not caught before the system is the propensity for coke to form internally which acts
check with thermography. Short operation above 1250° F would as an insulator, increasing the tube wall temperature. To ensure
not have caused any major damage, but operating in this manner maximum operating temperatures are not exceeded, non-contact
for weeks will consume useful life from the tubes. By catching pyrometers are an effective tool. Unfortunately, these pyrometers
this with the IR scan, action was taken to lower temperatures and require proper adjustment of the target tube emissivity, reflected
prevent damage. temperature, and viewing angle effects. In most cases without

Figure 13. Gold Cup Contact Pyrometer in use on olefin cracker heater
adjusting for these key parameters, the temperature measure- For more information on this subject or the author, please email
ments will be higher than actual. Most operators conduct tem- us at inquiries@inspectioneering.com.
perature checks with these pyrometers on a set frequency and
this data is used to decide when a heater needs to be decoked.
The goldcup pyrometer, shown in Figure 13 in use, when paired
with high-temperature IR cameras can be used to back-calculate
the required corrections for more accurate use of non-contact
pyrometers. Once these correction parameters are developed,
they can be used by the operations team for more accurate tube
temperatures. With the improved accuracy, the system can
remain reliable with less uncertainty also meaning that decokes
are not started before they are required. The primary benefits of
the improved tube temperature measurements are:
1. More time online before decokes, increases time online and
thereby captured margin.
2. Allows a proactive tool to catch unexpected fouling and quan-
tify if action needs to be taken to prevent equipment damage.
3. Provides useful data for reviewing tube lifecycles so tubes are
replaced when needed but not while there is still useful life.
This differs capital cost over time.
4. More complex IR thermography can be conducted much less
frequently and primarily just as a back check to ensure the
pyrometer program remains accurate.
Conclusion
High-temperature thermography is an essential tool when used
correctly as a method to help understand risk and optimize fired
equipment. Leveraging and combining the correct inspection
tools on complex problems can yield the best overall data and
understanding of actual conditions. Thermography may only
measure temperatures, but if the data is integrated into a holistic
picture of a subject heater, it can identify and capture safe busi-
ness opportunities for better operation and provide an improved
understanding of the risk of operating conditions. n

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Originally published in the November/December 2022 issue of Inspectioneering Journal
An Inspection Planning Process for

Equipment Susceptible to Sulfide Stress
Cracking
Jeffrey DeMet, Senior Refining Inspector at Phillips 66
Introduction mechanism review where the corrosion engineer and inspection

personnel have identified damage mechanism susceptibilities
When an inspection test plan specifies a wet hydrogen sulfide
and likely locations of damage. With the damage mechanism(s)
(H2S) damage inspection, the damage mechanism was most likely
assigned and the inspection and test plan (ITP) driving the due
defined from a corrosion study or damage mechanism review.
date, the first thing to do is get all the required documentation in
Wet H2S damage is a form of material degradation caused when
order. Some of the items that will be listed may seem simple, but
atomic hydrogen diffuses into steel in wet H2S process environ-
later in the article, the planning process will reveal the relevance
ments and collects at any internal material imperfections or dis-
of these items.
continuities, leading to corrosion and cracking. Wet H2S damage
can manifest itself in numerous forms, including: 1. Gather the Manufacturer’s Data Report (e.g., U-1 form),
construction drawings, historical write-ups, and previous
• Hydrogen blistering
wet H2S inspection reports.
• Hydrogen induced cracking (HIC)
2. Mark up the construction or isometric drawing with the appli-
• Stress-oriented hydrogen induced cracking (SOHIC) cable welds that are subject to wet H2S cracking defined by the
corrosion engineer or corrosion control document (CCD). The
• Sulfide stress cracking (SSC)
areas subject to the damage mechanism should be specified in
This article will focus on the inspection planning phases for the CCDs. The marked-up drawings should also be labeled for
the sulfide stress cracking (SSC) mechanism as a result of the the applicable welds that will be tested (e.g., LS-1 or NW-2).
wet hydrogen environments and will not address other mecha-
3. After the drawings are marked for inspection, create a health
nisms associated with wet H2S damage. NACE defines SSC as a
summary for the equipment and, from the historical content
“cracking of a metal under the combined action of tensile stress
and NDE reports, highlight the areas that have a history of
and corrosion in the presence of water and H2S. SSC is a form
repairs and the presence of wet H2S cracking. Begin to com-
of hydrogen stress cracking resulting from absorption of atomic
pare the highlighted fields to the summary. Make sure that
hydrogen that is produced by the sulfide corrosion process on the
the current inspection plan covers previous areas that have
metal surface. SSC usually occurs more readily in high-strength
had damage. If there are any discrepancies, proceed to consult
steels or in hard weld zones of steels” [1].
the corrosion engineer on the best path forward and ensure
The inspection planning process discussed herein assumes that the variance is resolved.
the pressure equipment will be available for entry during a main-
4. N ext, record the equipment information such as thickness,
tenance outage. With the damage mechanism defined, this arti-
material grade and specification, post-weld heat treatment
cle will help supplement when there is insufficient guidance or
condition, corrosion allowance, or any calculated minimum
plant-recommended practices on what a full inspection scope
required thickness that can be used outside of nominal minus
consists of. It can be standard practice for the Inspection Planner
corrosion allowance. If the inspector is unsure of what mini-
to look at drawings, specify weld locations to be inspected, spec-
mum thickness to use, consult a pressure equipment engineer
ify weld preparation requirements, and apply an appropriate non-
or a reliability engineer on the acceptable minimum thickness
destructive examination (NDE) method for the SSC inspection.
for the various components of the equipment.
Going beyond this simple planning process, SSC inspection plan-
ning is multi-faceted, consisting of personnel qualifications, roles 5. Summarize the cleaning and surface preparation process
and responsibilities, examination process, documentation, accep- previously used for the NDE method and decide if the tech-
tance criteria, and, when applicable, defect removal and repair nique is acceptable for the current plan. This step is important
processes. This detailed planning will help define the inspection because the SSC leaves a sulfide scale on the surface, which
process and provide guidance on the necessary actions in antici- may need to be removed depending on the corrosion expert’s
pation of potential SSC damage, which has proven to help mini- recommendation or plant’s preference.
mize discovery costs during maintenance outages.
NDE Method and Cleaning
Equipment Planning Now it is time to start planning and documenting the inspection
When planning for an SSC inspection, the equipment should have techniques. The first thing to establish is what NDE method will
already been evaluated as part of a corrosion study or damage be used for inspection. There are many types of NDE methods

used to detect the presence of SSC, and the intent of this article seams identified for testing per the inspection planner’s labeling
is not to define the probability of detection for each process. For criterion. In addition to the drawing, there needs to be a table
this article, wet fluorescent magnetic particle testing (WFMT) where each indication can be listed separately. For example, if an
will be used, and according to NACE it “is one of the most com- indication were discovered on Long Seam 1, the drawing would
monly used methods for internal pressure vessel inspection” [1]. report the location of this indication, and the table would include
If other NDE practices are preferred, continue to specify the type details of the indication, like identifying label, (e.g., “indication
of cleaning required for the chosen NDE method. The preferred 1-2-3”), description (e.g., “longitudinal crack with several branch-
cleaning method for WFMT is to have the surface sandblasted like connections”), dimensions, and a sketch, picture or pictorial
to a near-white finish; however, flapper discs and CO2 blasting of the indication presented in the as-discovered condition. When
may prove to be successful as well, but caution should be used dealing with any inspection method, best-in-class inspection
not to employ a method that could smear the surface material, reports consist of repeatable details.
potentially masking an indication. The intent when specifying a
cleaning technique, regardless of the preferred NDE method, is The Process
to ensure that the surface indications are not masked by product,
At this point in the planning process, the inspection method is
surface scale, or any contaminant that would otherwise interfere
ready to be performed. However, without an organized progres-
with the nondestructive examination [2].
sion of how individuals are responsible during the process, the
Reporting Details plan is still not complete. For the SSC indication discovery, a best
practice is to provide an experienced inspection coordinator, pref-
With the NDE method and cleaning technique specified and
erably certified in accordance with API 510, who is familiar with
planned, it is now appropriate to align a successful reporting pro-
the current planning details and has vast experience in previous
cess and format. Reviewing, approving, and assisting in the report
SSC discovery and repairs [3]. The inspection coordinator should
formatting before the planned maintenance outage will save time
ensure that all documentation is accurately recorded by auditing
and keep the inspection process organized. Aside from recording
the NDE technician as well as providing the necessary documen-
the technique, calibration, and equipment parameters, the report
tation for the final report. The NDE technician should be certified
needs to be tailored to the SSC inspection process. The NDE report
in accordance with ASNT-TC-1A and should also have experience
will need to have additional room to allow for a drawing of the
in SSC indication discovery and the defect removal process [4].
equipment being examined. The drawing will include the weld
With the roles of the inspector and technician established, there
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Figure 1. Flow chart depicting repair process.
also needs to be a communication process between the pressure information in the provided report format and begin the commu-
equipment engineer, plant inspector, the chief inspector, and the nication process through the applicable organizational communi-
corrosion engineer. They should also have an awareness level of cation structure or protocol. The technician shall also inform the
the inspection planning process for the SSC inspection. inspection coordinator immediately, and the inspector will start
the following process:
Discovery
1. Document the information and present the indication to the
When an indication is discovered, it is critical to start recording

corrosion engineer for classification (e.g., environmental crack- analysis would be required to either restore wall thickness
ing or fabrication defect). The presented information should be or establish a new t-min [5].
recorded in the predetermined NDE report format for the best
2. Ensure that the remaining wall thickness within any
results.
unrepaired indication removal areas is such that it will not
2. Follow up on the NDE indications by utilizing Alternating corrode below t-Min before the next planned maintenance
Current Field Measurement (ACFM) and Surface Eddy Current opportunity [3].
(SEC) for an estimated depth. This information will come in
3. Determine if the corrosion engineer will require hydrogen
handy during the repair scenario, if required, and should give
bake-out prior to welding. If a bake-out is specified, ensure
an approximate depth reporting of either shallow, mid-wall,
that a post-bake-out NDE inspection of the affected area is per-
or near trough wall. UT Angle Beam examinations can also be
formed to determine if additional indications have appeared,
utilized if the option exists; however, the ACFM and or SEC
or if existing indications have propagated. Also, it is essential
has proven to be a reliable expedited process for approximate
to record all bake-out locations and dimensions on the report
depths.
and drawing.
3. Complete the required scope, and if the scope was partial,
4. D etermine the type of removal process that will be conducted.
determine with the corrosion engineer if further examination
A common practice consists of using sanding discs (between
is required.
40-180 grit) and practicing a low heat removal process.
Figure 1 is a simplified flow chart for the repair process. Minimizing heat input during indication removal can aid in
preventing potential indication propagation or growth. This
Repair practice is conservative, and other aggressive methods should
After the indication is classified, decisions will be needed to not be used without authorization from a corrosion engineer.
establish the potential indication removal, defect repair, and/or
5. Establish an acceptable removal method that will leave the area
an inspection test plan. Details of these plans will be dependent
with a smooth contour and a predetermined taper in order to
on indication classification, material type, hydrogen bake-out
reduce stress concentrations. A 4:1 taper is commonly targeted,
and/or post weld heat treatment (PWHT) requirements, as well as
but a pressure equipment engineer should be consulted.
variables from the plant's culture or local procedures. Indications
classified as fabrication defects will need to be evaluated on a 6. Utilize WFMT during the indication removal process (to
case-by-case basis to determine if their type and extent warrant confirm removal), along with ultrasonic thickness (UT)
repair. For indications classified as SSC, it is assumed these will measurements and pit gauge measurement to determine
be removed and potentially repaired if the removal depth exceeds the remaining wall thickness of the removal area.
specified criteria. The first step is to meet with appropriate parties
7. The remaining thickness of the removal area can be deter-
and obtain authorization for indication exploration, removal, and
mined by first obtaining a UT thickness measurement of the
repair (e.g., a signed ITP) from, at a minimum, the corrosion engi-
component directly adjacent to the removal area, then sub-
neer, pressure equipment engineer, and chief inspector.
tracting the measured pit depth of the removal area. This
Repairs on vessels without PWHT may be performed successfully is because obtaining thickness measurements inside the indi-
with or without the need for weld metal build-up, and the steps cation removal area (typically a bowl-shaped excavation) may
listed below provide guidance on this process. Any repair plan not be feasible without the use of specialized pencil
should follow an agreed-upon, established ITP that spells out the probe transducers.
steps required for indication removal, weld repairs, and necessary
8. If the indications run, grow, spread, or propagate deeper than
examinations. A best practice is to post the ITP at the manway or
the affected area at any time during the indication removal
point of entry for the equipment where the appropriate steps can
process, stop and consult the corrosion engineer and estab-
be signed off by responsible parties. The following process has
lish additional guidance on a path forward. For non-PWHT
proven successful for repairing vessels with SSC classified indica-
vessels, it may be best to remove the indication through-wall
tions and should be considered when developing an ITP:
altogether and perform weld metal restoration. Each repair
scenario is unique and should be discussed with the inspec-
1. Using the current wall thickness (before removing the indica-
tion team before execution.
tion) and calculated minimum thickness (t-min) of the com-
ponent, determine the remaining corrosion allowance based 9. After the indication removal is complete, each area should
on anticipated corrosion rates needed to safely operate until be measured to determine if the remaining area meets the
the next planned maintenance opportunity. This remaining requirements of the approved ITP. If no weld repair is
corrosion allowance can be used to establish the “hold point” required for the removal area, consider if a condition
(halting indication/defect removal) to consult with the corro- monitoring location placement is needed and set the
sion engineer, pressure equipment engineer, and chief inspec- monitoring interval as required.
tor before proceeding with indication/defect removal. Beyond
10. In a scenario that requires weld repair, document the weld
this point, weld repair or an API 579-1 fitness-for-service (FFS)
repair steps on the ITP and proceed.

11. All final weld repairs will require a final WFMT or NDE Summary
method of original discovery to ensure the vessel is indica- The inspection planning process will help define the work steps
tion-free before placing the equipment in service. The pres- needed to complete an inspection involving SSC. The inspection
sure equipment engineer, inspector, or chief inspector may planning process has many facets involved that require a detailed
also specify additional post-repair steps (e.g., hydrotest). analysis to ensure that communication with all stakeholders is
established. It is hard to cover the inspection and repair process
Below is a field example of a 3-1 taper after removing an indica-
for every asset at every refinery; still, the general guidance pro-
tion. See PCC-2 for further details [6]:
vided in this article should give the inspector an excellent founda-
tion to complete a solid inspection plan for SSC. n
For more information on this subject or the author, please email

REFERENCES
1. NACE SP0296, 2020, “Detection, Repair, and Mitigation of Cracking in Refinery
Equipment in Wet H2S Environments,” National Association of Corrosion
Engineers, Houston, TX.
2. ASME Boiler and Pressure Vessel Code, “Section V - Nondestructive
Examination,” American Society of Mechanical Engineers, New York, NY.
3. API 510, 2022, “Pressure Vessel Inspection Code: In-service Inspection, Rating,
Repair, and Alteration,” American Petroleum Institute, Washington, DC.
4. ASNT Recommended Practice No. SNT-TC-1A, 2020, “Personnel Qualification
and Certification in Nondestructive Testing,” American Society for
Nondestructive Testing, Columbus, OH.
5. API 579-1, 2021, “Fitness-for-Service,” American Petroleum Institute,
Washington, DC.
6. ASME PCC-2, 2022, “Repair of Pressure Equipment and Piping,” American
Society of Mechanical Engineers, New York, NY.
Figure 2. Remaining metal after excavating damage indication.
When weld repairs require PWHT, the indication removal pro-

cess is the same as the above steps. While it is optional, but rec-
ommended, to conduct WFMT examinations on all weld repairs
before the PWHT process, WFMT examinations shall always be
performed after PWHT to ensure that no additional indications
have returned or propagated during the PWHT process [5].
Figure 3. Guidance drawing for excavation of damage indication.

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Originally published in the September/October 2022 issue of Inspectioneering Journal
Comparing Conventional AUT and Phased

Array AUT Corrosion Mapping
Chase David, Customer Success and NDT Technology Manager at Gecko Robotics
Introduction There are several AUT techniques for corrosion mapping, but this
For assets in oil and gas and related industries, utilizing auto- article will discuss the differences in technology and data between
mated ultrasonic testing (AUT) for corrosion mapping to detect conventional UT and phased array applications. Conventional UT
and quantify damage can play an important role in an effective utilizes a single beam to report one thickness reading at a time,
mechanical integrity program. Material thickness is measured by whereas phased array UT reports an array of thickness readings.
calculating the time it takes for the sound wave to reflect back In this article, results from a test scan of an Olympus D790 con-
to the transducer after encountering the backwall or an indica- ventional probe on a demonstration block are compared to those
tion in the material. By quantifying material thickness across the from a dual linear array (DLA) Olympus Rex1 probe on the same
entirety of an asset, the data can highlight patterns of degradation block. While both techniques can provide a detailed corrosion
and be used to determine the corrosion rate for reliability/mainte- map, the dual linear phased array probe provides higher produc-
nance, plan repairs, monitor known damage, and assist with asset tivity, accuracy, data density, and probability of detection (POD)
remaining life decisions. Responsible maintenance and planning than conventional UT.
can increase asset life and maintain stable and safe operations.
Please note: the purpose of the article is to compare the two most com-
Corrosion can be generalized, i.e., uniform across sections or the mon off-the-shelf AUT technologies used for corrosion mapping. It is not
entirety of an asset, or localized, specific to certain locations on intended to account for the myriad of solutions that can be engineered
an asset [1]. Generalized corrosion is often predictable and easy to through conventional probe design and simulation to achieve similar
detect, whereas localized corrosion is not always detectable, espe- results to the off-the-shelf phased array probe tested here.
cially when performing on-stream inspections to ascertain the
internal condition of the equipment from the outside. Corrosion Automated Ultrasonic Testing (AUT)
is typically the oxidation of a metallic surface that causes it to Corrosion Mapping
degrade. Erosion is a mechanical wearing away of the metal and Regardless of the inspection technique applied, manual corro-
is often localized. Mechanisms include, but are not limited to, erosion mapping has many limitations, including low data density,
sion corrosion, microbiologically influenced corrosion (MIC), and operator-based subjectivity, limited repeatability, inefficiency,
stress corrosion cracking [1]. An internal visual inspection is typ- and inconsistent probability of detection (POD). Automating
ically one of the most cost-effective ways to detect localized cor- the process with robotics can resolve many of the limitations of
rosion but even this approach can miss areas that are precluded manual UT.
from inspection due to attachments and other equipment.
Conventional AUT methods utilize a UT transducer on a bi-di-
The prevailing corrosion inspection procedure for tanks, piping, rectional rastering robotic scanner. Raster scanning moves the
pressure vessels, and other metallic assets (not to mention appli- probe back and forth perpendicular to the robot's movement [3].
cations with non-metallic components) is to measure the mate- For example, a robot crawling horizontally along the x-axis moves
rial thickness and/or detect and quantify the presence of mid-wall the probe up and down vertically along the y-axis. With each pass
indications [2]. This is usually accomplished by using flaw detec- up or down, the robot progresses forward at a distance propor-
tors. However, there is a growing need for corrosion mapping in tionate to the surface area covered by the probe. Therefore, the
order to understand the condition of the entire asset as opposed width of the probe utilized directly affects the productivity of
to point-level readings at corrosion monitoring locations (CMLs). the inspection.
Corrosion mapping involves plotting individual point-level mate- Using robotics to automate the corrosion mapping process has
rial thickness readings in a grid. Traditionally, this process is safety and repeatability advantages. From a safety perspective,
performed manually with hand-drawn grids. The inspector spot robots can reduce access requirements to hazardous areas and the
checks for wall thickness at particular points on the equipment need for scaffolding, and eliminate the need for confined space
within the grid, then the readings are entered manually into entry as they can travel on magnetic wheels. Additionally, the pro-
a spreadsheet correlating to the grid. The advent of AUT in the cess is repeatable. Robots are equipped with two-axis encoders
early 1990s, as well as recent advances in robotics and software that guarantee accurate positioning for pinpointing damage and
in nondestructive testing (NDT) have helped to further automate reproducing the inspection to compare data over time.
this process. Independent of the inspection technique utilized,
automation allows for full asset coverage and, when paired with Conventional AUT Corrosion Mapping
software solutions, produces two- or three-dimensional corrosion UT is one of the most commonly used tools for corrosion map-
maps for immediate repair planning and predictive analytics. ping. It detects corrosion and other damage mechanisms by

Figure 1. Comparison of surface coverage in a single pass between a conventional Figure 2. Schematic of phased array probe configurations.
pitch-catch UT probe and a dual linear phased array probe.
Figure 3. Graphical representation of the demonstration block. Figure 4. D

etailed schematic of the number, type, depth, and diameter of
indications in the demonstration block.
sending ultrasonic sound waves into the volume of the compo- modality (see Figure 2). Similar to conventional UT, phased array
nent. Conventional AUT utilizes a dual element probe to pulse a test frequencies usually range from 1 to 10 MHz.
single beam in a pitch-catch modality where one element sends
Most probes utilize a linear pulse-echo configuration where one
the signal, and another element receives it. The single beam offers
set of elements sends and receives the sound waves. However, a
less coverage as the robot rasters the probe along the surface of
dual linear array (DLA) probe, shown on the bottom row of Figure
the asset. As shown in Figure 1, conventional pitch-catch UT cov-
2, is the preferred configuration for corrosion mapping. Like a
ers a width of 0.187 inches (4.7mm) in a single pass with a typical
dual element conventional UT probe, the dual linear array utilizes
index resolution of 0.250” x 0.100”. On average, conventional AUT
a pitch-catch modality that eliminates the interface echo at the
generates approximately 7,000 readings/foot2 (75,000 readings/
test surface and improves near-surface resolution.
meter2). This approach improves data density and repeatability
over manual corrosion mapping. However, limitations include In corrosion mapping, the probe is placed in contact with the test
low productivity due to probe size and potentially inaccurate siz- surface, and the beam set is 0° linear, sending sound perpendicu-
ing and POD due to low index resolution. lar to the test surface into the back surface. The pitch-catch con-
figuration coupled with the linear beam set improves the ability
Phased Array AUT Corrosion Mapping to detect, size, and quantify corrosion. With a width of 1.24 inches
Phased array AUT can be applied in most instances where conven- (31.5mm), the DLA probe covers an area over six times greater in
tional AUT is utilized. Transducers in an array configuration con- a single pass than conventional AUT (see Figure 1), significantly
tain multiple elements, typically 16 to 128, within a single housing. increasing productivity. The index resolution of DLA is 0.04mm
These elements are then pulsed using phasing algorithms that x 0.04mm and generates approximately 94,000 readings/foot2
steer and sequentially focus the sound waves. Phased array trans- (1 million readings/meter2) or thirteen times the data density
ducers are configured in various ways, including linear, rectan- compared to conventional AUT. Due to the resolution, phased
gular, square, and circular in either a pulse-echo or pitch-catch array AUT techniques have a high POD, accurately detecting

Figure 5a. Side view of a B-scan of the [0.10”:0.05”:1.00”] 1:2 Depth/Diameter Flat & Round Bottom Holes from the Olympus D790
probe. The left image is flat bottom holes, and the right image is round bottom holes.
Figure 5b. Side view of a B-scan of the [0.10”:0.05”:1.00”] 1:2 Depth/Diameter Flat & Round Bottom Holes from the Olympus DLA
Rex1 probe. The left image is flat bottom holes, and the right image is round bottom holes.
Figure 6a. CAD drawing of the side view of [0.10”:0.05”:1.00”] 1:2 Depth/Diameter Flat Bottom Holes.
Figure 6b. CAD drawing of the side view of [0.10”:0.05”:1.00”] 1:2 Depth/Diameter Round Bottom Holes.
and sizing corrosion, pitting, laminations, and inclusions in the conventional AUT poorly captures the round bottom holes, espe-
base material. cially as they decrease in size under 0.50” (13mm).
Comparing Conventional AUT To Phased Figures 7a and 7b show the Amplitude C-scan of the demonstra-
Array AUT Corrosion Mapping tion block captured by both probes. In the C-scan imaging, the dif-
ferences in the clarity of amplitude from the signaling between
In a laboratory setting, the results from a conventional AUT
conventional AUT and phased array AUT are more pronounced.
probe were compared to the results from a phased array probe
Similar to the B-scan imaging in Figure 5a, conventional AUT has
on a 1.9 inch (48mm) thick demonstration block (Figure 3). The
low detectability of [0.10”:0.05”:1.00”] 1:2 Depth/Diameter Round
block was constructed using SA516-70 material with round bot-
Bottom Holes. Comparatively, phased array AUT can accurately
tom holes and flat bottom holes, simulating corrosion defects at
detect those same defects down to a diameter of 0.10” (2.5mm).
various depths. Figure 4 details the type, depth, and diameter of
When comparing the B-scan and C-scan images, the limitations
indications present in the block, including round and flat bottom
of conventional AUT are evident. Because of low sensitivity and
holes that mimic microbiologically influenced corrosion (MIC)
poor index resolution, conventional AUT has less data density rel-
damage. Both probes were run on the Navic robotic platform and
ative to phased array AUT. Therefore, it cannot accurately size and
mounted on the y-axis rastering arm. The inspection data was col-
quantify defects in the material resulting in a lower POD.
lected, stored, and analyzed through Olympus IMS WeldSight™
1.6.3 software. The data was reviewed in its raw form without any Advantages Of Phased Array AUT Corrosion
post-signal processing such as smoothing, resulting in an accu- Mapping
rate 1:1 comparison.
To summarize, phased array AUT for corrosion mapping has the
Figures 5a and 5b show the B-scan imaging from the following advantages over conventional AUT:
[0.10”:0.05”:1.00”] 1:2 Depth/Diameter Flat & Round Bottom Holes
Probability of Detection: utilization of the pitch-catch configu-
defect rows of the demonstration block. For clarity, Figures 6a
ration over traditional pulse-echo increases the near-surface res-
and 6b depict the defects in a side view of the [0.10”:0.05”:1.00”]
olution, identifying damage as close as 1 mm to the surface down
1:2 Depth/Diameter Flat & Round Bottom Holes, respectively. It is
to a depth of 4 inches (100mm)
clear from the imaging that the clarity and level of accuracy of the
DLA probe far exceeded the conventional pitch-catch probe. Both Data Density: over 94,000 readings/ft2 (over 1 M readings/m2)
techniques adequately identify the flat bottom holes. However, identifies small defects reducing false calls. Digital data delivery

Figure 7a. Top view of the Amplitude C-scan of the demonstration block generated by the Olympus
D790 probe.
Figure 7b. Top view of the Amplitude C-scan of the demonstration block generated by the Olympus
DLA Rex1 probe.
and archival allow for the transfer and assessment of large files For more information on this subject or the author, please email
and are compatible with other mechanical integrity tools us at inquiries@inspectioneering.com.
Productivity: wider beam coverage in the dual linear array
REFERENCES
means the robot can cover more area, faster, up to 600 ft2 (56
1. AMPP, “What is Corrosion?” Association for Materials Protection and
m2)/12-hour shift
Performance, https://www.ampp.org/resources/what-is-corrosion
DLA corrosion mapping is a valuable tool. The pitch-catch config- 2. Turcotte, J., Rioux, P., La Voie, J.A., 2016, “Comparison Corrosion Mapping
uration improves near-surface detection, accurately quantifying Solutions using Phased Array, Conventional UT, and 3D scanners,” Prepared for
and sizing corrosion and other damage, therefore, increasing the 19th World Conference on Non-Destructive Testing.
POD. Additionally, the probe width increases productivity com- 3. David, J., Moles, M., “Phased Arrays vs. Phased Arrays - Beam Sweeping vs.
Encoded Data Collection,” https://www.ndt.net/search/docs.php3?id=4807
pared to conventional AUT. n

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NDE Methods for Detecting In-Service

FRP Damage
Geoff Clarkson, P.Eng., Founder and CTO at UTComp Inc.
Introduction
Fiber-reinforced thermosetting polymer (FRP) has been used suc-
cessfully in many applications of pressure vessels, tankage, and
piping. The ability of FRP to handle fluids and substances that are
highly corrosive and potentially dangerous to personnel and the
environment is undisputed. In some cases, service life exceeding
65 years has been documented.
There is considerable uncertainty about the capability of aging
pressure vessels, piping, and tankage that is made from FRP to
continue in service. Practices for how to detect and assess flaws
and damage have not been consistent nor well-understood and Figure 1. Viscoelastic Strength Reduction of Polymer in a
accepted, and have often relied on subjective opinions that Hydrochloric Acid Bath
impose the expected behavior of metallics onto these materials.
non-linear viscoelastic materials, which have profound influence
Damage to FRP from service conditions and material properties is
on their long-term behavior from service conditions. Physical
usually completely different from damage that will occur to metal
properties such as elastic modulus and strength of viscoelas-
alloys, so using techniques and procedures developed for metals
tic materials undergo changes as a result of service conditions
will produce unsatisfactory results.
applied over time.
When the fitness-for-service (FFS) is assessed using a Code such
An example of how the strength property can change for a poly-
as API 579-1/ASME FFS-1, the engineer completing the assessment
mer that is often used in FRP is shown in Figure 1. Figure 1 was
requires information on the type of material and the damage or
produced from coupons immersed in a long-term hydrochloric
flaw being assessed, along with the size or magnitude of the dam-
acid (HCl) exposure test. In the figure, the strength of the poly-
age and the extent of the damage. The inspection data must come
mer declines from this exposure from 100% when unexposed
in a form that can be used for engineering analysis. This infor-
to 36%. Different chemicals and different polymers produce
mation is required so that the engineer can complete calculations
different results.
to determine:
The reduced polymer strength results from reduction of both
1. Is the equipment fit for service?
the elastic modulus and the elongation-at-failure of the polymer
2. Is damage localized, or does it apply to the entire structure? from the chemical attack, often referred to as corrosion, of the
polymer. This strength reduction will also occur when only stress
3. If the equipment is not fit for service, can it be re-rated?
is applied to the FRP. When testing polymer performance, chem-
4. Can repairs be made to address the damage? ists often determine the change in elastic modulus of coupons by
comparing the flexural, or bending modulus of coupons that have
For equipment made with metal alloys, the inspection techniques
been exposed to the chemicals with coupons that have not been
to be used for this are generally defined by codes such as ASME
exposed to chemicals. The result is the Retained Flexural Modulus
BPVC.V or other standards.
(RFM), which is also described in Equation 1.
This article will explore the dominant damage mechanisms
Flexural Modulus of Coupons After Chemical Exposure
experienced by FRP during service. The article will then describe RFM = (Eq. 1)
Flexural Modulus of Coupons With No Chemical Exposure
several detection methods and how they can be used to provide
information on the size, magnitude, and extent of damage to FRP.
RFM provides quantitative data on damage that has occurred to
The result of this article is to identify inspection information that
the polymer in FRP.
is required to allow FFS assessment of equipment made from FRP.
Historically, inspection of industrial FRP equipment has relied
In-service Damage to FRP on appraisal of the visible surface of the process-side of the FRP.
Damage to FRP occurs because of service conditions and may For comparison with the results of Figure 1, Figure 2 shows two
include: corrosion/degradation; ultraviolet damage to surfaces; examples of FRP using similar resins and cure systems. Figure
stress; strain; abrasion; mechanical damage; chemical reactions 2a shows a new surface that has not yet entered service. Figure
and attack; operating and environmental temperatures; and oth- 2b shows a surface that has been exposed to hydrochloric acid for
ers. Both the polymers and reinforcement used for most FRP are about 12 years. While the two images are slightly different, there

Figure 2. New and Exposed FRP Surface Appearance
is no way to identify the effect that the HCl exposure has had on
the FRP. It is not possible to identify the change in the strength of
the polymer from its appearance.
The reinforcement in FRP is embedded in the polymer, and its
primary role is to add significant strength to the mixture. The
polymer bonds to the reinforcement, protects it from service
conditions such as chemicals, and serves to contain fluids. In
many cases, such as with glass fiber reinforcement, the polymer
will be damaged first and will crack before damage occurs to the
reinforcement.
This example shows the need for inspections that can detect
actual damage that has occurred to the polymers in FRP so that
fitness-for-service of the equipment can be determined.
Figure 3. Effect of Stress and Strain over Time on Polymer Strength
For industrial equipment such as vessels, tankage, and piping that
is made from FRP, there are a number of standards and codes that
polymer. Also, note for the example in Figure 4 that there is no
are used to design reliable equipment. Examples of these stan-
visible sign that predicts this change in direction. These cracks
dards and codes are ASME BPVC.X, ASME RTP-1, ASME NM.2,
can then lead to chemical exposure of the reinforcement or leak-
ASTM D3299, ASTM D4097, ISO EN 13121, and ISO 14692, as well
age of the equipment, effectively leading to failure before the
as many others. These standards use the tensile strength of FRP
structure fails.
for most of the design.
None of the construction standards for FRP equipment provide
The tensile strength of FRP is the combined strength of the rein-
for in-service inspection of FRP equipment, nor do they provide
forcement fibers and the polymer. For much of the FRP used in
information on changes that will occur in service. In the absence
industrial equipment, glass reinforcement takes 80% or more
of any other document, it is common for some to specify the use
of the stress, and the remainder is carried by the polymer. The
of the visual inspection criteria from the standards, but as shown
amount of elongation, or strain, that is created by the stress in
above, visual inspection often cannot reliably detect the damage
the FRP is controlled by the reinforcement and imposed on the
that occurs to the polymer. In fact, overt defects and flaws are
polymer. For new polymer, this stress and strain is easily handled.
often unrelated to damage from service conditions and may have
Just like for chemical exposure, long-term exposure of the poly-
occurred during fabrication. These “built-in” flaws may or may
mer to stress and strain will also cause damage to the polymer.
not have any effect on its performance.
This damage also results in reduced strength. Figure 3 shows an
example of the change in polymer strength that occurs when FRP As shown, the damage that occurs to FRP from service conditions
is exposed to constant stress and strain. is not at all similar to the damage that occurs in metal alloys. The
damage also has no relationship to the construction codes and
Note that the shape of the curve in Figure 3 is very similar to
standards used and is not addressed directly by them.
the shape in Figure 1. In both cases, the polymer will crack well
before the tensile strength of the FRP is reached. Often the cracks Fitness-for-service assessment of equipment requires inspection
originate in damaged polymer and then stop or change direc- data that allows damage to be quantified and used by engineers
tion as they encounter polymer that is relatively undamaged. An to determine the condition and FFS of the equipment. While opin-
example of this is shown in Figure 4, where the arrows show how ions and judgment may influence the engineer’s result, it must be
the crack direction is changing at the interface with a stronger supported by data and work that shows that the recognized and

These methods will be discussed below by considering
the following:
• Standards or written procedures
• Criteria in ASME BPVC.V
• Inspector certification
• Calibration
• Outputs provide quantification of the damage
• Equipment operating conditions required for the test
• Ability to use outputs for further analysis.
Acoustic Emission Testing

Table 1 shows the discussion for AE.
Table 1. Damage Detection with AE
Item Discussion
Standards or written AE is applied using ASTM E1067
1
procedures used or ASME B&PVC.V
Criteria in Codes such as
2 Yes.
ASME B&PVC.V
Availability of Inspector ASNT Certification is available
3
Figure 4. Crack Propagation Certification to Level III.
Requirements for No calibration standards
4
Calibration Standards required.
generally accepted good engineering practices (RAGAGEP) were Able to provide
followed. This will allow FFS assessments—from the most basic measurements that can
to the most complex—to be reliable and valid. 5 determine damage as No.
retained strength as in
Figures 1 & 3.
Detecting Damage in FRP
Equipment must be out of
Visual inspection methods can identify the presence of leaks, service and disconnected. All
cracks, blisters or visible damage, peeling bonds, changes in Equipment conditions
external attachments must be
6 required during detection
color of the polymer, and others. When these are observed, mea- activities.
removed. Uncontrolled loads
surement is required to determine the extent and magnitude such as from wind, traffic, etc.
must be avoided.
of damage.
Capability to use detection
Starting in the 1960s with the earliest use of FRP for aircraft com- 7 results for further analysis No.
and remaining life prediction
ponents, NASA investigated nondestructive examination (NDE)
for detecting damage and defects that could affect the reliability
AE testing provides conservative results and provides loca-
of these components. It became clear that NDE should not be
tions of possible damage for follow-up with other methods. The
defined solely by emphasis on detection of overt flaws, and it is
method does not require any pre-assessment to detect overt
necessary to extend it to characterize effects on material proper-
flaws. If defects are found, ASTM E1067 recommends further
ties and thus detect the damage reported above.
evaluation, including use of other methods, such as ultrasound.
NASA also found that the ultrasonic methods, if used properly, can Neither the test results nor acceptance criteria for the test provide
provide this information. Most ultrasonic textbooks will provide RFM values.
a good description of how to determine the elastic properties of
The AE test report should include all the requirements of
isotropic materials such as metal alloys and the polymers in FRP.
ASTM E1067:
As shown above, damage to the polymers in FRP changes the elas-
1. Identification of equipment.
tic properties of the polymer. For FRP, three methods have evolved
2. Equipment sketch or drawing with dimensions and
that will detect this damage:
sensor location.
• Acoustic Emission Testing (AE) 3. Test liquid.
• Acousto-Ultrasonic Testing (AU) 4. Test liquid temperature.
• Attenuation-based Ultrasound (UAX) 5. Test sequence.
6. Comparison of data from test with the Acceptance Criteria.
Conventional ultrasonic testing (UT) can also be used to pro-
7. Identify the location of any suspect areas found.
vide some supplemental information on damage within
8. Notes on any unusual effects or observations.
FRP. Fabrication practices, design, geometries, resin, and re-
9. Dates of examination.
inforcement all play a role.

10. Name of examiners. A ttenuation-based Ultrasound
11. Instrumentation description. Table 3 shows the discussion for UAX.
A cousto-Ultrasonic Testing Table 3. Damage Detection with UAX

Item Discussion
Table 2 shows the discussion for AU.
Standards or written UAX can be applied using
1
Table 2. Damage Detection with AU procedures used ASTM C1332.
Item Discussion Criteria in Codes such as
2 No.
ASME B&PVC.V
AU can be applied using 2
Standards or written
1 ASTM standards: ASTM E1495 Availability of Inspector Certification compliant with
procedures used 3
and ASTM E1796. Certification SNT-TC-1A is available.
Criteria in Codes such as Requirements for
2 No. 4 Yes.
ASME B&PVC.V Calibration Standards
Certification compliant Able to provide
Availability of Inspector with SNT-TC-1A is available. measurements that can
3
Certification Certification for UT is 5 determine damage as Yes.
recommended also. retained strength as in
Figures 1 & 3.
Requirements for Calibration standards are
4
Calibration Standards required. Equipment conditions
Equipment can usually be
6 required during detection
Able to provide operating.
activities.
measurements that can
5 determine damage as Yes. Capability to use detection
retained strength as in 7 results for further analysis Yes.
Figures 1 & 3. and remaining life prediction
Equipment conditions
Equipment can usually be
The attenuation of ultrasound by FRP is very high. ASTM C1332
6 required during detection identifies that the approach used in the standard is not normally
operating.
activities.
recommended for FRP. This method has been found to provide
Capability to use detection
Limited to evaluation of the full attenuation results when:
7 results for further analysis
thickness of the FRP.
and remaining life prediction
• low frequency transducers are used;
Acousto-ultrasonic methods use an ultrasonic signal to excite the • the applied pulse to the transducer is square; and
material and generate simulated acoustic emission events. As for • a ttenuation is determined using voltage of the applied and
ultrasonic testing, calibration is required using a specimen of the back surface reflections.
undamaged FRP taken from the part, as new and undamaged,
General UAX inspection, as described above, will require a cal-
that is being evaluated. During testing, the signals generated by
ibration sample of the FRP that is being tested and at a known
the acousto-ultrasonic method are quantified into a value known
state. This could be obtained from a cutout from the new equip-
as stress wave factor (SWF). The SWF can be used to calculate
ment. There is a patented process for UAX inspections [1] where
how much damage has occurred to the FRP.
the need for calibration is replaced by standardization. The pat-
The standard for this method recommends that the FRP be ented process is based on experimental work that produced this
inspected initially using ultrasonic testing to identify locations calibration based on a standardized attenuation (see Reference 2).
with discontinuities that may affect the results of AU testing. This expands the ability to inspect equipment that may have no
calibration options available.
The AU test report should include:
The UAX test report should include:
1. Identification of the equipment.
2. Equipment sketch or drawing with dimensions and areas 1. Identification of the equipment.
tested. 2. Equipment sketch or drawing with dimensions and areas
3. Tabulation of the test results. tested.
4. Mapping of the testing results on three-dimensional represen- 3. Details of the calibration sample, if used.
tation or Cartesian projection of the equipment. 4. A -scans of the ultrasonic transducer coupled to an elasto-
5. Classification of the AU SWF results into distinct categories. mer delay line that is not in contact with any solid or liquid
Some suggest using up to eight levels and a color code or gray- substance and taken at the inspection time and location. Each
scale for visual presentation. A-scan shall be provided in a form where the magnitude of
6. A-scans of the ultrasonic readings taken. received signals and elapsed time can be determined. Digital
7. Acousto-ultrasonic test equipment used. data of the A-scan image and settings from the ultrasonic
8. Ultrasonic test equipment used. instrument will normally meet this requirement.
9. Notes on special techniques used in interpretation, such as 5. Tabulation of the ultrasonic A-scans taken from the compo-
neural networks or spectral moments. nent, with location references mapped on a two-dimensional
(Cartesian) projection of the component surface.

6. Mapping of the testing results on three-dimensional represen-
tation or Cartesian projection of the equipment.
7. Calculation of the estimated detected thickness of the FRP.
8. Ultrasonic test equipment used.
9. Notes on special techniques used in interpretation.
Ultrasonic Testing
Ultrasonic testing following normal practices is focused on detect-
ing overt flaws and not providing material characterization. This
does not provide much help for determining FRP damage. It can,
however, provide information on the internal structure of FRP,
which could then help with Assessment. Figure 5 shows Figure
18c from Welding Research Council (WRC) Bulletin 601 : Fitness-
for-Service Assessment of FRP Equipment.
Figure 5 shows an ultrasonic A-Scan from a commercially avail-
able flaw detector for a reading that was obtained from a cutout Figure 5. Ultrasonic Testing FRP
from an in-service FRP component. The reflection indication for
“R3” represents the inner surface, or corrosion barrier surface of Conclusions
the FRP. Reflection at “R1” shows the location of the dark band in
The engineer completing the fitness-for-service assessment of
the section. Reflection at “R2” shows the interface of the light-col-
FRP needs to determine the extent of damage that has been done
ored FRP with the darker FRP near the opposite surface.
to the polymer and determine whether the FRP has retained suf-
In conventional ultrasonics, reflections are generated from ficient structural integrity to continue in service. Assessment
the applied pulses at locations where the acoustical impedance requires information on the magnitude and extent of the damage.
changes. For metal alloys, conventional practices assume that
Inspectors are called upon to provide objective data that can be
these changes are density changes—such will occur at a void or
used in these assessments.
discontinuity that blocks pulse propagation. Acoustical imped-
ance also changes when the velocity of pulse travel changes so The four types of tests described in this article can be used to pro-
that reflections will occur at the interface of two materials of the vide objective information for FFS assessments of FRP. Additional
same density with different velocities of pulse travel. Ultrasonic UT may be required when AE and AU are used.
investigation of damage to FRP has found that the velocity of
The ultrasonic methods described in this article are novel and
ultrasound pulse travel will usually decline just as the attenua-
are not yet included in consensus standards. Keep an eye out for
tion increases when the polymer is damaged.
future articles that report the progress of these and other emerg-
If the backwall at “R3” is in the reading, and “R1” and “R2” are pres- ing detection and measurement methods. n
ent in a significant fraction of the readings from FRP, it is reason-
able to conclude that “R1” and “R2” are not caused by flaws such For more information on this subject or the author, please email
as voids but are related to interfaces of polymer that have expe- us at inquiries@inspectioneering.com.
rienced different amounts of damage. Any time that the normal REFERENCES
backwall reflection is not present would still correspond to a thin- 1. G. E. Clarkson, "System and Method for Analysis of Fibre Reinforced
ner section or a flaw. If only a few readings contain reflections Composites". United States Patent 9,909,502, 10,527,591, 5 June 2018.
like “R1” and “R2,” it is also reasonable to classify them as flaws. 2. G. E. Clarkson, "Baseline Values for Non-Destructive Structural Evaluation of
Glass Reinforced Composites," CAMX, Orlando, 2014.
This approach can be used to provide an approximate thickness of
the FRP between each of the reflections. One would assume con- 3. ASTM, "ASTM C 581, Standard Practice for Determining Chemical Resistance of
Thermosetting Resins Used in Glass-Fiber-Reinforced Structures Intended for
stant sonic velocity and calculate the thickness from transit time. Liquid Service," ASTM, Conshoken, 2001.
A-scans, as in Figure 5, should be included in the AU report as 4. ASTM, "C1332 Standard Practice for Measurement of Ultrasonic Attenuation
stated above. Where an AE report has identified suspect areas, Coefficients of Advanced Ceramics by Pulse-Echo Contact Technique," ASTM
International, West Conschoken, Pa, 2018.
this approach should also be used for ultrasonic examination and
the A-scans supplied. These conventional A-scans are not required 5. ASTM, "ASTM E1067: Standard Practice for Acoustic Emission Examination of
Fiberglass Reinforced Plastic Resin (FRP) Tanks/Vessels," ASTM International,
when UAX is used. West Conshocken, Pa, 2011.
This approach can be used without a calibration sample since the 6. ASTM, "ASTM E1495: Standard Guide for Acousto-Ultrasonic Assessment
A-scan is provided with the transit time along the horizontal axis, of Composites, Laminates, and Bonded Joints," ASTM International, West
Conshocken, Pa, 2002.
and the engineer completing the assessment will be able to cal-
culate the approximate thickness. The approach is also novel and 7. G. Clarkson, Assessment of Existing Fiber Reinforced Polymer Equipment for
Structural Damage, WRC Bulletin 601, 2nd Edition, New York, NY: Welding
different from conventional practices.
Research Council, Inc., 2023.

Originally published in the July/August 2023 issue of Inspectioneering Journal
Fitness-for-Service Forum
with Greg Garic, PE
Principal at Stress Engineering Services
The New API 579 Part 15, Piping Vibration: An Interview with
Lyle Breaux, Team Lead
For 10 years, the API 579 Committee has been steadily a bachelor’s degree in mechanical engi- be interested in adding a piping vibration
working on a procedure to evaluate vibration in piping neering from Louisiana State University part to the document. By that time, I had
systems. That long work is about to pay off as the new Part (LSU) in the late 90’s. I later completed my already worked out strategies for dealing
15, “Assessment of Piping Vibration,” is near completion. master’s degree from Georgia Tech with a with piping vibration assessment—some
So for this installment of the Fitness-for-Service Forum, I specialization in Vibration and Acoustics. of my own new techniques and, of course,
want to share my conversation with the Team Lead of the some time-tested strategies from existing
GG: What about your professional
API 579 Piping Vibration Project Team, Mr. Lyle Breaux. methods. I saw a potential opportunity to
career? At this point, you are fairly spe-
put these ideas into an API 579 framework
Over the years, Lyle has pioneered many of the current cialized, working primarily on mechan-
with Levels 1, 2, and 3. I approached the
methods used for piping system vibration assessments. He ical integrity problems in the oil and
committee with these ideas, and within
currently serves as Staff Consultant at Stress Engineering gas industry. And of course, you’re
a few years, the API 579 Project Team on
Services, where his consulting practice includes a good heavily involved in fixed equipment
Piping Vibration was up and running. This
bit of vibration work, but also a range of fixed equip- vibration. Is that where you started or
was around 2013 (Ben Hantz was the API
ment mechanical integrity and fitness-for-service work did you evolve into that?
579 Committee Chair at the time).
in upstream, midstream, and downstream oil & gas and
LB: No, my first jobs were in the aerospace
chemical plants. I hope you enjoy our exchange. GG: Can you tell me a bit about the Part
and defense sector in the Boston area
15 project team and how API 579 project
where I picked up a lot of analytical skills.
Greg Garic (GG): Hi Lyle. Thank you teams are organized and operate?
But after some years in Boston, I wanted to
for agreeing to talk FFS with us today
move back home to the New Orleans area. LB: Each part of API 579 (they are called
and provide an update on the soon-to-
This is when I moved into the oil and gas “parts”, not “chapters”) is developed and
arrive Part 15 on Piping Vibration with
industry. I worked as a plant engineer at written by a “Project Team.” Typically, proj-
Inspectioneering Journal’s readers.
Murphy Oil’s Meraux refinery—a smaller ect teams are composed of 3-6 people. Each
Before we dive into Part 15, can you tell
100,000-ish barrel-per-day refinery on the API 579 part has a “Team Leader,” which
me a little bit about how you got started
outskirts of New Orleans (now a Valero is the role I serve on the Part 15 team.
in engineering? What sparked your
site). I was finishing up my master’s degree Everyone working on the project team
interest and what was your path to get
while I was at Murphy, and that degree is a volunteer; however, their companies
to where you are now?
was focused on vibration and acoustics. So, typically provide support for travel and
Lyle Breaux (LB): Well, I grew up in I tried to find opportunities at the refinery some labor.
Metairie, a suburb of New Orleans. I to apply these vibration skills, but rather
Our team started out with me and one
attended public school and was a mediocre than the typical connection between vibra-
other guy, and after a few years, we picked
student for much of my pre-university life. tion and rotating equipment maintenance,
up some new and very talented engineers
I really had little to no interest in academics I focused instead on vibration of fixed
on the team. The four individuals on our
as a kid, and even with math and science I equipment. This was an area that had a lot
team have now been working together for
could not see any connection to the real less industry attention compared to tradi-
about 6 years, and we’re like a fine-tuned
world. Well, that changed abruptly when tional vibration of machinery. After a few
machine at this point. We all bring dif-
I took physics in my senior year of high years at the refinery, I transitioned to the
ferent skills and experiences to the table,
school. It was the first time I found some- consulting industry when I joined Stress
and we all have made meaningful contri-
thing in academics that I really liked and Engineering Services in 2005, started up
butions to what you’ll see in Part 15. We’re
I was good at it. It changed the trajectory the firm’s vibration consulting practice,
split roughly 50-50 between consultants
of my life. I asked my high school physics and have been there ever since.
and owner-users, all from oil and gas.
teacher what field would be suited to my
GG: How did you get involved with the
newfound interest and talent, and he rec- GG: Let’s move on to some more spe-
API 579 committee? Did that happen
ommended engineering which, he advised, cifics of the new Part 15. Can you elab-
right away?
provided better job prospects than study- orate on the scope of this new Part?
ing pure physics. So, I was an engineering LB: No, that came later. Around 2010 I For example, what it will and will
major from the start and I graduated with became aware that the committee could not cover?

LB: The title of the new Part 15 will be • Low-frequency vibration of main lines LB: Yes, in the real world, you can have a
“Assessment of Piping Vibration.” It will (routed pipe spans) – These would be few different types of vibration patterns,
address piping vibration from most of the beam-mode vibrations where there is and this is often a source of some confu-
usual ways it manifests in the real world, displacement of the pipe centerline. sion that we really tried to clear up in Part
but it will not address vibration of other • Small cantilever branch connections 15. We like to use either random or periodic
fixed equipment like exchangers, ther- • High-frequency flexural vibration of signal classifications. Periodic signals are
mowells, etc. And, of course, no machinery main lines – These would be shell mode what is addressed in most textbooks, and
vibration assessment. vibrations (deformation around the they are the basis for what most people
centerline, with no displacement of the think of when they visualize vibration.
Early in my career, I noticed that piping
centerline). Yet, many real-world signals are random,
vibration problems were often handled in
especially with process- and flow-induced
an ad hoc way, especially in downstream And like all of API 579, we’re focused on
vibration of piping. In Part 15, we properly
facilities. The approach varied among indi- assessing the fitness-for-service (FFS) of
account for the physics of random vs. peri-
vidual practitioners and even varied across the current condition. There is not nec-
odic signals and address them accordingly.
industries and within oil and gas and other essarily “damage” in the usual sense of
This was another technical aspect that
facility types. There were a few good guid- an FFS assessment; rather, checking for
most of the existing industry guidance
ance documents and some good industry the potential damage (usually a fatigue
documents on vibration did not handle
references, but even these did not align crack at a weld) that may potentially occur
very well.
in terms of approach. So, for Part 15, we as a result of the vibration. If the system
really aimed to consolidate all of the best is found NOT to be fit for service, some Regarding the source of vibration, Part
practices, along with our own new ideas, potential mitigation strategies are given. 15 will address everything except shock
into a framework that looks and feels like or impulse loading (e.g., water hammer).
GG: I’m not a vibration expert, but I do
the familiar step-by-step procedures from But other than that, the user will be able
know that there are different types of
API 579. to address vibration from a wide range of
vibration signatures, such as random
sources, such as:
We believe we’ve addressed most of the and periodic, and many different vibra-
piping vibration problems affecting the tion sources (e.g., acoustic, mechani- • Machinery pulsation – from reciprocat-
industry, such as: cal). How are those aspects addressed? ing compressors and pumps,
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• Mechanical vibration – from machinery A Level 1 assessment is an easy screening a high level of competency in vibration
directly attached to piping, method. All you have to do is measure and fatigue. We reference a dozen or more
• Flow-induced turbulence – from the “overall RMS velocity” on the pipe techniques that can be applied in different
high-velocity flow, two-phase flow, etc., being assessed and compare it to a table situations and we discuss strategies for
• Flow-induced noise – valve noise and of screening values. The vibration must be follow-up measurement (e.g., strain gage
high-frequency excitation, and categorized into either small bore, bending measurement), advanced analysis, numer-
• Piping system acoustics – acoustic cav- mode, or shell mode vibration. The small- ical methods, and even more advanced sig-
ity resonance. bore vibration is the case of a small pipe nal processing.
sticking out on a branch like a little canti-
But, in fact, the source of the vibration is GG: I know that in Europe, an organiza-
lever beam. The bending mode vibration
a lot more important in mitigation than tion called the Energy Institute (EI) also
is the familiar case of the pipe centerline
in condition assessment. This is often provides guidance on evaluating vibra-
vibrating that we can often see with our
misunderstood and perhaps not intuitive. tion. To what degree have you coor-
eyes. The shell mode vibration is when the
From the standpoint of an FFS assessment, dinated your efforts with the Energy
walls of the pipe wobble around the center-
the details of the vibration source are not Institute?
line; we can’t see this, but we can usually
primarily important; what’s important is
feel it as a buzzing of the pipe surface. LB: The Energy Institute published the
the magnitude and frequency of the vibra-
Guidelines for the Avoidance of Vibration-
tion-induced stresses and the capacity of That’s it. Just measure the overall RMS
Induced Fatigue Failure in Process Pipework,
the weld joints to handle these stresses velocity, categorize the vibration, and com-
Second Edition, in 2008. And, in fact,
without developing fatigue cracks. pare the measured value to the tabulated
they are about to release the third edition
acceptance limit. No calculations, no sig-
GG: As you say, when vibration does either this year or next. For most of the
nal processing, etc. We really tried to make
create a problem, that problem usually last ten years, while we developed Part
this very simple. And there is an entire
involves fatigue. Are you leveraging 15, we worked independently from the
annex (“annex” is API 579 lingo for what
Part 14, Assessment of Fatigue Damage, EI Steering Group. About a year ago, they
other codes might call an “Appendix”) with
or is vibrational fatigue addressed approached our team and proposed that we
guidance for making the vibration mea-
within Part 15? work together to align the two documents.
surements. Plant vibration technicians
We agreed, and the end result of this col-
LB: We do leverage Part 14 to some extent. will be able to handle Level 1 work without
laboration is that our Level 1 assessment
Part 14 already includes both smooth-bar much difficulty and without additional
criteria are now well-aligned with the
and welded-joint fatigue curve methods. training required.
Energy Institute’s upcoming third edition.
We also use both approaches in Part 15. One
Level 2 assessments require some calcu-
thing that is special about vibration-in- The process involved an in-depth com-
lations and will most likely be handled by
duced fatigue is the very large number parison of the screening approaches and
plant engineers. The vibration data, which
of cycles, and it turns out this is a bit of a re-running numerous finite element mod-
in most cases will be the same data from
challenge and somewhat of a limitation for els (by both EI and API 579 teams) until all
the Level 1 assessment, would be loaded
the existing Part 14 methodologies. In Part the results matched and all parties agreed
into a spreadsheet and calculations per-
15 development, we coined the term “very on the essential details. There was quite a
formed on the actual vibration data. The
high cycle fatigue,” or VHCF for short, for lot of behind-the-scenes effort and adjust-
biggest enhancements to Level 2 are that
fatigue at typically ten million cycles or ment of material. In the end, both EI and
it considers the physics and structural
greater. The VHCF regime is an area that API 579 wound up adjusting their criteria
dynamics specific to the piping system.
can be tricky. Again, here we’ve got differ- and approach, and I must say that both
So, a Level 2 assessment can reduce much
ent techniques among practitioners and documents were meaningfully improved
of the conservatism that is inherent in the
across industries and geographic regions by the collaboration.
Level 1 procedure.
(North American and European codes and
GG: So, exactly where does the docu-
standards all have different approaches). Level 2 assessments do not require the
ment stand at this point? When do you
And the state-of-the-art, in terms of analyst to additionally perform a Part 14
expect it to be released?
research into VHCF, is evolving. We tried fatigue assessment—it’s built into the
to strike a good balance between existing Level 2 assessment. The Level 2 calcula- LB: At this point, the new Part 15 is essen-
code procedures, academic research, and tions check that the vibration stresses are tially complete. Approval of the final docu-
real-world practical experience with vibra- below the non-propagating limit. That is, ment requires a committee process called
tion-induced fatigue. to pass the Level 2 assessment, the stresses “balloting.” The whole API 579 committee
must be low enough that fatigue cracking reviews the document and notes any com-
GG: Let’s talk about the Level 1, 2, and
will not propagate at weld joints (or for ments or objections. The Part 15 Project
3 assessments themselves. Can you give
non-welded locations, fatigue cracking Team then must answer any questions and
us the “big picture” overview of what
will not initiate). resolve any issues. This process can poten-
those assessments will involve?
tially take many months. Initial balloting is
Level 3 assessments cover everything else.
LB: Sure. It works like this: scheduled to begin on August 31, 2023. The
Level 3 is intended for the specialist with

release of the next edition of API 579 will your comments and making suggestions for
be heavily influenced by the completion of future articles.
the Part 15 ballot process. But generally, we
Many thanks…GG
would expect the next edition of API 579 to
be sometime in 2024. For more information on this subject or
GG: Do you have any advice for young the author, please email us at inquiries@
engineers just starting out in their inspectioneering.com.
careers? Are there any thoughts, look-
ing back on your career, that you’d like About the Author: Greg Garic, PE,
to share? has over 35 years of experience in FFS
LB: I had some early opportunities to look and mechanical integrity assessment of
at various types of engineering work. I pressure systems. He began his career at
worked at two R&D companies and then NASA’s Stennis Space Center, where his
in a refinery as a maintenance engineer. tenure spanned 15 years. After rising to the
Looking back, I realize now that this position of Senior Engineer, he joined Stress
helped me identify my specific interests Engineering Services and has been there
and preferences very early. My prefer- for over 20 years. As a Managing Principal
ence was for more analytical work but with Stress, Greg focuses most of his work
with a very practical hands-on focus, as on stress analysis, fracture mechanics,
opposed to academic research. My point pressure systems engineering, and FFS
here is that understanding your prefer- across the process industries. He also
ences and your strengths and weaknesses teaches FFS training courses, is qualified
early can potentially set you on the right as a stress analysis expert in federal court,
trajectory in your career. I think the mes- and leads Stress’ New Orleans office. Suffice
sage to a young engineer is to give some it to say, he’s been around the block more
real thought to what type of work and than a few times and knows FFS.
work environment you are good at, and Please send your inputs to the author at
what you truly like doing. Then you can be ffs@inspectioneering.com.
more effective in building the career that
follows your interests and preferences.
Many thanks to Lyle Breaux taking
the time to chat with me and share his
insights into the history and meth-
odology behind the soon-to-be-re-
leased Part 15 covering piping vibration
assessment. n
If there are any topics you’d like to see in the FFS
Forum, or if you have comments in this article,
leave a note in the “Comments” section online
or send me an email at FFS@inspectioneering.
com.
P.S. This is the 30th Fitness-for-Service Forum
article and represents my 5-year anniversary
writing this column for Inspectioneering
Journal. My thanks to Inspectioneering and
to everyone who has followed the column,
and particularly to those who have chimed
in with comments and questions. When I
originally selected the name FFS Forum, the
“Forum” part was included to encourage com-
ment and feedback from the readership. I
look forward to many future articles in this
series and encourage you to continue sharing

Damage Control
with Phillip E. Prueter, PE
Principal Engineer II and Senior Vice President of Consulting at The Equity Engineering Group, Inc.
High-Temperature Creep Detection

Editor’s Note: This regular column offers practical insights into various damage mech- related to creep behavior. Further developments in understand-
anisms affecting equipment in the O&G, petrochemical, chemical, power generation, ing creep damage in metals occurred between 1919 and 1926,
and related industries. Readers are encouraged to send us suggestions for future top- where it was noted that material properties based on short-term
ics, comments on the current article, and raise issues of concern. All submissions will tests are not applicable when components are exposed to elevated
be reviewed and used to pick topics and guide the direction of this column. We will temperatures [6-8]. Subsequently, in 1929, Bailey and Norton
treat all submissions as strictly confidential. Only Inspectioneering and the author published a relationship between creep rate and stress, which
will know the names and identities of those that submit. Please send your inputs to the was intended to replace Hooke’s Law when analyzing stresses
author at damagecontrol@inspectioneering.com. and strains at elevated temperatures [9,10]. This early creep work
created the foundation for modern creep mechanics, modeling
Introduction approaches, and test methods that are still in use today.
High-temperature creep is a time-dependent phenomenon char-
This installment of Damage Control will focus on typical damage
acterized by gradual, continuous deformation, affecting all met-
morphology and inspection methods used to identify and char-
als and alloys, under the combined action of temperature and
acterize high-temperature creep. A high-level overview of creep
stress. Furthermore, stress levels below the time-independent
behavior in carbon steels and other alloys will also be presented,
yield strength of a given material can be sufficient to cause inelas-
and generally accepted temperature thresholds defining the
tic creep deformations and damage, especially for long loading
lower boundary of the creep regime for varying materials will
times and elevated temperatures [1]. In general, creep damage
be discussed. Additionally, commonly affected pressure equip-
accumulation and the propensity for rupture/failure is a function
ment in the oil and gas, petrochemical, power generation, and
of material properties (including chemical composition, micro-
related industries will be outlined, and critical factors influenc-
structure, heat treatment, strength, component geometry/con-
ing damage susceptibility will be reviewed. Furthermore, exam-
straint, and previous loading history or deformations that may be
ples of creep damage and in-service failures will be summarized
present), operating stresses (whether load or displacement-con-
to offer insight into this complex damage mechanism. Note that
trolled), metal temperatures, and time in service. Creep damage
high-temperature hydrogen attack (HTHA) and creep-fatigue
accumulation over time can lead to void growth and crack for-
interaction will not be examined in this article [11,12].
mation, eventual rupture of pressure equipment, and failure of
engineering components and structures. High-Temperature Creep Fundamentals
Time-dependent creep deformation in metals was first observed The classical behavior of steels operating in the creep regime
in the nineteenth century [2]. Specifically, in the 1830s, Vicat is shown in Figure 1, which highlights the three main zones of
observed time-dependent deformation (that could not be creep behavior: primary, secondary, and tertiary. It is noted that
explained by typical elastic material behavior) of hardened iron this schematic is generally representative of a test specimen sub-
wire bridge cables [3]. Later, in the late 1800s, additional obser- ject to uniaxial loading, and it shows behavior as time progresses,
vations of material behavior in steam engines and time-depen- up to the point of failure (denoted fracture), where creep strains
dent relaxation of stress in members subject to fixed strain were start to rapidly increase as end-of-life approaches. The shape of
documented [4]. By the early 1900s, quantitative proof of creep this curve and the time scale associated with the different zones of
characteristics in a variety of materials had been established, and creep behavior will heavily depend on the material, applied stress,
plastic flow dependency on temperature and loading rate in car- and temperature. Additionally, Figure 1 shows creep strain rate
bon steels had been described. Furthermore, the first systematic as a function of time, where strain rate tends to drop in the pri-
study on the topic of time-dependent material behavior, including mary stage, is relatively constant in the secondary stage, and then
the delineation of various stages of creep, was published in 1910 increases in the tertiary stage (this increase in the curve that pre-
by Andrade [5]. This early experimental work involved testing cedes fracture may be partially caused by an increase in average
lead wires under deadweight loading at room temperature. While stress due to necking of the test specimen). Furthermore, in many
the significance of this investigation would not be fully recog- applications of loaded components, the constant strain rate asso-
nized until years later, this study laid the initial groundwork for ciated with the secondary stage of creep does not strictly occur;
understanding and quantifying time-dependent behavior of met- rather, after the primary creep stage, strain rate may continuously
als. As the twentieth century progressed, the demand for durable increase, resulting in a creep curve exhibiting behavior of primary
steels in power plants and chemical process equipment capable of and tertiary creep only. A general rule of thumb is that strain rate
withstanding higher temperatures promoted additional research doubles (and remaining life is approximately cut in half) for an

increase in operating temperature of 25°F (14°C) or for an increase
of approximately 15 percent in applied stress. Coarse-grained
materials offer better creep damage tolerance than fine-grained
materials, in general, because they have less grain boundary sur-
face area (subject to creep void initiation), although resistance to
brittle fracture can be less favorable relative to fine-grained mate-
rials. Another important consideration is that stronger materials
(e.g., exhibiting more resistance to creep strain) do not necessarily
equate to more damage tolerance. In fact, for many equipment
designs and applications, creep ductility is more beneficial. The
appearance of creep damage with little-to-no visible deformation
is usually an indicator of low creep ductility. Low creep ductility
is typically characterized by the following [13,14]:
• Prevalent in high-strength steels and welds
• More likely in coarse-grained material than
fine-grained material
• Ambient temperature properties may not be
detrimentally affected Figure 1. Schematic of Classic Creep Curve Showing
Three Zones of Behavior: Primary, Secondary,
• Can be promoted by carbide formation in Cr-Mo steels and Tertiary.
• Often more predominant at the lower temperature end of the

creep regime, or at relatively low applied stress levels occurring
at temperatures in the upper region of the creep range
Today, predicting remaining life in pressure equipment and other
engineering components subject to high-temperature creep is an
extremely useful endeavor. Also, advancements in material tech-
nology have led to the creation of more damage tolerant and creep
resistant alloys than ever before. While high-temperature mate-
rial properties, engineering analysis methods, and testing proce-
dures have evolved significantly since the nineteenth and early
twentieth centuries, the same fundamental concepts of creep
behavior hold true today. Creep testing of uniaxially loaded speci-
mens represents the most common method for establishing creep
properties that can be used in an engineering evaluation to pre-
dict remaining life, including advanced computational simula-
tions on complex geometries. For fitness-for-service applications,
the Omega Creep Method represents a well-documented and
widely used approach for practitioners [15]. This method, based on
the Materials Properties Council (MPC) Project Omega Program,
is comprehensively outlined in Part 10 of API 579-1/ASME FFS-1,
Fitness-For-Service (API 579) and contains a wide-ranging data-
base of high-temperature material properties, characterizing
creep rupture behavior, for many different alloys commonly used
in the oil and gas, petrochemical, and related industries [16]. The Table 1. Temperature Limits Used to Define the Creep Range (Consistent
with API 579 [16]).
Omega Method and commentary on creep testing and analysis
will be further described in the next installment of Damage Control.
When designing new equipment or evaluating in-service com- creep service life generally becomes extremely long, assuming no
ponents, it is often useful to have practical temperature thresh- other damage mechanisms are actively degrading the load carry-
old guidelines for a given material; that is, a temperature limit ing capacity or properties of the material. In general, creep dam-
above which creep damage is a concern (where the creep regime age is irreversible and is accelerated by general or local wall loss
begins). API 579 provides such temperature limits that are offered due to an increase in stress or from other types of damage such as
in Table 1 for common steels and alloys. Operating temperatures fatigue or other forms of cracking. As such, regions of any form
above these limits will lead to eventual creep cracking and pos- of degradation should be carefully examined for signs of creep
sibly rupture. At operating temperatures below these thresholds, damage progression.

Commentary on Carburization,
Graphitization, and Spheroidization
Three damage mechanisms that can reduce the creep resistance
and creep ductility of certain steels are carburization, graphitiza-
tion, and spheroidization. These damage mechanisms are only
reviewed from a cursory level herein. Carburization refers to the
phenomenon of carbon absorption into a material, at elevated
temperature, while in contact with a carbonaceous material or
carburizing environment (e.g., hydrocarbons, coke, gases rich in
CO, CO2, methane, ethane, and low oxygen potential). Typically,
temperatures above 1100°F (593°C) are required to facilitate this
process, and as such, fired heater tubes are particularly suscep-
tible. Affected materials generally include carbon steel and low
alloy steels, 300 series and 400 series stainless steels, cast stain-
less steels, nickel base alloys with significant iron content (e.g., Figure 2. Micrograph Showing a Creep-Related Crack-Like Flaw in the Long-
Alloys 600 and 800) and HK/HP alloys [13,14]. Carburization Seam of 1-1/4-Cr 1/2-Mo Catalytic Reformer Piping [17].
can lead to the loss of high temperature creep ductility, loss of

ambient temperature mechanical properties such as fracture accumulation and ultimately, failure. Conventional remaining
toughness, loss of weldability, and even unfavorable overall creep life estimates using baseline material properties may be
corrosion resistance. unconservative if any of these detrimental phenomena are pres-
ent. While not discussed in detail herein, sigma phase embrit-
Graphitization is defined as a gradual change in the microstruc-
tlement, driven by long-term elevated temperature exposure
ture of certain carbon steels and 1/2-Mo steels after long-term
between 1,000°F and 1,700°F (538°C - 927°C), generally affecting
operation in the 800°F to 1100°F (427°C to 593°C) range that may
300 series stainless steels, including cast HK and HP-modified
cause a loss in overall strength, ductility, and/or creep resistance.
alloys that contain high ferrite content, and 400 series stain-
In summary, at elevated temperatures, the carbide phases in these
less steels can degrade material ductility, and promote cracking.
steels are unstable and may decompose into graphite nodules.
However, this loss in ductility (fracture toughness) is typically
This decomposition is the driving force behind the detrimental
most pronounced at lower temperatures, well below the creep
changes in material properties associated with graphitization
regime.
[13,14]. Material chemistry, applied stress, operating tempera-
ture, and time of elevated temperature exposure are all critical Creep Damage Morphology
variables that influence the severity of damage. Additionally,
As time elapses for a loaded component operating at high tem-
hot-walled piping and other equipment in fluid catalytic crack-
peratures, void formation at grain boundary triple points can
ing (FCC), catalytic reformer, and coker units are notably prone
occur. As more creep damage accumulates, these voids can
to graphitization.
become more widespread and can grow to form fissures, and
Spheroidization affects carbon and low-alloy steels and is gen- eventually crack-like flaws. As fissures and cracks continue to
erally characterized by a change in microstructure after expo- develop, failure or rupture can occur such that gross deformation
sure of 850°F to 1400°F (440°C to 760°C). Specifically, the carbide associated with tensile overloading is not apparent [13,14]. It is
phases in carbon steels are unstable and may agglomerate important to consider that many materials don’t exhibit any nota-
from their normal plate-like form to a spheroidal form, or from ble voids or fissures until failure is imminent. Additionally, creep
small, finely dispersed carbides to large, agglomerated carbides. damage/cracking can initiate subsurface such that careful volu-
Spheroidization may cause a loss in strength and/or creep resis- metric inspection would be required to successfully identify the
tance [13,14]. The rate of spheroidization depends on the tem- damage (surface replication would not identify any issues). This
perature and initial microstructure (occurring more rapidly as makes correlating inspection results and microstructural charac-
temperature increases). Additionally, annealed steels are usually teristics to remaining creep life predictions challenging in many
more resistant to spheroidization than normalized steels, and cases. Figure 2 shows an example of creep cracking in the lon-
coarse-grained steels are often more damage tolerant than fine- gitudinal weld seam of 1-1/4-Cr 1/2-Mo catalytic reformer piping
grained materials. Furthermore, fine-grained, silicon-killed steels [17]. It can be observed that preceding the crack tip are voids and
are more impervious to spheroidization than aluminum-killed fissures that are starting to link-up, thus promoting crack propa-
steels. Like graphitization, spheroidization most commonly gation through-wall. This damage morphology is commonly seen
afflicts FCC, catalytic reformer, and coker unit components. with creep cracking.
The reason why an understanding of these three damage mech- Another example of creep cracking in 1-1/4-Cr 1/2-Mo catalytic
anisms is important when evaluating creep damage suscep- reformer service is shown in Figure 3 [18]. This image depicts
tibility and estimating remaining life is because any of these inside, and outside surface-breaking cracks driven by creep at a
mechanisms, under the right conditions, can dramatically reduce reformer piping tee-to-flange hub junction. Creep cracking at this
creep resistance and lead to accelerated creep cracking/damage location is not unexpected since it is near a weld, and the geometry

boiler tube, with a micrograph depicting widespread creep voids
and fissures near the failed cross-section. Low-chrome materials
like 1-1/4-Cr 1/2-Mo can often exhibit relatively low creep ductility
as well. Figure 6 shows a classic fish-mouth type rupture of a car-
bon steel tube from a gas-fired boiler (driven by hoop stress). In
this case, short-term overheating is a more likely damage mech-
anism than long-term creep because of the large amount of per-
manent deflections observed and because of the distinguishing
thinning near the fracture surface. In general, short-term over-
heating is characterized by very high-temperature exposure that
Figure 3. Inside and Outside Surface Creep Cracking of a results in short-term tensile overload due to plastic deformation.
Reformer Piping Tee-to-Flange Hub (Weld and Specifically, localized deformation or bulging on the order of (3% -
Thickness Transition Region) [18].
10%) or more can be expected for short-term overheating, depend-
ing on the alloy, temperature, and applied stress level [13,14].
Being able to differentiate short-term overheating from long-
term creep is valuable when attempting to carry out root cause
failure investigations.
Observations on Inspection Methods

In general, high-temperature creep damage with typical micro-
void formation, fissuring, cracking that may be sub-surface, and
dimensional changes (e.g., permanent deformation) is not effec-
tively identified by any sole inspection technique. A combination
of non-destructive examination practices such as visual inspec-
Figure 4. Creep Rupture of an HK-40 Fired Heater Tube, tion (VT), ultrasonic methods (UT), radiography (RT), eddy cur-
Exhibiting Low Creep Ductility [14].
rent (EC), dimensional measurements, and field metallographic
replication (FMR) should be employed as part of a methodical
mechanical integrity program. Destructive sampling and sub-
sequent metallographic examination/laboratory analysis are
useful tools to confirm the presence of creep damage or to carry
out a failure analysis. Note that any destructive sampling may
require weld repairs or weld build-up to restore the thickness of
the sample location. This can be problematic for heavily damaged
material because weldability may be challenging if the adjacent
material has lost ductility or if it contains creep voids or fissures
(e.g., welding may initiate or propagate cracks). Depending on the
material, application, and thickness, post weld heat treatment
(PWHT) may also be required following welding, further com-
plicating the repair procedure. Additionally, hardness testing has
proven to be relatively ineffective at correlating specific values to
creep damage/remaining life.
Figure 5. Creep Rupture of a 1-1/4-Cr 1/2-Mo Waste Heat
Boiler Tube, with a Micrograph of the Failed For pressure equipment, inspection should focus on welds, in
Area Exhibiting Widespread Creep Voids. general, but especially on Cr-Mo welds operating in the creep
range. Welds may also contain original fabrication defects, lack of
exhibits a thickness transition, resulting in local elevated stresses
fusion, porosity, slag inclusions, etc., that often serve as damage
that would generally promote crack initiation. Moreover, not only
initiation sites. Furthermore, the mismatch in material properties
does internal pressure loading contribute to these local stresses,
between weld deposits, heat affected zones (HAZs), and adjacent
but markedly, bolt loading acting on the flange induces added
base metal can increase the propensity for crack initiation and
bending stress at this location where the flange hub attaches to
accelerate creep crack propagation. Considering 1-Cr 1/2-Mo and
the main body of the piping tee.
1-1/4-Cr 1/2-Mo materials are particularly predisposed to low creep
Several examples of ruptures in fired heater tubes are offered in ductility, careful attention should be given to welded regions in
Figures 4-6. In Figure 4, a creep rupture of an HK-40 (cast auste- these components. Commonly, inspections are performed visu-
nitic alloy) fired heater tube is shown. This figure shows very little ally and followed by periodic surface inspection methods such as
plastic deformation surrounding the ruptured region, indicat- wet fluorescent magnetic particle testing (WFMT) or liquid pen-
ing relatively low creep ductility (as is often the case for HK-40). etrant testing (PT) – note that surface inspection will not identify
Figure 5 shows a creep rupture of a 1-1/4-Cr 1/2-Mo waste heat embedded damage. Angled beam (e.g., shear wave, phased array,

Figure 6. Classic Fish-Mouth Rupture of a Boiler Tube,
Likely Due to Short-Term Overheating, Not
Long-Term Creep.
etc.) UT techniques can be utilized as well, but early stages of creep

damage are often difficult to detect and accurately characterize.
Figure 7. Idealized Microstructural Creep Damage Evolution as
a Function of Creep Strain and Time in Service.
It is important to recognize that pronounced creep voids, fissur-
ing, and creep crack formation in pressure equipment may not
be perceptible until the end of useful operating life is approach- tracked and documented. Metal temperatures can be obtained
ing, especially at the surface (e.g., if FMR is being performed to via thermocouple readings or potentially infrared (IR) scanning/
examine microstructural characteristics). Figure 7 depicts ide- thermography. This information becomes critical when attempt-
alized microstructural creep damage evolution as a function ing to carry out fitness-for-service assessments to estimate tube
of creep strain and time in service (note that actual material remaining life, since creep life predictions are very sensitive to
behavior should be evaluated on a case-by-case basis). This figure long-term operating conditions. It is worth noting that accurate
reinforces the concept that over time, creep damage progresses temperature readings via IR scans require proper personnel train-
(in order of increasing severity) from isolated voids/cavities to ing, calibration of equipment, and a thorough understanding of
larger, linked-up voids, to micro-cracks, to larger macro-cracks. emissivity, viewing angle, and other parameters.
Moreover, macro-cracks often are not prevalent until accelerated
creep damage and crack propagation are observed immediately Commonly Affected Pressure Equipment
before failure/fracture. This observation implies that in general, In general, as evidenced above, fired heater tubes are distinctly
once widespread macro-cracks are identified, equipment replace- prone to creep damage as they are often exposed to elevated tem-
ment should be strongly considered given the risk for rapid peratures for long periods of time. This includes other internal
damage progression and subsequent rupture. The challenges heater components such as tube supports, guides, and hangers.
associated with identifying incipient creep damage makes rely- In the refining industry, hot-walled catalytic reformer piping,
ing solely on non-destructive examination methods (including reactors, and associated components are prone to creep damage.
FMR) to make run-repair-replace decisions problematic, since Additionally, hydrogen reformer tubes/headers, FCC unit equip-
inspection intervals that are too infrequent could result in fail- ment such as hot-walled reactors, fractionators, and regenerator
ure before noteworthy damage can be clearly identified. For this internals are susceptible. In general, if internal refractory degra-
reason, leveraging engineering/fitness-for-service calculations to dation occurs on cold-walled equipment (e.g., FCC reactors), the
estimate remaining creep life can help guide inspection strate- related hotspot region can be prone to either short-term overheat-
gies/intervals and offer perspective on when creep damage accu- ing or long-term creep, if not properly remediated in an expedi-
mulation reaches a critical threshold. tious fashion. Furthermore, oxidation corrosion due to high-metal
temperatures can be problematic when local hotspots arise on
For fired heater tubes, strapping measurements for diametric
cold-walled carbon steel or low-alloy components (e.g., oxida-
growth are often carried out during planned turnarounds and
tion of carbon steel generally becomes worrisome above about
maintenance outages to offer insight into creep damage and per-
1000°F/538°C), and the corrosion rate is exacerbated by increasing
manent deformation. Thickness measurements should generally
temperatures. Low creep ductility failures have occurred in weld
occur as well, and visual examination for any apparent bowing
heat-affected zones at nozzles and other highly stressed areas on
of tubes, blisters, sagging, or bulging should be performed (tube
catalytic reformer reactors and piping components. Creep-related
supports, hangers, and other internals should also be inspected to
cracking has also been discovered at longitudinal seam welds in
ensure they are in good working order). Additionally, any areas of
high-temperature piping. Also, welds joining dissimilar materials
tube corrosion, erosion, or potential overheating should be flagged
(i.e., ferritic to austenitic welds) may suffer creep related damage
for further inspection. FMR can be used on the tube outside sur-
at high temperatures, partially due to differential thermal expan-
face; however, this may not provide a definitive indication of sub-
sion stresses [13,14].
surface (e.g., inside surface-initiated) damage, and as described
above, this may only identify issues near end of life. Regarding In the power generation industry, high-temperature superheater
in-service monitoring, it is usually recommended to ensure that and reheater tubes and high-pressure steam generation compo-
tube operating pressures and metal temperatures are routinely nents such as fired boilers, piping systems/headers, steam drums,

and related equipment are subject to long-term creep damage. In industry failures during the 1980s, such as the Sabine, Mohave,
other industries, creep can also affect many different components. Monroe steam piping ruptures.
For example, in the petrochemical industry, acrylonitrile reactors
In addition to long-term creep damage, a major contributor to
and ethylene cracker components can be degraded by long-term
these failures included local stress increases from long-seam weld
creep damage. In general, welded regions in any high-tempera-
peaking or misalignment [17, 21-23]. Weld peaking, as depicted in
ture equipment, areas that contain geometric discontinuities
Figure 8, is an artifact of the original fabrication/rolling process
(e.g., thickness transitions, structural attachment locations, noz-
of the steel plate, and most piping specifications do not invoke
zle-to-shell junctions, etc.), and any area that is subject to the
tolerances on this type of weld misalignment. The presence of
hottest operating metal temperatures should be prioritized for
local peaking can lead to an increased proclivity for creep crack
focused inspection.
initiation and propagation (from elevated local bending stress)
Longitudinal Weld Seam Misalignment in and eventual rupture of the pressure boundary. Additionally, the
Low-Chrome Piping effects of creep strength (rate) mismatch between the base metal,
weld HAZ, and/or weld deposit accelerates creep cracking propen-
A special topic related to high-temperature creep damage involves
sity in low-chrome materials, in general. Notably, long-seam fail-
the failure of longitudinally welded low-chrome piping systems
ures have been observed in chrome-moly welds given sub-critical
in the power generation and refining industries. Early creep
PWHT as well as those that are normalized followed by temper-
cracking failures were observed in the 1950s and 1960s of 1-1/4
ing. The Mohave steam pipe failure (1-1/4-Cr 1/2-Mo alloy) in 1985
Cr - 1/2-Mo components, such as super-heater outlet headers and
and Monroe (2-1/4-Cr 1-Mo alloy) in 1986 showed direct evidence
piping components. In 1968, due to several notable in-service
of a progression of cracking from sub-surface initiation points in
failures, the ASME Boiler and Pressure Vessel Code reduced the
regions of high stress multiaxiality due to local creep property
time-dependent allowable stresses for 1-1/4 Cr - 1/2 Mo materials.
mismatch and weld joint geometry. The cracking was preceded
The allowable stresses at 1,000°F and 1,050°F were reduced by 16
by extensive cavitation in the weld HAZ or at the weld fusion line,
and 26 percent, respectively [19]. A second decrease in allowable
facilitated by the local triaxial stress state associated with the
stresses [20] took place in the 1989 addenda of the ASME Code,
creep rate property mismatches in the weld zone. These systems
where the allowable stresses for 1-1/4 Cr - 1/2 Mo decreased from
operated at roughly 1,000°F. It has been confirmed in postmortem
6.9 ksi to 6.3 ksi at 1,000°F and from 4.6 ksi to 4.2 ksi at 1,050°F. This
investigations that the creep damage initiated subsurface due to
change was driven by some of the catastrophic power generation
high triaxial tension [24].
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associated with local peaking explained the premature failure.
This work highlighted that peaking on the order of 1/8-inch can
result in a stress increase of about 2.5 times the nominal hoop
stress from pressure (determined to be a significant contributor
to the observed failure). Other documented failures of long-seam,
low chrome piping in catalytic reforming service have been docu-
mented over the years, and all these instances were due to cracks
that initiated at the inside surface or embedded within the wall
thickness, with no visible external damage [25-27]. An example of
early-stage embedded creep damage in a low-chrome pipe weld is
shown in Figure 9. Creep void coalescence (crack initiation) can
be clearly observed at the root of the two-sided (Double-V) weld.
Creep cracking often propagates parallel to the weld HAZ (fusion
line) as shown in Figure 9. Failure (i.e., loss of containment or
rupture) will occur once the crack grows to a critical size and the
remaining ligament can no longer sustain the applied loading.
In the above-described failure case studies, creep damage pro-
gressed to an advanced state without any apparent evidence
on the outside surface. Given this, careful attention should be
given to long-seam welded piping systems operating in the creep
Figure 8. Sketch of Peaking in a Cylindrical Cross- regime, and precise peaking measurements, analytical studies,
Section with a Longitudinal Weld Seam and targeted volumetric (UT) cracking inspections may be war-
(adapted from [16]).
ranted to manage the risk associated with potential in-service
failure. Focusing on regions of a piping system that operate at
the highest temperatures represents a pragmatic means to iden-
tify any potential creep cracking issues. If piping system regions
that historically have operated at the highest metal temperatures
show no signs of damage, it is reasonable to assume that risk
would be lower at areas that have operated at lower temperatures
(this assumption presumes weld peaking magnitudes are equiva-
lent). Lastly, if peaking measurements are accurate and well-doc-
umented, then areas that exhibit the largest magnitude of weld
misalignment should also be prioritized for inspection, since
those locations will be subject to the most severe local stresses
that can drive creep cracking.
Summary and Conclusions

This installment of Damage Control offers practical insights into the
fundamental characteristics and damage morphology associated
with long-term, high-temperature creep damage. Understanding
the types of equipment/process units, geometries/locations, and
materials most prone to creep damage can help guide inspection
strategies and life cycle management approaches to maximize
Figure 9. Typical Embedded Fusion Line Creep
Damage Observed in Normalized and reliability and minimize the potential for costly failures. In gen-
Tempered Low-Chrome Piping [23]. eral, fired heater tubes and long-seam welded piping operating in
the creep regime often require special attention and a thorough
understanding of damage progression rates. The limitations asso-
Low-chrome piping failures have also occurred in the oil refin- ciated with different inspection techniques such as FMR should
ing industry. Catalytic reformer long-seam piping failure inves- also be considered when implementing mechanical integrity pro-
tigations from the mid-1990s and subsequent creep testing grams for high-temperature equipment. Additionally, knowing
programs indicated 1-1/4 Cr-1/2 Mo (normalized and tempered) when other damage mechanisms such as carburization, graphi-
pipe material can exhibit greater than average creep strength and tization, and spheroidization could potentially degrade the creep
creep ductility [25-27]. Nevertheless, failure can occur in 100,000 strength or creep ductility of a component can be important
hours or less at a nominal hoop stress of roughly 6 ksi with an when estimating remaining life and specifying inspection inter-
operating temperature range of 970°F to 1,000°F. Findings from vals or replacement schedules. The next installment of Damage
successive analyses of failed pipes suggested bending stresses Control will focus on engineering assessment techniques for

high-temperature creep, including the Omega Creep Method, as Temperature Hydrogen Attack Damage,” PVP2019-93533, Proceedings of 2019
outlined in Part 10 of API 579 [16]. Understanding how to lever- ASME Pressure Vessels and Piping Conference, San Antonio, Texas.
age the Omega Method, carry out creep tests to establish accu- 12. Prueter, P.E., 2021, "A Guide to Thermal Fatigue Management," eBook,
Inspectioneering LLC, Spring, Texas, https://inspectioneering.com/
rate material properties, and ultimately, to ascertain meaningful
content/2021-05-13/9647/a-guide-to-thermal-fatigue-management.
remaining life estimates to supplement inspection plans offers
13. API, 2020, “Recommended Practice 571 – Damage Mechanisms Affecting
engineers and analysts the capability to make informed and tech-
Fixed Equipment in the Refining Industry,” 3rd Edition, American Petroleum
nically based run-repair-replace decisions for high-temperature Institute, Washington, D.C.
equipment. n
14. Dobis, J.D., Cantwell, J.E., and Prager, M., 2019, “WRC Bulletin 489 (2nd Edition):
Damage Mechanisms Affecting Fixed Equipment in the Refining Industry,”
For more information on this subject or the author, please email Welding Research Council (WRC), Shaker Heights, Ohio.
15. Prager, M., 1995, “Development of the MPC Omega Method for Life Assessment
in the Creep Range,” Journal of Pressure Vessel Technology, Vol. 117, pp. 95–103.
About the Author: Phillip E. Prueter, P.E. is a Principal Engineer II 16. API/ASME, 2021, “API 579-1/ASME FFS-1, Fitness-For-Service,” 4th Edition,
and Team Leader - Materials & Corrosion at The Equity Engineering American Petroleum Institute and American Society of Mechanical Engineers,
Washington DC/New York.
Group, Inc. in Shaker Heights, Ohio, where his responsibilities
include providing technical consulting expertise to the refining, 17. Prueter, P.E., 2018, “Techniques for Simulating Creep Damage Evolution at
Welds with Emphasis on Evaluating Longitudinal Seam Peaking in High-
petrochemical, specialty chemical, and power generation indus- Temperature Piping Systems,” ETAM2018-6710, Proceedings of the 2018 ASME
tries and managing Nuclear Consulting Services. He specializes Symposium on Elevated Temperature Applications of Materials for Fossil,
in fitness-for-service, design by analysis, explicit dynamics, tran- Nuclear, and Petrochemical Industries, Seattle, Washington.
sient thermal-mechanical fatigue analysis, elevated temperature 18. Prueter, P.E., Dewees, D.J., and Brown, R.G., 2014, “An R5 Based Creep-Fatigue
creep, seismic and natural frequency analysis, fracture mechanics, Critical Flaw Assessment of an In-Service Reformer Piping Tee using Finite
root-cause failure analysis, damage mechanism reviews, and high Element Analysis,” ETS2014-1034, Proceedings of the 2014 ASME Symposium
on Elevated Temperature Application of Materials for Fossil, Nuclear, and
temperature hydrogen attack. He holds a BS and MS in mechani- Petrochemical Industries, Seattle, Washington.
cal engineering and is a Registered Professional Engineer in nine
19. Nakoneczny, G., and Schultz, C., 1995, “Life Assessment of High Temperature
states. Additionally, he is a member of the ASME Working Groups Headers,” Presented to the American Power Conference, BR-1586.
on Design by Analysis and Elevated Temperature Design, serves as
20. B&W, 1991, “Plant Services Bulletin 1A: Creep Fatigue and Ligament Cracking
an organizer for the ASME Pressure Vessels and Piping Conference, of 1 1/4 Cr - 1/2 Mo-Si (T11 and P11) Pressure Parts,” The Babcock and Wilcox
is an instructor for the ASME Master Classes on Design by Company, Barberton, Ohio.
Analysis and Fatigue, and has authored or co-authored more than 21. Prueter, P.E., Dobis, J.D., Geisenhoff, M.S., and Cayard, M.S., 2016, “A
40 technical publications. Computational Study of the Creep Response of High-Temperature Low Chrome
Piping with Peaked Longitudinal Weld Seams,” PVP2016-63582, Proceedings
of the 2016 ASME Pressure Vessels and Piping Conference, Vancouver, British
REFERENCES Columbia, Canada.
1. S
tanford, E.G., 1949, “The Creep of Metals and Alloys”, Temple Press Limited, 22. Prueter, P.E., Dobis, J.D., Geisenhoff, M.S., and Cayard, M.S., 2016, “Remaining
London, England. Life Sensitivity to Longitudinal Weld Seam Peaking in High-Temperature Low
2. Hult, J., 1966, “Creep in Engineering Structures”, Blaisdell Publishing Company, Chrome Piping,” Inspectioneering Journal, 22(4), pp. 26-33, Inspectioneering
Waltham, Massachusetts. LLC, Spring, Texas.
3. Vicat, L.J., 1834, “On the Gradual Elongation of Iron Wire Under Tension,” 23. Prager, M., Osage, D.A., and Prueter, P.E., 2021, “WRC Bulletin 560:
Annales des Ponts et Chaussées, Mem. et Doc. 7(1): 40. Understanding Welds in Elevated Temperature Service,” Welding Research
Council (WRC), Shaker Heights, Ohio.
4. F
innie, I. and Heller, W.R., 1959, “Creep of Engineering Materials,” McGraw-Hill
Book Company, Inc. New York. 24. Lundin, C., Liu, P., Thorwald, G., and Anderson, T., 2002, “WRC Bulletin 475:
Studies of Local Differences in Material Creep Properties on Weldments,”
5. A
ndrade, E.N., 1910, “On the Viscous Flow in Metals, and Allied Phenomena”, Welding Research Council (WRC), Shaker Heights, Ohio.
Proceedings of the Royal Society of London, Series A, Containing Papers of a
Mathematical and Physical Character, 84(567), pp. 1-12. 25. Dobis, J., Brown, R., Osage, D., and Buchheim, G., 1995, “High Temperature
Failure of Long-Seam Welded Low Chrome Piping in Catalytic Reforming
6. C
hevenard, P., 1919, “On the Viscosity of Steels at Elevated Temperatures,” Service,” Presented to the NACE International Conference and Corrosion Show.
Comptes Rendus de l’Academie des Sciences, Vol. 169, pp. 712.
26. Buchheim, G., Osage, D., Brown, R., and Dobis, J., 1994, “Failure Investigation
7. F
rench, H.J., 1921, “Effect of Temperature, Deformation and Rate of Loading on of a Low Chrome Long-Seam Weld in a High-Temperature Refinery Piping
the Tensile Properties of Low Carbon Steel Below the Thermal Critical Range,” System,” ASME Pressure Vessels and Piping Division Conference Proceedings,
U.S. Bureau of Standards, Technical Paper No. 219, pp. 591. Vol. 288, pp. 363–386.
8. Dickenson, J.H.S., 1922, “Some Experiments on the Flow of Steels at a Low Red 27. Dobis, J., Buchheim, G., Brown, R., and Osage, D., 1995, “Failure of Seam-Welded
Heat, with a note on the Scaling of Heated Steels,” J. Iron and Steel Institute, Vol. Low-Chrome Refinery Piping,” Journal of Material Selection and Design, pp.
106, pp. 103. 61–64.
9. B
ailey, R.W., 1929, “Creep of Steel Under Simple and Compound Stresses,” Trans.
World Power Conf., Tokyo, Japan, Vol. 3, pp. 1089.
10. N
orton, F. 1929, “The Creep of Steels at High Temperatures,” McGraw Hill: New
York, Volume 1, pp. 90.
11. P
rueter, P.E., Jones, J.R., Hess, J. and DeLuca, J., 2019, “Managing the Risks
Associated with Operating a Hydrotreater Reactor with Possible High-

PUZZLE TIME
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wisdom? Take a break and treat yourself to a word puzzle!
Crossword Across Down

3. publisher of this very journal 1. a prioritized inspection
4. using x-rays to find flaws planning process
7. brittle _____ 2. POF x COF
9. process to ensure material 5. the illustrious host of this event
strength after welding 6. the type of equipment covered
1
10. planned shutdown of a facility in API 570
14. inspection data management 8. heat-resistant material used
system in furnaces
15. a nasty DM caused by hydrogen 11. as opposed to destructive
16. caused by moisture under 12. the subject of API 579/ASME
the surface FFS-1
17. the gradual deterioration of 13. something that leads to
a material equipment damage
2 20. someone who inspects 18. ____ flux leakage
19. an unmanned aerial vehicle
4 5 6
7 8
10 11
12
13
14 15
16
17 18
19
20

PUZZLE TIME
Word Search
J I H B W S Z F D H P D A G V A L V E S Q K Z V B D V F Y E
V A Z M A O A R U G O X H R O I D U N D O S T U J A S F K O
G G T W R E V C O W N Y D N Q F P M A I N T E N A N C E C G
T C F T E X Q G N I H G S H D K O F F S H O R E R K C K Y O
V Z V D F L H S X M F Y E E D J F Z R I X C G W I Z V O H I
M M Q D I C T K T U J S D WH O Q D C D C Q L N F S K K S Q
G I Z C N R L U Q S U U Z R U M A E R T S P U N B U U Z C A
T N H Q E U H Y I U P M C T O W I P A G R M F E Q O R D I S
M S Z A R C A M S T A N K S D T F J B L K B L I U J S P N E
E P M Y Y E P F A U J P U N S L R R K O J W V B J V J S O N
T E U S K C K Z J W L E D V L W N E A A W S B B Q O O D S I
A C L B Y Z T E B S B F W G U R M P A J A C N K H A Y W A P
L T T Q N O X P V Z A O I Y S L K A Y T P I J P Z S M P R N
L I N P I P I N G O B W U D L J K E E V E N N N N J S X T P
U O P G W U H J X O V K N F A I Y K Y R R R F B M J M B L V
R N S T K Y K D P L D G O B C T A E P Z T I G L S C R U U P
G R A D I O G R A P H Y I Q I N I T M R D S A I A E G H Y L
Y G C A A X D R I J M R S V M C E O U B R Y D X Y N L M C X
F J V Q Z K Q I F U T A O F E T H I N I R P E I D T G K E P
V D D X I Y E C U K A C R X H I F R K T S I U V M I L E B I
H N E F G P A U Z D G K R I C K H L E I L U T J Z P I D S P
L E L X E U M H R W A O O U O M X X O L D N P T Q W T I B E
M P A F J E L B Q S G N C T R E Q Z A W I X I T L Q K D G L
U O X T F K D W T T J O E L T U G A R V Q A J P A E Q WM I
Q S Y A E X R S G H J X H Q E V H P A T E W B U C U M G R N
X K D C P R B Y T F I P E F P M J Q B O C Z U I T C W E V E
R K C F N L S N T O I N W F X N E M B F Q G H Z L P Y Q N S
D A X I C E B E C G C H V C U V Q O Q Z A M W A A I N S E T
I N J E U E O I E M M K U N N J W E R B M U E F A Z T P L U
H D I H H Y D R O C R A C K E R N Y L K U B U G V L I Y W N
WORD LIST C M
I N S P E C T O R
20
T I N
E N O E
CORROSION OFFSHORE N A R V
G H D I
DOWNSTREAM PETROCHEMICALS
19
A C T
S I O N M E C O R R O
EMBRITTLEMENT PIPELINES
18 17
M U
E R
FEEDSTOCK PIPING
G T Y
N D E R I N S U L A T I O NR O S I O N U C O R
16
FLANGES RADIOGRAPHY
M E O O
M S H T H A D I D T
15 14
HEATERS HYDROCRACKER REFINERY RELIABILITY

F D N T C
13
F G O C A
12
N O U N D E T U R N A R
HYDROTREATER SULFIDATION
11 10
H T I P W F
9
P I S E
INSPECTION TANKS I
G R A P H Y
E P
R A D I O
N F R A C T U R
8 7
MAINTENANCE ULTRASONICS
4 5 6
D K
C T I O N E E R I N G I N S P E
3
METALLURGY UPSTREAM
S I
A R
2
MIDSTREAM VALVES
B
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What question are we trying to answer?

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ASCE ASCE A deeper understanding of code

CSA Gain deep industry knowledge without

What Differentiates an Average Inspectioneer

With that said, let’s look at some of the characteristics in which

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COMPANY SPOTLIGHT / Pinnacle

We help Industrial Owner/

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For more information on this subject or the author, please email

2024 API INSPECTION & MECHANICAL INTEGRITY SUMMIT Inspectioneering Journal 17

Process Heater Tube Temperature Monitoring

Discussion Figure 2. Stefan-Boltzman Equation

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Figure 3. High Temperature IR Camera (left), Handheld Pyrometer (right)

Figure 4. Gold Cup Pyrometer side view

Figure 6. Example of Gold Cup In Use

Figure 5. Gold Cup Pyrometer head assembly

Figure 7. IR Borescope Layout (Left) and In Use (Right)

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inspectioneering.com/newsletters \26 An Inspection Planning Process for Equipment Susceptible

Figure 2. Remaining metal after excavating damage indication.

• Often more predominant at the lower temperature end of the