S06 Binomial Theorem

BINOMIAL
THEOREM
18 APRIL 2024
REVISION: 1856
AZIZ MANVA
AZIZMANVA@GMAIL.COM
ALL RIGHTS RESERVED

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Aziz Manva (azizmanva@gmail.com)
TABLE OF CONTENTS
1.8 Product of Expansions 40
TABLE OF CONTENTS ................................. 2 1.9 Sum and Difference 44
1. BINOMIAL THEOREM ............................ 3
2. FURTHER TOPICS ................................. 53
1.1 Binomial Expansions 3
1.2 Specific Terms 8 2.1 Binomial Identities 53
1.3 Back Calculations 19 2.2 Multinomial Theorem 53
1.4 Applications: Algebra 28 2.3 Generating Functions 56
1.5 Approximations 30 2.4 Generalized Binomial Theorem 62
1.6 NT: Remainders 31 2.5 Further Topics 67
1.7 NT: Other Topics 37
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1. BINOMIAL THEOREM
1.1 Binomial Expansions
A. Basics
1.1: Binomial Expansion

An expansion of the form (𝑎 + 𝑏)𝑛 , 𝑛 ∈ ℕ 𝑖s called a binomial expansion
(𝑎 + 𝑏)0 = 1, 𝑎, 𝑏 𝑛𝑜𝑡 𝑏𝑜𝑡ℎ 𝑧𝑒𝑟𝑜

(𝑎 + 𝑏)1 = 𝑎 + 𝑏
(𝑎 + 𝑏)2 = 𝑎2 + 2𝑎𝑏 + 𝑏 2
(𝑎 + 𝑏)3 = 𝑎3 + 3𝑎2 𝑏 + 3𝑎𝑏 2 + 𝑏 3
(𝑎 + 𝑏)4 = 𝑎4 + 4𝑎3 𝑏 + 6𝑎2 𝑏 2 + 4𝑎𝑏 3 + 𝑏 4
➢ The power of 𝑎 keeps decreasing with each term.

➢ The power of 𝑏 keeps increasing with each term.
This can be made explicit by introducing a term with 𝑎0 = 1, and a term with 𝑏 0 = 1.
(𝑎 + 𝑏)4 = 𝑎4 𝑏 0 + 4𝑎3 𝑏 + 6𝑎2 𝑏 2 + 4𝑎𝑏 3 + 𝑎0 𝑏 4
1.2: Number of Terms

The number of terms in a binomial expansion to a natural number power is one more than the power:
Example 1.3
Find the number of terms in the following expansions:
1. (𝑎 + 𝑏)3
2. (𝑎 + 𝑏)4
3. (𝑥 + 𝑦)7
4. (𝑥 − 𝑦)9
1 3 97
5. (2 𝑥 + 4 𝑦)
3 5 1001
6. ( 𝑥 − 𝑦)
4 7
(𝑎 + 𝑏)3 = 𝑎3 + 3𝑎2 𝑏 + 3𝑎𝑏 2 + 𝑏 3 ⇒ 4 𝑇𝑒𝑟𝑚𝑠

(𝑎 + 𝑏)4 = 𝑎4 + 4𝑎3 𝑏 + 6𝑎2 𝑏 2 + 4𝑎𝑏 3 + 𝑏 4 ⇒ 5 𝑇𝑒𝑟𝑚𝑠
8 𝑇𝑒𝑟𝑚𝑠
Example 1.4
The number of terms in the expansion of [(𝑎 + 3𝑏)2 (𝑎 − 3𝑏)2 ]2 when simplified is: (AHSME 1950/16)
= [[(𝑎 + 3𝑏)(𝑎 − 3𝑏)]2 ]2 = (𝑎2 − 9𝑏 2 )4 ⇒ 5 𝑇𝑒𝑟𝑚𝑠
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B. Pascal’s Triangle
Rule 1: The first and last number of any row are always one. Row Numbers
Rule 2: Every succeeding row has one number more than the previous row. 0 1
Rule 3: Any number in Pascals Triangle is the sum of the numbers that are above 1 1 1
it. 2 1 2 1
3 1 3 3 1
Row Zero 4 𝟏 𝟒 𝟔 𝟒 𝟏
Row zero has only one number. So, write a 1 at the top. 5 1 5 10 10 5 1
Row One 6 1 6 15 20 15 6 1
Row One has two numbers. The first number is 1. The last number is also 1.
Row Two
Row Two has three numbers. Put a 1 at the beginning, and a 1 at the end. The middle number is the total of the
two numbers above it:
1+1=2
1.5: Pascal’s Triangle

Consider a binomial expansion:
(𝑎 + 𝑏)𝟒 = 𝟏𝑎4 𝑏 0 + 𝟒𝑎3 𝑏 + 𝟔𝑎2 𝑏2 + 𝟒𝑎𝑏 3 + 𝟏𝑏 4 𝑎0
The coefficients of the RHS are also the numbers in the corresponding row of Pascal’s Triangle. This is very
useful in generating the coefficients of a binomial expansion.
(Pascal’s Triangle also has many other applications and connections in Maths).
Example 1.6
Expand the following using Pascal’s Triangle:
(𝑥 + 𝑦)5
Take the coefficients from Row 5 of Pascal’s Triangle. Write the variables in descending powers of 𝑥, and
ascending powers of 𝑦.
(𝑥 + 𝑦)5 = 𝑥 5 + 5𝑥 4 𝑦 + 10𝑥 3 𝑦 2 + 10𝑥 2 𝑦 3 + 5𝑥𝑦 4 + 𝑦 5
1.7: Patterns in Pascal’s Triangle

(See this link for an interactive visualization of the patterns in Pascal’s Triangle mentioned here, along with a
few additional ones).
Ones
Natural Numbers
Triangular Numbers
Tetrahedral Numbers
Serpinski Triangle
Row Numbers
0 0
( )
0
1 1 1
( ) ( )
0 1
2 2 2 2
( )( ) ( )
0 1 2
3 3 3 3 3
( )( )( )( )
0 1 2 3
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1.8: Pascal’s Triangle as Binomial Coefficients 4 4 4 4 4 4

( ) ( ) ( ) ( )( )
0 1 2 3 4
5 5 5 5 5 5 5
The numbers in Pascals Triangle can also be represented as ( ) ( ) ( ) ( )( )( )
0 1 2 3 4 5
Binomial Coefficients.
This way of looking at them gives insight into some of the patterns 𝑛 𝑛 𝑛 𝑛 𝑛
( ) ( )…( )( )
that we find there. 0 1 𝑛−1 𝑛
3 3! 3!
( )= = =1
0 0! 3! 1! 3!
3 3!
( )= =3
1 1! 2!
3 3!
( )= =3
2 2! 1!
3 3!
( )= =1
3 3! 0!
First Number in 𝒏𝒕𝒉 Row

𝑛
( )=1
0
Because it represents the number of ways of choosing zero objects from 𝑛 objects, which can be done in exactly
one way.
From Pascal’s Triangle point of view, the first number in any row is always one.
Second Number in the Row
𝑛
( )=𝑛
1
Because it represents the number of ways of choosing one object from 𝑛 objects, which can be done in exactly 𝑛
ways.
From Pascal’s Triangle point of view, the second number is any row is always the row number.
The numbers in the second row give the sequence of natural numbers.
C. Binomial Formula
1.9: Binomial Formula

𝑛
𝑛 𝑛 𝑛 𝑛 𝑛
(𝑥 + 𝑦) = ∑ ( ) 𝑥 𝑛−𝑟 𝑦 𝑟 = ( ) 𝑥 𝑛 𝑦 0 + ( ) 𝑥 𝑛−1 𝑦1 + ( ) 𝑥 𝑛−2 𝑦 2 + ⋯ + ( ) 𝑥 0 𝑦 𝑛
𝑛
𝑟 0 1 2 𝑛
𝑟=0
The power of 𝑥 keeps decreasing with each term. The power of 𝑦 keeps increasing with each term.
How is Counting related to the Binomial Formula:
(𝑎 + 𝑏)2 = (𝑎 + 𝑏)(𝑎 + 𝑏) = 𝑎(𝑎 + 𝑏) + 𝑏(𝑎 + 𝑏) = 𝑎2 + 𝑎𝑏 + 𝑏𝑎 + 𝑏 2 = 𝑎2 + 2𝑎𝑏 + 𝑏 2
We don’t need a separate formula if the expression has a negative sign. Remember that:
➢ Odd powers of −1 are −1
➢ Even powers of −1 are 1
And hence the answer will alternate between positive and negative terms, but otherwise the same formula
applies.
(In fact, if you include the minus sign as part of a term, then the formula applies without any change).
Example 1.10
Expand the following using Binomial Theorem:
P a g e 5 | 67
A. (𝑥 + 𝑦)5
B. (𝑥 + 𝑦)6
C. (2𝑥 − 3𝑦)4
𝑥 4
D. (2 + )
7
2𝑥 3𝑦 4
E. (3 − 4)
2 5
F. (𝑥 2 − 3 )
𝑥
Part A
(𝑥 + 𝑦)5 = (5) 𝑥 5 𝑦 0 + (5) 𝑥 4 𝑦1 + (5) 𝑥 3 𝑦 2 + (5) 𝑥 2 𝑦 3 + (5) 𝑥 1 𝑦 4 + (5) 𝑥 0 𝑦 5
0 1 2 3 4 5
= 𝑥 5 𝑦 0 + 5𝑥 4 𝑦1 + 10𝑥 3 𝑦 2 + 10𝑥 2 𝑦 3 + 5𝑥 1 𝑦 4 + 𝑥 0 𝑦 5
Part B
(𝑥 + 𝑦)6 = (6) 𝑥 6 𝑦 0 + (6) 𝑥 5 𝑦1 + (6) 𝑥 4 𝑦 2 + (6) 𝑥 3 𝑦 3 + (6) 𝑥 2 𝑦 4 + (6) 𝑥 6 𝑦 0 + (6) 𝑥 6 𝑦 0
0 0 0 0 0 0 0
Part C
Remember to alternate negative signs:
= 1(2𝑥)4 (−3𝑦)0 + 4(2𝑥)3 (−3𝑦)1 + 6(2𝑥)2 (−3𝑦)2 + 4(2𝑥)1 (−3𝑦)2 + 1(2𝑥)0 (−3𝑦)4
= 16𝑥 4 − 96𝑥 3 𝑦 + 216𝑥 2 𝑦 2 − 216𝑥𝑦 3 + 81𝑦 4
Part D
Fractions in the expression can be handled in the usual way by taking powers of fractions.
Be careful with cancellation.
𝑛 𝑛 𝑛 𝑛
(𝑥 + 𝑦)𝑛 = ( ) 𝑥 𝑛 𝑦 0 + ( ) 𝑥 𝑛−1 𝑦1 + ( ) 𝑥 𝑛−2 𝑦 2 + ⋯ + ( ) 𝑥 0 𝑦 𝑛
0 1 2 𝑛
𝑥
In the above formula, substitute 𝑛 = 4, 𝑥 = 2, 𝑦 = 7:
4 𝑥 0 4!
𝐹𝑖𝑟𝑠𝑡 𝑇𝑒𝑟𝑚 = ( ) 24 ( ) = × 16 × 1 = 1 × 16 = 16
0 7 0! 4!
4 𝑥 1 4! 𝑥 32𝑥
𝑆𝑒𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑑 𝑇𝑒𝑟𝑚 = ( ) 23 ( ) = ×8× =
1 7 1! 3! 7 7
4 2 𝑥 2 4! 𝑥 2 24𝑥 2
𝑇ℎ𝑖𝑟𝑑 𝑇𝑒𝑟𝑚 = ( ) 2 ( ) = ×4× =
2 7 2! 2! 49 49
3
4 1 𝑥 3 4! 𝑥 8𝑥 3
𝐹𝑜𝑢𝑟𝑡ℎ 𝑇𝑒𝑟𝑚 = ( ) 2 ( ) = ×2× =
3 7 1! 3! 343 343
4
4 𝑥 4 𝑥
𝐹𝑖𝑓𝑡ℎ 𝑇𝑒𝑟𝑚 = ( ) 20 ( ) = 1 × 1 ×
4 7 2401
We collate the terms to get the final answer:
32𝑥 24𝑥 2 8𝑥 3 𝑥4
16 + + + +
7 49 343 2401
Part E
4
4 2𝑥 3𝑦 0 16𝑥 4 16𝑥 4
𝐹𝑖𝑟𝑠𝑡 𝑇𝑒𝑟𝑚 = ( ) ( ) (− ) = 1 × =
0 3 4 81 81
3 1 3
4 2𝑥 3𝑦 8𝑥 3𝑦 8𝑥 3 𝑦
𝑆𝑒𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑑 𝑇𝑒𝑟𝑚 = ( ) ( ) (− ) = 4 × × (− ) = −
1 3 4 27 4 9
2 2 2 2 2 2
4 2𝑥 3𝑦 4𝑥 9𝑦 3𝑥 𝑦
𝑇ℎ𝑖𝑟𝑑 𝑇𝑒𝑟𝑚 = ( ) ( ) (− ) = 6 × × =
2 3 4 9 16 2
1 3 3
4 2𝑥 3𝑦 2𝑥 27𝑦 9𝑥𝑦 3
𝐹𝑜𝑢𝑟𝑡ℎ 𝑇𝑒𝑟𝑚 = ( ) ( ) (− ) = 4 × × (− )=−
3 3 4 3 64 8
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0
4 2𝑥 3𝑦 4 81𝑦 4
𝐹𝑖𝑓𝑡ℎ 𝑇𝑒𝑟𝑚 = ( ) ( ) (− ) = 1 × 1 ×
4 3 4 256
Put all the terms together:
2𝑥 3𝑦 4 16𝑥 4 8𝑥 3 𝑦 3𝑥 2 𝑦 2 9𝑥𝑦 3 81𝑦 4
( − ) = − + − +
3 4 81 9 2 8 256
Part F
𝑛 𝑛 𝑛 𝑛
0 1 2 𝑛
2 2
Substitute 𝑛 = 5, 𝑥 = 𝑥 , 𝑦 = − 𝑥 3:
5 (𝑥 2 )5 2 0
( ) (− 3 )
0 𝑥
5 (𝑥 2 )4 2 1
( ) (− 3 )
1 𝑥
5 (𝑥 2 )3 2 2
( ) (− 3 )
2 𝑥
5 2 3
( ) (𝑥 2 )2 (− 3 )
3 𝑥
5 2 4
( ) (𝑥 2 )1 (− 3 )
4 𝑥
5 (𝑥 2 )0 2 5
( ) (− 3 )
5 𝑥
80 80 32
𝑥 10 − 10𝑥 5 + 40 − 5 + 10 − 15
𝑥 𝑥 𝑥
Note that from left to right, the power of 𝑥 decreases by 5.
Example 1.11
𝑦 4
Expand (3𝑥 + 2 )
𝑦 0
1 (3𝑥)4 ( ) = 81𝑥 4
2
𝑦 1
4 (3𝑥)3 ( ) = 54𝑥 3 𝑦
2
𝑦 2 𝑦 2 27 2 2
6(3𝑥)2 ( ) = 6 ∙ 9𝑥 2 ∙ = 𝑥 𝑦
2 4 2
𝑦 3 𝑦3 3
4(3𝑥)1 ( ) = 4 ∙ 3𝑥 ∙ = 𝑥𝑦 3
2 8 2
𝑦 4 𝑦4
1(3𝑥)0 ( ) =
2 16
27 2 2 3 3 𝑦 4
81𝑥 4 + 54𝑥 3 𝑦 + 𝑥 𝑦 + 𝑥𝑦 +
2 2 16
Example 1.12: Expanding Radicals
P a g e 7 | 67
Expand
3
A. (3 + √7)
4
B. (2 + √5)
Part A
Substitute 𝑎 = 3, 𝑏 = √7 in (𝑎 + 𝑏)3 = 𝑎3 + 3𝑎2 𝑏 + 3𝑎𝑏 2 + 𝑏 3
3 2 3
(3 + √7) = 33 + (3)(32 )(√7) + (3)(3)(√7) + (√7)
= 27 + 27√7 + 63 + 7√7
= 90 + 34√7
Part B
4
(2 + √5) = 16 + (4)(8)(√5) + (6)(4)(5) + (4)(2)(5√5) + 25 = 161 + 72√5
1.2 Specific Terms

A. General Term
1.13: 𝑵𝒕𝒉 Term

(𝑟 + 1)𝑠𝑡 term of (𝑥 + 𝑦)𝑛 is
𝑛
( ) 𝑥 𝑛−𝑟 𝑦 𝑟
𝑟
In the first term of (𝑥 + 𝑦)7

➢ 𝑟 is one less than 1: 𝑟 = 0
➢ 𝑛 is the power: 𝑛 = 7
➢
𝑛 𝑛 𝑛 𝑛
(𝑥 + 𝑦)𝑛 = (⏟ ) 𝑥 𝑛 𝑦 0 + (⏟ ) 𝑥 𝑛−1 𝑦1 + ( ) 𝑥 𝑛−2 𝑦 2 + ⋯ + ( ) 𝑥 0 𝑦 𝑛
0 1 2 𝑛
𝐹𝑖𝑟𝑠𝑡 𝑇𝑒𝑟𝑚 𝑆𝑒𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑑 𝑇𝑒𝑟𝑚
Example 1.14
Find the 𝑦 4 term of (4𝑦 − 1)5 .
The first term will have power

𝑦5
The second term will have power
𝑦4
Hence, we want to find the second term:

𝑟+1=2⇒𝑟 =1
𝑥 = 4𝑦
𝑦 = −1
𝑛=5
𝑛 5
( ) 𝑥 𝑛−𝑟 𝑦 𝑟 = ( ) (4𝑦)5−1 (−1)1 = −256
𝑟 1
Example 1.15
P a g e 8 | 67
In this example, we look at finding terms from the beginning of an expansion. Find the:
A. 7𝑡ℎ term of (𝑎 + 𝑏)10
𝑟 6
B. 4𝑡ℎ term of (2 + 2𝑠)
C. 3𝑟𝑑 term of (𝑚2 + 𝑛3 )7
2 5
D. 3𝑟𝑑 term of (𝑞 + 𝑞3 )
2𝑎 3 6
E. 5𝑡ℎ term of ( 9 + 4𝑞3 )
Part A
𝑛 10
𝑛 = 10, 𝑟 = 6 ⇒ ( ) 𝑥 𝑛−𝑟 𝑦 𝑟 = ( ) 𝑎10−6 𝑏6 = 210𝑎4 𝑏 6
𝑟 6
Part B
𝑛 6 𝑟 6−3 (2𝑠)3
𝑛 = 6, 𝑟 = 3 ⇒ ( ) 𝑥 𝑛−𝑟 𝑦 𝑟 = ( ) ( ) = 20𝑟 3 𝑠 3
𝑟 3 2
Part C
𝑛 7
𝑛 = 7, 𝑟 = 2 ⇒ ( ) 𝑥 𝑛−𝑟 𝑦 𝑟 = ( ) 𝑥 𝑛−𝑟 𝑦 𝑟 = 21(𝑚2 )7−2 (𝑛3 )2 =
𝑟 2
Part D
𝑛 5 2 2 4 40𝑞 3 40
𝑛 = 5, 𝑟 = 2 ⇒ ( ) 𝑥 𝑛−𝑟 𝑦 𝑟 = ( ) 𝑞 5−2 ( 3 ) = 10 × 𝑞 3 × 6 = 3 = 3
𝑟 2 𝑞 𝑞 𝑞 ×𝑞 3 𝑞
Part E
𝑛
Substitute 𝑛 = 6, 𝑟 = 4 in ( ) 𝑥 𝑛−𝑟 𝑦 𝑟 :
𝑟
6−4
6 2𝑎 3 4 2𝑎 2 3 4 4𝑎2 81 15𝑎2
( )( ) ( 3 ) = 15 ( ) ( 3 ) = 15 ( )( ) =
4 9 4𝑞 9 4𝑞 81 256𝑞12 64𝑞12
B. Term from End
Example 1.16: From End

2 5
A. 3𝑟𝑑 term from the end of (𝑞 + 𝑞3 )
2𝑎 3 6
B. 5𝑡ℎ term from the end of ( 9 + 4𝑞3 )
C. 2𝑛𝑑 Term from the end of (𝑎 + 𝑏)100
⏟
1 ⏟
2 ⏟
3 ⏟
4 ⏟
5 ⏟
6
𝑻𝒆𝒓𝒎 𝑻𝒆𝒓𝒎 𝑻𝒆𝒓𝒎 𝑻𝒆𝒓𝒎 𝑻𝒆𝒓𝒎 𝑻𝒆𝒓𝒎
Part A
3𝑟𝑑 𝑇𝑒𝑟𝑚 from the end
= 6 − (3 − 1) = 6 − 2 = 4𝑡ℎ 𝑇𝑒𝑟𝑚 𝑓𝑟𝑜𝑚 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝐿𝑒𝑓𝑡
Part B
5𝑡ℎ 𝑇𝑒𝑟𝑚 from the right
= 7 − (5 − 1) = 7 − 4 = 3𝑟𝑑 𝑇𝑒𝑟𝑚 𝑓𝑟𝑜𝑚 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝐿𝑒𝑓𝑡
Part C
𝑛 = 𝑁𝑜. 𝑜𝑓 𝑇𝑒𝑟𝑚𝑠 = 100 + 1 = 101
P a g e 9 | 67
2𝑛𝑑 𝑇𝑒𝑟𝑚 𝑓𝑟𝑜𝑚 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑟𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡 = 101 − (2 − 1) = 101 − 1 = 100𝑡ℎ 𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑚 𝑓𝑟𝑜𝑚 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑙𝑒𝑓𝑡
100
( ) 𝑎𝑏 99
99
C. Middle Term
1.17: Middle Term

The middle term will depend on whether 𝑛 is odd or even.
➢ If 𝑛 is even:
✓ The number of terms will be 𝑛 + 1 ⇒ 𝑜𝑑𝑑
✓ there will be a single middle term
➢ If 𝑛 is odd:
✓ The number of terms will be 𝑛 + 1 ⇒ Even
✓ And hence there will be two middle terms
✓ The binomial coefficient will be the same in both terms, but the values coming from the
variables will not be the same.
The middle term or terms has the greatest binomial coefficient across all the terms.
Example 1.18: Identifying Middle Terms

Identify the location of the middle term(s) of the following binomials, and their binomial coefficients. (You don’t
need to find the terms, just the term number. Similarly, do not calculate the binomial coefficient, only give the
expression).
3 18
A. (√3 + √5)
3 79
B. (√5 + √3)
Recall that the number of terms of a binomial expansion is one more than the power of the expansion.
Part A
1,2,3, … 9,10,11, … 17,18,19
Term 10 has nine terms before it, and nine terms after it.
So, it is the middle term.
Using the formula:

19 + 1 20 18
= = 10 ⇒ 𝐵𝑖𝑛𝑜𝑚𝑖𝑎𝑙 𝑐𝑜𝑒𝑓𝑓𝑖𝑐𝑖𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑖𝑠 ( )
2 2 9
Part B
1,2, … ,80
Now we will do:
80 + 1
= 40.5 ⇒ 40𝑡ℎ 𝑎𝑛𝑑 41𝑠𝑡 𝑇𝑒𝑟𝑚
2
79 79
𝐵𝑖𝑛𝑜𝑚𝑖𝑎𝑙 𝑐𝑜𝑒𝑓𝑓𝑖𝑐𝑖𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑠 𝑎𝑟𝑒 ( ) 𝑎𝑛𝑑 ( )
39 40
D. Specific Power
Example 1.19
(𝐻 + 𝑇)𝑛
P a g e 10 | 67
A. Given that 𝑛 = 5, find the term with 𝐻 3

B. Given that 𝑛 = 8, find the term with 𝐻 2
C. Given that 𝑛 = 10, find the term with 𝐻 3
Part A
𝑛 =5⇒𝑛−𝑟 =3⇒5−𝑟 =3⇒𝑟 =5−3=2
(𝐻 + 𝑇)5 = ⋯ + (5) 𝐻 3 𝑇 2 + ⋯
2
Part B
(𝐻 + 𝑇)8 = ⋯ + (8) 𝐻 2 𝑇 6 + ⋯
6
Part B
(𝐻 + 𝑇)10 = ⋯ + (10) 𝐻 3 𝑇 7 + ⋯
7
Example 1.20
1 5
The coefficient of 𝑥 5 in the expansion of (2𝑥 3 − 3𝑥 2 ) is: (JEE Main, April 13, 2023-II)
𝑛
( ) 𝑥 𝑛−𝑟 𝑦 𝑟
𝑟
𝑛
Substitute 𝑛 = 5, 𝑥 = 𝑥 3 , 𝑦 = 𝑥 −2 (ignore the coefficients and ( ):
𝑟
(𝑥 3 )5−𝑟 (𝑥 −2 )𝑟 = 𝑥 5
𝑥 15−3𝑟 ∙ 𝑥 −2𝑟 = 𝑥 5
15 − 5𝑟 = 5
𝑟=2
𝑛
Substitute 𝑟 = 2 in ( ) 𝑥 𝑛−𝑟 𝑦 𝑟 :
𝑟
5 1 2
( ) (2𝑥 3 )5−2 (− 2 )
2 3𝑥
Drop the variables:
1 80
(10)(8) ( ) =
9 9
Example 1.21
1 15
(𝑥 4 −
)
𝑥3
The coefficient of 𝑥 18 in the expansion above is: (JEE Main, April 6, 2023-I)
Substitute 𝑛 = 15, 𝑥 = 𝑥 4 , 𝑦 = 𝑥 −3:

(𝑥 4 )15−𝑟 (𝑥 −3 )𝑟 = 𝑥 60−4𝑟 𝑥 −3𝑟 = 𝑥 18
60 − 7𝑟 = 18 ⇒ 𝑟 = 6
15 15 ∙ 14 ∙ 13 ∙ 12 ∙ 11 ∙ 10
( )= = 5 ∙ 7 ∙ 11 ∙ 13 = 5(1001) = 5005
6 6!
Example 1.22
4𝑥 5 9
( + 2)
5 2𝑥
P a g e 11 | 67
The coefficient of 𝑥 −6 in the expansion above is: (JEE Main, Jan 31, 2023-I)
The power of the general term is:

(𝑥 9−𝑟 )(𝑥 −2 )𝑟 = 𝑥 9−3𝑟 ⇒ 9 − 3𝑟 = −6 ⇒ 𝑟 = 5
The coefficient is:

9 4
4
5 5 9 ∙ 8 ∙ 7 ∙ 6 44 55
( )( ) ( ) = × 4 × 5 = 9 ∙ 7 ∙ 2 × 23 × 5 = 5040
5 5 2 24 5 2
Example 1.23
1 11
The absolute difference of the coefficients of 𝑥 10 and 𝑥 7 in the expansion of (2𝑥 2 + 2𝑥) can be written in the
form 𝑎3 − 𝑎. Find 𝑎: (JEE Main, April 8, 2023-II)
(𝑥 2 )11−𝑟 (𝑥 −1 )𝑟 = 𝑥 22−3𝑟
22 − 3𝑟 = 10 ⇒ 𝑟 = 4
22 − 3𝑟 = 7 ⇒ 𝑟 = 5
11 1 4 11 ∙ 10 ∙ 9 ∙ 8
𝑟 = 4: ( ) 211−4 ( ) = × 8 = 11 ∙ 10 ∙ 3 ∙ 8
4 2 24
5
11 11−5 1 11 ∙ 10 ∙ 9 ∙ 8 ∙ 7
𝑟 = 5: ( ) 2 ( ) = × 2 = 11 ∙ 3 ∙ 4 ∙ 7
5 2 120
11 ∙ 10 ∙ 3 ∙ 8 − 11 ∙ 3 ∙ 4 ∙ 7
= 11 ∙ 3 ∙ 4(20 − 7)
= 11 ∙ 12 ∙ 13
= (12 − 1)(12)(12 + 1)
= (122 − 1)(12)
= 123 − 12
𝑎 = 12
Example 1.24
60
√𝑥 √5
( 1 + 1)
54 𝑥 3
If the coefficient of 𝑥 10 in the binomial expansion above is 5𝑘 𝑙 where 𝑙, 𝑘 ∈ ℕ and 𝑙 is coprime to 5, then 𝑘 is
equal to: (JEE Main, Jan 31, 2023-I)
𝑛
(𝑎 + 𝑏)𝑛 ℎ𝑎𝑠 𝑔𝑒𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑙 𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑚 ( ) 𝑎𝑛−𝑟 𝑏 𝑟
𝑟
1 1
Substitute 𝑛 = 60, 𝑎 = 𝑥 2 , 𝑏 = 𝑥 −3 :
1 1 60−𝑟 1 1 𝑟 𝑟−60 𝑟 𝑟 𝑟 3𝑟−60 180−5𝑟
60 60 60
( ) (5−4 𝑥 2 ) (52 𝑥 −3 ) = ( ) (5 4 𝑥 30−2 ) (52 𝑥 −3 ) = ( ) (5 4 𝑥 6 )
𝑟 𝑟 𝑟
180 − 5𝑟
= 10 ⇒ 180 − 5𝑟 = 60 ⇒ 𝑟 = 24
6
P a g e 12 | 67
60
√𝑥 √5
Coefficient of 𝑥 10 in the ( 1 + 1 ) :
54 𝑥3
60 3(24)−60 60!
( )5 4 = ∙ 53
24 24! (36!)
24! ⇒ {5,10,15,20} ⇒ 54
36! ⇒ {5,10,15,20,25,30,35} + {25} ⇒ 57+1 = 58
60! ⇒ {5,10, … ,60} + {25,50} ⇒ 512+2 = 514
514
∙ 53 = 514+3−4−8 = 55 ⇒ 𝑘 = 5
54 × 58
E. Constant Term
Example 1.25: Constant Term

Find the constant term in (𝑥 − 2)9 .
The constant term is the last (10𝑡ℎ) term.
Substitute 𝑟 = 9, 𝑛 = 9, 𝑥 = 𝑥,
𝑛 9
( ) 𝑥 𝑛−𝑟 𝑦 𝑟 = ( ) 𝑥 9−9 (−2)9 = (1)𝑥 0 (−512) = −512
𝑟 9

𝑘 8
Find the value of 𝑘 given that the value of the constant term in the expansion of 𝑥 2 (3𝑥 2 + ) is 16,128.
𝑥
1 0
𝑃𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟 𝑜𝑓 1𝑠𝑡 𝑇𝑒𝑟𝑚 = (𝑥 2 )(𝑥 2 )8 ( ) = 𝑥 2+16+0 = 𝑥 18
𝑥
2 )(𝑥 2 )7
1 1
𝑃𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟 𝑜𝑓 2𝑛𝑑 𝑇𝑒𝑟𝑚 = (𝑥 ( ) = 𝑥 2+14−1 = 𝑥 15
𝑥
2
1
3𝑟𝑑 𝑇𝑒𝑟𝑚: (𝑥 2 )(𝑥 2 )6 ( ) = 𝑥 2+12−2 = 𝑥 12
𝑥
4𝑡ℎ 𝑇𝑒𝑟𝑚: 𝑥 9
𝑘
Hence, we need the 7𝑡ℎ term. Substitute 𝑛 = 8, 𝑟 = 6, 𝑎 = 3𝑥 2 , 𝑏 = 𝑥:
2𝑛 𝑛−𝑟 𝑟 2 8 (3𝑥 2 )8−6

𝑘 6 8×7 𝑘6
𝑥 ( )𝑎 𝑏 = 𝑥 ( ) ( ) = ∙ 9𝑥 ∙ 6 = 252𝑘 6
6
𝑟 6 𝑥 2 𝑥
252𝑘 6 = 16,128
𝑘 6 = 64
6
𝑘 = ± √64 = ±2
P a g e 13 | 67
1 9
Find the constant term in (3𝑥 2 − ) .
𝑥
1 0
1𝑠𝑡 𝑇𝑒𝑟𝑚: (𝑥 2 )9 ( ) = 𝑥 18−0 = 𝑥 18
𝑥
1 1
2𝑛𝑑 𝑇𝑒𝑟𝑚: (𝑥 ) ( ) = 𝑥 16−1 = 𝑥 15
2 8
𝑥
2
1
3𝑟𝑑 𝑇𝑒𝑟𝑚: (𝑥 ) ( ) = 𝑥 14−2 = 𝑥 12
2 7
𝑥
We need the 7𝑡ℎ term.
1
Substitute 𝑛 = 9, 𝑟 = 6, 𝑎 = 3𝑥 2 , 𝑏 = − 𝑥
𝑛 𝑛−𝑟 𝑟 9 (3𝑥 2 )3 1 6 2 )3
1 6
( )𝑎 𝑏 = ( ) (− ) = (84)(27𝑥 ( ) = 2268
𝑟 6 𝑥 𝑥
9! 9×8×7
= = 84
6! 3! 6

1 12
A. Explain why (2𝑥 2 − ) does not have a constant term.
√𝑥
1 12+𝑛
B. (2𝑥 2 − ) ,𝑛 ∈ ℕ has a constant term. Find the smallest possible value of 𝑛
√𝑥
C. Use the value of 𝑛 from Part B and find that constant term.
Part A
1𝑠𝑡 𝑇𝑒𝑟𝑚: 24
2𝑛𝑑 𝑇𝑒𝑟𝑚: 21.5
24
𝑇𝑒𝑟𝑚 𝑁𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟 = = 9.6
2.5
Part B
26 28 30
= 10.4, =, = 12 ⇒ 𝑛 = 3
2.5 2.5 2.5
Part C
15
2
1
(2𝑥 − )
√𝑥
1.29: Constant Term

In the binomial expansion
(𝑎𝑝 + 𝑏𝑞)𝑛 , 𝑥 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑦 𝑎𝑟𝑒 𝑣𝑎𝑟𝑖𝑎𝑏𝑙𝑒𝑠, 𝑎 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑏 𝑎𝑟𝑒 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡𝑠
the constant term has the variables raised to the power zero:
Hence, we must have

𝑝𝑛−𝑟 𝑞 𝑟 = 𝑧 0
(𝑎𝑝 + 𝑏𝑞)𝑛 has general term
P a g e 14 | 67
𝑛 𝑛 𝑛
( ) (𝑎𝑝)𝑛−𝑟 (𝑏𝑞)𝑟 = ( ) 𝑎𝑛−𝑟 𝑝𝑛−𝑟 𝑏 𝑟 𝑞 𝑟 = ( ) 𝑎𝑛−𝑟 𝑏 𝑟 (𝑝𝑛−𝑟 𝑞 𝑟 )
𝑟 𝑟 𝑟
F. Integral, Rational, Irrational and Radical Free Terms
Example 1.30
8 256
A. The number of integral terms in the expansion of (√3 + √5) is: (JEE Main 2003)
B. What is the number of non-integral terms in the above expansion?
Part A
8 𝑛
Substitute 𝑛 = 256, 𝑥 = √3, 𝑦 = √5in the formula for the general term ( ) 𝑥 𝑛−𝑟 𝑦 𝑟 :
𝑟
256 256−𝑟 8 𝑟
( ) ((√3) ) ((√5) )
𝑟
Rewrite the radicals using fractional exponents:
1 256−𝑟 1 𝑟
256
( ) ((32 ) ) ((58 ) )
𝑟
Use the power rule (𝑎𝑚 )𝑛 = 𝑎𝑚𝑛
256−𝑟 𝑟
256
( ) (3 2 ) (58 )
𝑟
Any term must be raised to a positive integer power for the final value of the term to be an integer.
256−𝑟
For 3 2 to be an integer, we must have:
256−𝑟 256 − 𝑟
3 2 ∈ℕ⇒ ∈ ℕ ⇒ 𝑟 ∈ (0,2,4, … ,256)
2
𝑟
For 58 to be an integer, we must have:
𝑟 𝑟
∈ ℕ ⇒ 𝑟 ∈ (0,8,16, … ,256)
58 ∈ ℕ ⇒
8
We want both the above conditions to apply, and since the second condition is a subset of the first, we want:
𝑟 ∈ (0,8,16, … ,256) = (0,8 × 1,8 × 2, … ,8 × 32)
→ 33 𝑉𝑎𝑙𝑢𝑒𝑠
Part B
We use complementary counting:
257
⏟ − 33 ⏟ = 224
𝑇𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝐼𝑛𝑡𝑒𝑔𝑟𝑎𝑙
𝑇𝑒𝑟𝑚𝑠 𝑇𝑒𝑟𝑚𝑠
Example 1.31
1 1 55
The number of terms in the expansion of (𝑦 5 + 𝑥 10 ) in which powers of 𝑥 and 𝑦 are free from radical signs
are: (JEE-M 2012)
The general term is

1 55−𝑟 1 𝑟 55−𝑟 𝑟
55 55
( ) (𝑦 5 ) (𝑥 10 ) = ( ) (𝑦 5 ) (𝑥 10 )
𝑟 𝑟
𝑟
𝑖𝑠 𝑎𝑛 𝑖𝑛𝑡𝑒𝑔𝑒𝑟 ⇒ 𝑟 ∈ {0,10,20,30,40,50}
10
All the above work for
55 − 𝑟
5
P a g e 15 | 67
Example 1.32
1 1 680
The number of integral terms in the expansion of (32 + 54 ) is equal to: (JEE-M 2023)
The general term is

1 680−𝑟 1 𝑟 680−𝑟 𝑟
680 680
( ) (32 ) (54 ) = ( ) (𝑦 2 ) (𝑥 4 )
𝑟 𝑟
𝑟
𝑖𝑠 𝑎𝑛 𝑖𝑛𝑡𝑒𝑔𝑒𝑟 ⇒ 𝑟 ∈ {0,4,8, … ,680} = {0,4 ∙ 1,4 ∙ 2, … ,4 ∙ 170} ⇒ 171 𝑉𝑎𝑙𝑢𝑒𝑠
4
All the above work for
680 − 𝑟 𝑟
= 340 −
2 2
171 𝑉𝑎𝑙𝑢𝑒𝑠
G. Sum of Coefficients
The focus of this section is on the numbers in Pascal’s Triangle as coefficients in binomial expansions.
The sum of the numbers in the 𝑛𝑡ℎ row of the Pascal Triangle is
Numbers Total
equal to:
2𝑛
Row
This is shown in the table for the first few rows. 0 1 1 = 20
It can also be proved using: 1 1 1 2 = 21
➢ Combinatorial Methods 2 1 2 1 4 = 22
➢ Mathematical Induction 3 1 3 3 1 8 = 23
4 1 4 6 4 1 16 = 24
Example 1.33 5 1 5 10 10 5 1 32 = 25
A. What is the sum of the numbers in the sixth row of
Pascal’s Triangle?
B. What is the sum of the coefficients of (𝑥 + 𝑦)8 ?
C. If the sum of the coefficients in the expansion of (𝑎 + 𝑏)𝑛 is 4096, then the greatest coefficient in the
expansion is: (JEE Main, Sep 1, 2021-II; JEE Main 2002)
𝑛
(𝑥 + 𝑦) = ∑ ( ) 𝑥 𝑛−𝑟 𝑦 𝑟 = ( ) 𝑥 𝑛 𝑦 0 + ( ) 𝑥 𝑛−1 𝑦1 + ( ) 𝑥 𝑛−2 𝑦 2 + ⋯ + ( ) 𝑥 0 𝑦 𝑛
𝑛
𝑟 0 1 2 𝑛
𝑟=0
Part A
Substitute 𝑥 = 1, 𝑦 = 1 in (𝑥 + 𝑦)6
(1 + 1)6 = 26 = 64
Part B
28 = 256
Part C
2𝑛 = 4096 ⇒ 𝑛 = 12 ⇒ 𝑁𝑜. 𝑜𝑓 𝑇𝑒𝑟𝑚𝑠 = 13
To find the greatest coefficient, we want the middle term, which since there are 13 terms is the
13 + 1 14
= = 7𝑡ℎ 𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑚
2 2
P a g e 16 | 67
12
𝐶𝑜𝑒𝑓𝑓𝑖𝑐𝑖𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑜𝑓 7𝑡ℎ 𝑇𝑒𝑟𝑚 = 𝐺𝑟𝑒𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑠𝑡 𝑐𝑜𝑒𝑓𝑓𝑖𝑐𝑖𝑒𝑛𝑡 = ( ) = 924
6
1.34: Substitution
To find the sum of the coefficients of a polynomial 𝑝(𝑥) = 𝑎𝑥 𝑛 + 𝑏𝑥 𝑛−1 + ⋯ + 𝑐 substitute
𝑥=1
Example 1.35
A. What is the sum of the coefficients of (1 + 𝑥)50 ?
B. The sum of the coefficients of the polynomial (1 + 𝑥 − 3𝑥 2 )2163 is (JEE Adv. 1982)
Part A
We can use the binomial expansion:
(1 + 𝑥)50 = 1 + (50) 𝑥 + (50) 𝑥 2 + ⋯ + (50) 𝑥 50
1 2 50
To find the sum of the coefficients, simply substitute 𝑥 = 1:
(1 + 1)50 = 1 + (50) + (50) + ⋯ (50)
1 2 50
The left-hand side simplifies to:
(1 + 1)50 = 250
Hence, the right-hand side must also be the same, and this is precisely the sum of the coefficients we need.
In fact, this is one more method of proving that the sum of the number in the 𝑛𝑡ℎ row of Pascal’s triangle is
2𝑛
Part B
Substitute 𝑥 = 1 in (1 + 𝑥 − 3𝑥 2 )2163 :
(1 + 1 − 3)2163 = (−1)2163 = −1
1.36: Symmetry in Coefficients

𝑛 𝑛
( )=( )
𝑟 𝑛−𝑟
We know from combinations:

𝑛 𝑛 Row Numbers
( )=( ) 0 1
𝑟 𝑛−𝑟
And this creates a symmetry in Pascal’s Triangle. 1 1 1
𝑛 𝑛 2 1 2 1
(⏟) = (⏟)
0 𝑛 3 1 3 3 1
𝐹𝑖𝑟𝑠𝑡 𝑁𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟 𝐿𝑎𝑠𝑡 𝑁𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟
𝑖𝑛 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑛𝑡ℎ 𝑅𝑜𝑤 𝑖𝑛 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑛𝑡ℎ 𝑟𝑜𝑤 4 1 𝟒 6 𝟒 1
5 1 𝟓 10 10 𝟓 1
𝑛 𝑛
(⏟) = (⏟ )
1 𝑛−1
𝑆𝑒𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑑 𝑁𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟 𝑆𝑒𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑑−𝐿𝑎𝑠𝑡 𝑁𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟
𝑖𝑛 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑛𝑡ℎ 𝑅𝑜𝑤 𝑖𝑛 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑛𝑡ℎ 𝑟𝑜𝑤
𝒏 𝒏
(⏟) = (⏟ )
𝒓 𝒏−𝒓
𝒓𝒕𝒉 𝑵𝒖𝒎𝒃𝒆𝒓 (𝒏−𝒓)𝒕𝒉 𝑵𝒖𝒎𝒃𝒆𝒓
𝒊𝒏 𝒕𝒉𝒆 𝒏𝒕𝒉 𝑹𝒐𝒘 𝒊𝒏 𝒕𝒉𝒆 𝒏𝒕𝒉 𝒓𝒐𝒘
Example 1.37
𝑀𝑎𝑟𝑘 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑐𝑜𝑟𝑟𝑒𝑐𝑡 𝑜𝑝𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛
The coefficients of 𝑥 and 𝑥 in the expansion of (1 + 𝑥)𝑝+𝑞 are: (JEE Main 2002)
𝑝 𝑞
A. Equal
P a g e 17 | 67
B. Equal with opposite signs

C. Reciprocals of each other
D. None of these
𝑛
(𝑟 + 1)𝑠𝑡 term of (𝑥 + 𝑦)𝑛 : ( ) 𝑥 𝑛−𝑟 𝑦 𝑟
𝑟
We are interested only in the coefficients:
𝑝+𝑞
𝐶𝑜𝑒𝑓𝑓𝑖𝑐𝑖𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝑥 𝑞 = ( 𝑞 )
𝑛 𝑛
Use the property that ( ) = ( ):
𝑟 𝑛−𝑟
𝑝+𝑞 𝑝+𝑞
(𝑝 + 𝑞 − 𝑞 ) = ( 𝑝 ) = 𝐶𝑜𝑒𝑓𝑓𝑖𝑐𝑖𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝑥 𝑝 ⇒ 𝑂𝑝𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝐴
Example 1.38
If 𝑟 and 𝑛 are positive integers with 𝑟 > 1, 𝑛 > 2 and coefficient of (𝑟 + 2)𝑡ℎ and 3𝑟 𝑡ℎ term in the expansion of
(1 + 𝑥)2𝑛 are equal then 𝑛, in terms of 𝑟, equals (JEE Adv. 1983, JEE Main 2002)
𝑛
The coefficient of the (𝑟 + 1)𝑠𝑡 term in (𝑥 + 𝑦)𝑛 is given by ( ):
𝑟
2𝑛 2𝑛
( )=( )
𝑟+1 3𝑟 − 1
If (𝑟 + 2)𝑡ℎ term and 3𝑟 𝑡ℎ term are actually the same term, then there is no restriction on the value on 𝑛.
𝑛 𝑛
Hence, by symmetry since ( ) = ( ):
𝑟 𝑛−𝑟
2𝑛 2𝑛
( )=( )
2𝑛 − 𝑟 − 1 3𝑟 − 1
And now we can equate:
2𝑛 − 𝑟 − 1 = 3𝑟 − 1 ⇒ 2𝑛 = 4𝑟 ⇒ 𝑛 = 2𝑟
Example 1.39
𝑛
The sum of the coefficients of the first 50 terms in the binomial expansion of (1 − 𝑥)100 is equal to − ( ).
𝑟
Determine the least value of 𝑛 + 𝑟. (JEE Main, April 12, 2023-I)
Note that the sum of the coefficients is

(1 − 1)100 = 0100 = 0
Write only the coefficients of (1 − 𝑥)100:

100 100 100 100 100
( )−( )+ ⋯+ ( ) + ⋯− ( )+( )=0
0 1 50 99 100
𝑛 𝑛
Since ( ) = ( )
𝑟 𝑛−𝑟
100 100 100 100 100
( )−( )+ ⋯+ ( ) + ⋯− ( )+( )=0
0 1 50 1 0
Notice there are 101 terms, of which the 1𝑠𝑡 is equal to the 101𝑠𝑡 , the 2𝑛𝑑 term is equal to the 100𝑡ℎ , and so on:
100 100 100 100
2 [( )−( )+ ⋯+ ( )] + ( )=0
0 1 49 50
Note that the middle term (51𝑠𝑡 𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑚) does not have a pair. Rearrange:
100 100 100 1 100
( )−( )+ ⋯+ ( )=− ( )
0 1 49 2 50
P a g e 18 | 67
Now the LHS is exactly the sum of the coefficients of the first 50 terms. Hence, we need to write the RHS in the
required format:
1 100 1 100! 1 100 × 99! 50 × 99! 99! 99
− ( )=− × =− × =− =− = −( )
2 50 2 50! 50! 2 50! 50! 50! 50! 49! 50! 49
99 + 49 = 100 + 50 − 2 = 148
1.3 Back Calculations

A. Expanding to get a specific term
Example 1.40: Coefficients of Specific Terms

A. If the value of the coefficient of the 𝑥 term in (1 − 5𝑥)𝑛 is −60, find the value of 𝑛.
B. If the value of the coefficient of the 𝑥 2 term in (1 − 4𝑥)𝑛 is 240, find the value of 𝑛.
Part A
Expand the given binomial:
𝑛 𝑛
(1 − 5𝑥)𝑛 = ⏟
1 + (⏟ ) (1𝑛−1 )(−5𝑥)1 + (⏟ ) (1𝑛−2 )(−5𝑥)2 + ⋯
𝒙 𝒕𝒐
1 2
𝒑𝒐𝒘𝒆𝒓 𝒛𝒆𝒓𝒐 𝒙 𝒕𝒐 𝒇𝒊𝒓𝒔𝒕 𝒙 𝒕𝒐 𝒔𝒆𝒄𝒐𝒏𝒅
𝒑𝒐𝒘𝒆𝒓 𝒑𝒐𝒘𝒆𝒓
The term with 𝑥 is the second term. We only need the coefficient:
𝑛
( ) (−5)1 = −60 ⇒ 5𝑛 = 60 ⇒ 𝑛 = 12
1
Part B
The term with 𝑥 2 is the third term:
𝑛
( ) (1)𝑛−2 (−4𝑥)2
2
We only need the coefficient:
𝑛 𝑛(𝑛 − 1)
( ) (4)2 = 240 ⇒ × 16 = 240 ⇒ 𝑛(𝑛 − 1) = 30 ⇒ 𝑛 = 6
2 2
Example 1.41
If (1 + 𝑎𝑥)𝑛 = 1 + 8𝑥 + 24𝑥 2 + ⋯ then 𝑎 =____ and 𝑛 = ____ (JEE Adv. 1983)
𝑛 𝑛 𝑛(𝑛 − 1) 2 2
(1 + 𝑎𝑥)𝑛 = 1 + ( ) 1𝑛−1 (𝑎𝑥) + ( ) 1𝑛−2 (𝑎𝑥)2 + ⋯ = 1 + 𝑛𝑎𝑥 + 𝑎 𝑥 +⋯
1 2 2
Method of undetermined coefficients
Compare the first terms:
𝑛𝑎𝑥 = 8𝑥 ⇒ ⏟
𝑛𝑎 = 8
𝑬𝒒𝒖𝒂𝒕𝒊𝒐𝒏 𝑰
Compare the second terms:
𝑛(𝑛 − 1) 2 2
𝑎 𝑥 = 24𝑥 2 ⇒ 𝑛(𝑛
⏟ − 1)𝑎2 = 48
2 𝑬𝒒𝒖𝒂𝒕𝒊𝒐𝒏 𝑰𝑰
Solve the equations

Divide Equation II by Equation I:
(𝑛 − 1)𝑎 = 6 ⇒ ⏟
𝑛𝑎 − 𝑎 = 6
𝑬𝒒𝒖𝒂𝒕𝒊𝒐𝒏 𝑰𝑰𝑰
Subtract Equation III from Equation I:
𝑎 =8−6=2⇒𝑛 =4
P a g e 19 | 67
B. Equal Coefficients
Example 1.42
The coefficient of the middle term in the binomial expansion in powers of 𝑥 of (1 + 𝛼𝑥)4 and of (1 − 𝛼𝑥)6 is the
same if 𝛼 equals (JEE Main 2004)
Consider (1 + 𝛼𝑥)4 :
𝑁𝑜. 𝑜𝑓 𝑇𝑒𝑟𝑚𝑠 = 4 + 1 = 5
𝑀𝑖𝑑𝑑𝑙𝑒 𝑇𝑒𝑟𝑚 = 3𝑟𝑑 𝑇𝑒𝑟𝑚
𝑉𝑎𝑙𝑢𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑟 = 3 − 1 = 2
Consider(1 − 𝛼𝑥)6 :
𝑁𝑜. 𝑜𝑓 𝑇𝑒𝑟𝑚𝑠 = 6 + 1 = 7
𝑀𝑖𝑑𝑑𝑙𝑒 𝑇𝑒𝑟𝑚 = 4𝑡ℎ 𝑇𝑒𝑟𝑚
𝑉𝑎𝑙𝑢𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑟 = 4 − 1 = 3
4 6
( ) (𝛼)2 = ( ) (−𝛼)3
⏟2 ⏟3
𝑻𝒉𝒊𝒓𝒅 𝑻𝒆𝒓𝒎 𝑭𝒊𝒇𝒕𝒉 𝑻𝒆𝒓𝒎
4! 2 6!
𝛼 =− 𝛼3
2! 2! 3! 3!
4×3 6×5×4
=− 𝛼
2! 3!
3
6 = −20𝛼 ⇒ 𝛼 = −
10
Example 1.43
𝑥 𝑛
If the coefficient of 𝑥 7 and 𝑥 8 in (2 + 3) are equal, then the value of 𝑛 is equal to: (JEE Main, July 25, 2021,
Shift-II)
𝑥 𝑛
The power of 𝑥 in the binomial expansion of (2 + 3) is just:
𝑥 𝑟 ⇒ 𝑟 = {7,8}
Since the coefficients are equal:

𝑛 1 7 𝑛 1 8
( ) (2𝑛−7 ) ( ) = ( ) (2𝑛−8 ) ( )
7 3 8 3
𝑛 𝑛!
Cancelling, and using ( ) = 𝑟!(𝑛−𝑟)!:
𝑟
𝑛! 𝑛! 1
(2) = ( )
7! (𝑛 − 7)! 8! (𝑛 − 8)! 3
1 1 1
(2) = ( )
𝑛−7 8 3
48 = 𝑛 − 7
𝑛 = 55
Example 1.44
If for positive integers 𝑟 > 1, 𝑛 > 2, the coefficients of the (3𝑟)𝑡ℎ and the (𝑟 + 2)𝑡ℎ powers of 𝑥 in the expansion
P a g e 20 | 67
of (1 + 𝑥)2𝑛 are equal, then find one value of 𝑛 in terms of 𝑟: (JEE Main April 25, 2013; JEE Main 2002)
Since the coefficients of each term in (1 + 𝑥)2𝑛 are both 1, the coefficients in the binomial expansion come only
from the binomial coefficients:
2𝑛 2𝑛
( )=( )
𝑟+2 3𝑟
𝑛 𝑛!
Expand using ( ) = 𝑟!(𝑛−𝑟)!:
𝑟
(2𝑛)! (2𝑛)!
=
(𝑟 + 2)! (2𝑛 − 𝑟 − 2)! (3𝑟)! (2𝑛 − 3𝑟)!
Cancel, and eliminate fractions:

(3𝑟)! (2𝑛 − 3𝑟)! = (𝑟 + 2)! (2𝑛 − 𝑟 − 2)!
This will always be equal if one of the terms on the LHS is equal to one of the terms on the RHS, and this also
holds for the second term:
Case I:
3𝑟 = 𝑟 + 2 ⇒ 𝑟 = 1 ⇒ 𝑁𝑜𝑡 𝑉𝑎𝑙𝑖𝑑
Case II:
2𝑛 − 3𝑟 = 𝑟 + 2 ⇒ 𝑛 = 2𝑟 + 1
2𝑛 − 𝑟 − 2 = 3𝑟 ⇒ 𝑛 = 2𝑟 + 1
From both the equations, we get the same answer, and hence the relation is valid.
𝑛 = 2𝑟 + 1
Example 1.45
1 11 1 11
If the coefficient of 𝑥 9 in (𝛼𝑥 3 + ) and 𝑥 −9 in (𝛼𝑥 − ) are equal then (𝛼𝛽)2 is: (JEE Main, Jan 29, 2023,
𝛽𝑥 𝛽𝑥 3
Shift-I)
1 11
Concentrate only on the power of 𝑥 in the expansion of (𝛼𝑥 3 + ) :
𝛽𝑥
(𝑥 3 )11−𝑟 (𝑥 −1 )𝑟 = 𝑥 33−4𝑟 ⇒ 33 − 4𝑟 = 7 ⇒ 𝑟 = 6
1 11
Concentrate only on the power of 𝑥 in the expansion of(𝛼𝑥 − 𝛽𝑥 3 ) :
𝑥 11−𝑟 (𝑥 −3 )𝑟 = 𝑥 11−4𝑟 ⇒ 11 − 4𝑟 = −9 ⇒ 𝑟 = 5

11 1 6 11 1 5
( ) 𝛼 5 ( ) = ( ) 𝛼 6 (− )
6 𝛽 5 𝛽
𝛼𝛽 = −1
(𝛼𝛽)2 = 1
Example 1.46
1 11 1 11
If the coefficient of 𝑥 7 in (𝑎𝑥 2 + 2𝑏𝑥) and 𝑥 −7 in (𝑎𝑥 − 3𝑏𝑥 2 ) are equal then the value of 𝑎𝑏 is: (JEE Main,
April 6, 2023, Shift-II, Adapted)
P a g e 21 | 67
Calculate the value of 𝑟:

1 11
(𝑎𝑥 2 + ) : (𝑥 2 )11−𝑟 (𝑥 −1 )𝑟 = 𝑥 22−3𝑟 ⇒ 22 − 3𝑟 = 7 ⇒ 𝑟 = 5
2𝑏𝑥
1 11 11−𝑟 −2 𝑟
(𝑎𝑥 − ) :𝑥 (𝑥 ) = 𝑥 11−3𝑟 ⇒ 11 − 3𝑟 = −7 ⇒ 𝑟 = 6
3𝑏𝑥 2
11 1 5 11 1 6
( ) 𝑎6 ( ) = ( ) 𝑎5 (− )
5 2𝑏 6 3𝑏
𝑎 1
=
32𝑏 5 729𝑏 6
32
𝑎𝑏 =
729
Example 1.47
1 13 1 13
If the coefficient of 𝑥 7 in (𝑎𝑥 − 𝑏𝑥 2 ) and the coefficient of 𝑥 −5 in (𝑎𝑥 + 𝑏𝑥 2 ) are equal, then 𝑎4 𝑏 4 is equal to:
(JEE Main, April 10, 2023, Shift-I)
The expression for the power is the same in both the binomials:
𝑥 13−𝑟 (𝑥 −2 )𝑟 = 𝑥 13−3𝑟
13 − 3𝑟 = 7 ⇒ 𝑟 = 2
18
13 − 3𝑟 = −5 ⇒ 𝑟 = =6
3

13 1 2 13 1 6
( ) 𝑎11 (− ) = ( ) 𝑎7 ( )
2 𝑏 6 𝑏
13 ∙ 12 𝑎11 13 ∙ 12 ∙ 11 ∙ 10 ∙ 9 ∙ 8 𝑎7
∙ 2 = ∙ 6
2 𝑏 2∙3∙4∙5∙6 𝑏
𝑎4 𝑏 4 = 22
C. Sum of Two Coefficients
Example 1.48: Sum is Zero

𝑎
In the binomial expansion of (𝑎 − 𝑏)𝑛 , 𝑛 ≥ 5, the sum of the fifth and the sixth terms is zero. Then = (JEE Adv.
𝑏
2001S, JEE Main 2007)
𝑇5 + 𝑇6 = 0
𝑛 𝑛−4 𝑛
(⏟ ) 𝑎 (−𝑏)4 + (⏟ ) 𝑎𝑛−5 (−𝑏)5 = 0
4 5
𝟓𝒕𝒉 𝑻𝒆𝒓𝒎 𝟔𝒕𝒉 𝑻𝒆𝒓𝒎
𝑛 𝑛−4 4 𝑛
( )𝑎 𝑏 = ( ) 𝑎𝑛−5 𝑏5
4 5
𝑛−5 4
Divide both sides by 𝑎 𝑏 :
𝑛(𝑛 − 1)(𝑛 − 2)(𝑛 − 3) 𝑛(𝑛 − 1)(𝑛 − 2)(𝑛 − 3)(𝑛 − 4)
𝑎= 𝑏
4! 5!
Simplify:
𝑎 𝑛−4
=
𝑏 5
P a g e 22 | 67
D. Ratio of Consecutive Coefficients
1.49: Ratio of Consecutive Binomial Coefficients

The ratio of three consecutive binomial coefficients is given by:
𝑁 𝑁 𝑟 𝑁 𝑁 𝑟+1
( ):( ) = , ( ):( )=
𝑟−1 𝑟 𝑁−𝑟+1 𝑟 𝑟+1 𝑁−𝑟
The first ratio is:

𝑁 𝑁! 1
( ) 𝑟
𝑟 − 1 = (𝑟 − 1)! (𝑁 − 𝑟 + 1)! = 𝑁 − 𝑟 + 1 =
𝑁 𝑁! 1 𝑁 − 𝑟+1
( )
𝑟 𝑟! (𝑁 − 𝑟)! 𝑟
𝑁 𝑁! 1
( ) 𝑟! (𝑁 − 𝑟)! 𝑟+1
𝑟 = = −𝑟 =
𝑁
𝑁 𝑁! 1 𝑁−𝑟
( )
𝑟+1 (𝑟 + 1)! (𝑁 − 𝑟 − 1)! 𝑟+1
Example 1.50
If coefficients of the three successive terms in the binomial expansion of (1 + 𝑥)𝑛 are in the ratio 1: 7: 42, then
the first of these terms in the expansion has term number: (JEE Main, April 10, 2015)
𝑁 𝑁 𝑁
( ):( ):( ) = 1: 7: 42
𝑟−1 𝑟 𝑟+1
𝑁 𝑁 𝑟 1
( ):( ) = = ⇒ 7𝑟 = 𝑁 − 𝑟 + 1 ⇒ ⏟
8𝑟 − 𝑁 = 1
𝑟−1 𝑟 𝑁−𝑟+1 7 𝑬𝒒𝒖𝒂𝒕𝒊𝒐𝒏 𝑰
𝑁 𝑁 𝑟+1 7 1
( ):( )= = = ⇒ 6𝑟 + 6 = 𝑁 − 𝑟 ⇒ ⏟
7𝑟 − 𝑁 = −6
𝑟 𝑟+1 𝑁 − 𝑟 42 6 𝑬𝒒𝒖𝒂𝒕𝒊𝒐𝒏 𝑰𝑰
Subtract Equations II from Equation I:

𝑟 = 7 ⇒ 𝑟 − 1 = 6 ⇒ 𝑇𝑒𝑟𝑚 𝑛𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟 7
Example 1.51
If some three consecutive coefficients in the binomial expansion of (𝑥 + 1)𝑛 in powers of 𝑥 are in the ratio
2: 15: 70, then the average of these three coefficients is: (JEE Main, April 9, 2019; JEE Main 2020)
𝑁 𝑁 𝑁
( ):( ):( ) = 2: 15: 70
𝑟−1 𝑟 𝑟+1
𝑁 𝑁 𝑟 2
( ):( ) = = ⇒ 15𝑟 = 2𝑁 − 2𝑟 + 2 ⇒ ⏟
17𝑟 = 2𝑁 + 2
𝑟−1 𝑟 𝑁 − 𝑟 + 1 15 𝑬𝒒𝒖𝒂𝒕𝒊𝒐𝒏 𝑰
𝑁 𝑁 𝑟 + 1 15 3
( ):( )= = = ⇒ 14𝑟 + 14 = 3𝑁 − 3𝑟 ⇒ ⏟
17𝑟 = 3𝑁 − 14
𝑟 𝑟+1 𝑁 − 𝑟 70 14 𝑬𝒒𝒖𝒂𝒕𝒊𝒐𝒏 𝑰𝑰
From Equations I and II:

3𝑁 − 14 = 2𝑁 + 2 ⇒ 𝑁 = 16
17𝑟 = 2(16) + 2 ⇒ 𝑟 = 2
P a g e 23 | 67
16 16 16
( ) + ( ) + ( ) 16 + 120 + 560 696
1 2 3 = = = 232
3 3 3
Example 1.52
The coefficients of three consecutive terms of (1 + 𝑥)𝑛+5 are in the ratio 5: 10: 14. Then 𝑛 = (JEE Advanced
2013)
Use a change of variable. Let 𝑁 = 𝑛 + 5:

𝑁 𝑁 𝑁
( ):( ):( ) = 5: 10: 14
𝑟−1 𝑟 𝑟+1
𝑁 𝑁 𝑟 1
( ):( ) = = ⇒ 2𝑟 = 𝑁 − 𝑟 + 1 ⇒ 3𝑟 − 𝑁 = 1 ⇒ ⏟
12𝑟 − 4𝑁 = 4
𝑁 𝑁 𝑟+1 5
( ):( )= = ⇒ 7𝑟 + 7 = 5𝑁 − 5𝑟 ⇒ ⏟
12𝑟 − 5𝑁 = −7
𝑟 𝑟+1 𝑁−𝑟 7 𝑬𝒒𝒖𝒂𝒕𝒊𝒐𝒏 𝑰𝑰
Subtract Equation II from Equation I:

𝑁 = 11 ⇒ 𝑛 = 6
Example 1.53
The sum of the coefficients of three consecutive terms in the binomial expansion of (1 + 𝑥)𝑛+2, which are in the
ratio 1: 3: 5, is equal to: (JEE Main, April 10, 2023-II)
Use a change of variable. Let 𝑁 = 𝑛 + 2.

𝑁 𝑁 𝑁
( ):( ):( ) = 1: 3: 5
𝑟−1 𝑟 𝑟+1
𝑁 𝑁 𝑟 1
( ):( ) = = ⇒ 3𝑟 = 𝑁 − 𝑟 + 1 ⇒ ⏟
8𝑟 − 2𝑁 = 2
𝑁 𝑁 𝑟+1 3
( ):( )= = ⇒ 5𝑟 + 5 = 3𝑁 − 3𝑟 ⇒ ⏟
8𝑟 − 3𝑁 = −5
𝑟 𝑟+1 𝑁−𝑟 5 𝑬𝒒𝒖𝒂𝒕𝒊𝒐𝒏 𝑰𝑰
Subtract Equation II from Equation I

𝑁=7
From Equation I:
8𝑟 − 2(7) = 2 ⇒ 8𝑟 = 16 ⇒ 𝑟 = 2
7 7 7
( ) + ( ) + ( ) = 7 + 21 + 35 = 63
1 2 3
Example 1.54
Let the coefficients of three consecutive terms in the binomial expansion of (1 + 2𝑥)𝑛 be in the ratio 2: 5: 8.
Then, the coefficient of the term, which is in the middle of these three terms is: (JEE Main, Jan 29, 2023-I)
When (1 + 2𝑥)𝑛 is expanded, each successive term will have one power of 2 more than the previous term:
𝑁 𝑁 𝑁
( ) 2𝑟−1 : ( ) 2𝑟 : ( ) 2𝑟+1 = 2: 5: 8
𝑟−1 𝑟 𝑟+1
Simplify:
P a g e 24 | 67
𝑁 𝑁 𝑁
( ) : ( ) 2: ( ) 4 = 2: 5: 8
𝑟−1 𝑟 𝑟+1
𝑁 𝑁 𝑟 1 2
( ):( )2 = ∙ = ⇒ 5𝑟 = 4𝑁 − 4𝑟 + 4 ⇒ ⏟
9𝑟 = 4𝑁 + 4
𝑟−1 𝑟 𝑁−𝑟+1 2 5 𝑬𝒒𝒖𝒂𝒕𝒊𝒐𝒏 𝑰
𝑁 𝑁 𝑟+1 1 5
( ) 2: ( )4 = ∙ = ⇒ 4𝑟 + 4 = 5𝑁 − 5𝑟 ⇒ ⏟
9𝑟 = 5𝑁 − 4
𝑟 𝑟+1 𝑁−𝑟 2 8 𝑬𝒒𝒖𝒂𝒕𝒊𝒐𝒏 𝑰𝑰
Subtract Equation II from Equation I

5𝑁 − 4 = 4𝑁 + 4 ⇒ 𝑁 = 8
9𝑟 = 4(8) + 4 ⇒ 𝑟 = 4
Coefficient when 𝑟 = 4
8 8∙7∙6∙5
( ) 24 = ∙ 16 = 1120
4 24
Example 1.55
The coefficients of three consecutive terms in the binomial expansion of (1 + 𝑥)𝑁 are in the ratio 𝑎: 𝑏: 𝑐. Find
the value of the term number of the middle term among the three consecutive terms. Write your answer in
terms of 𝑎, 𝑏, 𝑐.1
𝑁 𝑁 𝑁
( ):( ):( ) = 𝑎: 𝑏: 𝑐
𝑟−1 𝑟 𝑟+1
𝑁 𝑁 𝑟 𝑎
( ):( ) = =
𝑟−1 𝑟 𝑁−𝑟+1 𝑏
𝑏𝑟 = 𝑎𝑁 − 𝑎𝑟 + 𝑎
(𝑎 + 𝑏)𝑟 − 𝑎𝑁 = 𝑎
(𝑎𝑏 + 𝑏 2 )𝑟 − 𝑎𝑏𝑁 = 𝑎𝑏
⏟
𝑁 𝑁 𝑟+1 𝑏
( ):( )= =
𝑟 𝑟+1 𝑁−𝑟 𝑐
𝑐𝑟 + 𝑐 = 𝑏𝑁 − 𝑏𝑟
(𝑏 + 𝑐)𝑟 − 𝑏𝑁 = −𝑐
(𝑎𝑏
⏟ + 𝑎𝑐)𝑟 − 𝑎𝑏𝑁 = −𝑎𝑐
𝑬𝒒𝒖𝒂𝒕𝒊𝒐𝒏 𝑰𝑰
Subtract Equation II from Equation I:

(𝑎𝑏 + 𝑏 2 − 𝑎𝑏 − 𝑎𝑐)𝑟 = 𝑎𝑏 + 𝑎𝑐
(𝑏 2 − 𝑎𝑐)𝑟 = 𝑎𝑏 + 𝑎𝑐
𝑎𝑏 + 𝑎𝑐
𝑟= 2
𝑏 − 𝑎𝑐
Verify for 𝑎: 𝑏: 𝑐 = 1: 3: 5
𝑎𝑏 + 𝑎𝑐 1(3) + 1(5) 3 + 5 8
𝑟= = 2 = = =2
𝑏 2 − 𝑎𝑐 3 − 1(5) 9−5 4
1
Do 𝑛𝑜𝑡 memorize this result.
P a g e 25 | 67
E. Ratio of Two Coefficients
Pending
Example 1.56
2 22
𝑎
75: If the term without 𝑥 in the expansion of (𝑥 3 + 𝑥 3 ) is 7315, then the value of |𝑎| is equal to: (JEE Main, Feb
1, 2023, Shift-II)
𝑎=1
Pending
Example 1.57
1 7
70: Let [𝑡] denote the greatest integer ≤ 𝑡. If the constant term in the expansion of (3𝑥 2 − 2𝑥5 ) is 𝛼, then [𝛼] is
equal to: (JEE Main, April 8, 2023, Shift-I)
[𝛼] = 1275
Example 1.58
4 1 𝑛
If the ratio of the fifth term from the beginning to the fifth term from the end in the expansion of (√2 + 4 ) is
√3
√6: 1, then the third term from the beginning is: (JEE Main, April 26, 2023, Shift I)
The ratio of the fifth term from the beginning to the fifth term from the end:
𝑛 1 𝑛−4 1 4
( ) (24 ) (3−4 ) 𝑛−4 4 4 𝑛−4 𝑛−8
4 − − +
= (2 4 4 ) (3 4 4 ) = 6 4
𝑛 1 4 1 𝑛−4
( ) (24 ) (3−4 )
𝑛−4
1
Equating exponents with √6 = 62 :
𝑛−8 1
= ⇒ 𝑛 = 10
4 2
Then, the third term is:

1 8
10 10 ∙ 9
( ) (24 ) ∙ 4 180
2
= 2 = = 60√3
1 2 √3 √3
(34 )
Example 1.59
4𝑥 5 2022
If the 1011𝑡ℎ term from the end in the binomial expansion of ( 5 − 2𝑥) is 1024 times the 1011𝑡ℎ term from
the beginning, then |𝑥| is equal to2: (JEE Main, April 12, 2023-II)
The total number of terms is

2022 + 1 = 2023
2
Bonus in the actual exam: none of the given options were correct.
P a g e 26 | 67
The middle term is:

2023 + 1 2024
= = 1012
2 2
Since 1012 is the middle term, it must (by definition) have the same number of terms to its right and left:
1,2,3, … ,1011 ,
⏟ 1012, 1011, … ,3,2,1
⏟
𝑭𝒓𝒐𝒎 𝑩𝒆𝒈𝒊𝒏𝒏𝒊𝒏𝒈 𝑭𝒓𝒐𝒎 𝑬𝒏𝒅
Hence, we want:
𝑇1011−𝐵𝑒𝑔 ⇒ 𝑟 = 1010
𝑇1011−𝐸𝑛𝑑 = 𝑇1013−𝐵𝑒𝑔 ⇒ 𝑟 = 1012
From the condition given in the question:

2022 4𝑥
1012
5 1010 4𝑥 1010 5 1012
( )( ) (− ) (1024) = (2022) ( ) (− )
1010 5 2𝑥 1012 5 2𝑥
𝑛 𝑛 2022 2022
Since ( ) = ( ), we must have ( )=( ), and it cancels on both sides:
𝑟 𝑛−𝑟 1010 1012
4𝑥 2 5 2
( ) (1024) = (− )
5 2𝑥
Simplify:
24 2 10 52
𝑥 (2 ) =
52 22 ∙ 𝑥 2
Collate 𝑥 terms on LHS, and numbers on RHS:

54 5 5
𝑥4 = 16
⇒ |𝑥| = 4 =
2 2 16
1.60: Conjugate
The conjugate of 𝑎 + 𝑏 is 𝑎 − 𝑏
Example 1.61
𝑎
When the fifth power of 𝑥 = (𝑝 + 𝑝) is multiplied with the fifth power of the conjugate of 𝑥, the absolute value
1
of the coefficient of the 𝑝2 term is nine times the absolute value of the coefficient of the 𝑝2 term. Find the
possible value(s) of 𝑎.
𝑎 𝑎
The conjugate of (𝑝 + 𝑝) is (𝑝 − 𝑝). The fifth power of the product of the two conjugates.
5
𝑎 5 𝑎 5 𝑎 𝑎 5 2
𝑎2
(𝑝 + ) (𝑝 − ) = [(𝑝 + ) (𝑝 − )] = (𝑝 − 2 )
𝑝 𝑝 𝑝 𝑝 ⏟ 𝑝
(𝒂+𝒃)(𝒂−𝒃)=𝒂𝟐 −𝒃𝟐
5
𝑎2
The power of the (𝑟 + 1)𝑠𝑡 term of (𝑝2 − 𝑝2 ) is given by:
1 𝑟 1
(𝑝2 )5−𝑟 ( 2
) = 𝑝10−2𝑟 ( 2𝑟 ) = 𝑝10−4𝑟
𝑝 𝑝
𝐹𝑜𝑟 𝑝2 𝑇𝑒𝑟𝑚: 10 − 4𝑟 = 2 ⇒ 𝑟 = 2
P a g e 27 | 67
1
𝐹𝑜𝑟 𝑇𝑒𝑟𝑚: 10 − 4𝑟 = −2 ⇒ 𝑟 = 3
𝑝2
1
𝑝2 term is the third term, and the 𝑝2 term is the fourth term:
2 3
5 𝑎2 5 𝑎2
( ) (𝑝2 )5−2 (− 2 ) , ( ) (𝑝2 )5−3 (− 2 )
⏟2 𝑝 ⏟3 𝑝
𝑻𝒉𝒊𝒓𝒅 𝑻𝒆𝒓𝒎 𝒉𝒂𝒔 𝒑𝟐 𝑭𝒐𝒖𝒓𝒕𝒉 𝑻𝒆𝒓𝒎
We only need the absolute value of the coefficients:

𝟓 𝟓 1 1
( ) 𝑎4 = 9 ( ) (𝑎6 ) ⇒ 𝑎2 = ⇒ 𝑎 = ±
𝟐 𝟑 9 3
Example 1.62
1 11 1 11
If the coefficient of 𝑥 7 in [𝑎𝑥 2 + (𝑏𝑥) ] equals the coefficient of 𝑥 −7 in [𝑎𝑥 − (𝑏𝑥 2 )] , then 𝑎 and 𝑏 satisfy the
relation: (JEE Main 2005)
1.4 Applications: Algebra

A. Terms in Arithmetic Progression
1.63: Arithmetic Progression

If three terms 𝑎, 𝑏 and 𝑐 are in arithmetic progression, then the middle term is the average of the other two
terms:
𝑎+𝑏
𝑏= ⇒ 2𝑏 = 𝑎 + 𝑐
2
Example 1.64
Let 𝑛 be a positive integer. If the coefficients of the second, third and fourth terms in the expansion of (1 + 𝑥)𝑛
are in arithmetic progression, then the value of 𝑛 is? (JEE Adv. 1994)
𝒏 𝒏 𝒏
(1 + 𝑥)𝑛 = 1 + ( ) 𝑥 + ( ) 𝑥 2 + ( ) 𝑥 3 + ⋯
𝟏 𝟐 𝟑
The terms in maroon above are in arithmetic progression:

𝑛 𝑛 𝑛
2( ) = ( ) +( )
2 1 3
𝑛 𝑛!
Use the definition of combinations ( 𝑟 ) = 𝑟!(𝑛−𝑟)!:
𝑛! 𝑛! 𝑛!
2× = +
2! (𝑛 − 2!) 1! (𝑛 − 1)! 3! (𝑛 − 3!)
Simplify by cancelling:
𝒏(𝑛 − 1) 𝒏(𝑛 − 1)(𝑛 − 2)
𝟐( )=𝒏+
𝟐 6
Simplify:
6 + (𝑛 − 1)(𝑛 − 2)
𝑛−1= ⇒ 6𝑛 − 6 = 6 + 𝑛2 − 3𝑛 + 2
6
Collect all terms on one side to get a quadratic and solve:
𝑛2 − 9𝑛 + 14 = 0 ⇒ (𝑛 − 7)(𝑛 − 2) = 0 ⇒ 𝑛 ∈ {𝟐, 7} ⇒ 𝑛 = 7
7 7 7
( ) = 7, ( ) = 21, ( ) = 35
1 2 3
P a g e 28 | 67
B. Equations
Example 1.65
5
1 + 𝑥 + 𝑥 = ∑ 𝑎𝑖 (1 + 𝑥)𝑖
4 5
𝑖=0
If the above is true for all 𝑥 ∈ ℝ, then 𝑎2 is: (JEE-M 2014)
Expand the RHS:

= 𝑎0 + 𝑎1 (1 + 𝑥) + 𝑎2 (1 + 𝑥)2 + 𝑎3 (1 + 𝑥)3 + 𝑎4 (1 + 𝑥)4 + 𝑎5 (1 + 𝑥)5
= 𝑎0 + 𝑎1 (1 + 𝑥) + 𝑎2 (1 + 2𝑥 + 𝑥 2 ) + 𝑎3 (1 + 3𝑥 + 3𝑥 2 + 𝑥 3 ) + 𝑎4 (1 + 4𝑥 + 6𝑥 2 + 4𝑥 3 + 𝑥 4 )
+ 𝑎5 (1 + 5𝑥 + 10𝑥 2 + 10𝑥 3 + 5𝑥 4 + 𝑥 5 )
= (𝑎0 + 𝑎1 + 𝑎2 + 𝑎3 + 𝑎4 + 𝑎5 ) + 𝑥(𝑎1 + 2𝑎2 + 3𝑎3 + 4𝑎4 + 5𝑎5 ) + 𝑥 2 (𝑎2 + 3𝑎3 + 6𝑎4 + 10𝑎5 )
+ 𝑥 3 (𝑎3 + 4𝑎4 + 10𝑎5 ) + 𝑥 4 (𝑎4 + 5𝑎5 ) + 𝑥 5 𝑎5
Use the method of undetermined coefficients.

Comparing fifth powers:
𝑎5 = 1
Comparing fourth powers:

𝑎4 + 5𝑎5 = 𝑎4 + 5(1) = 1 ⇒ 𝑎4 = −4
Comparing third powers:

𝑎3 + 4𝑎4 + 10𝑎5 = 𝑎3 + 4(−4) + 10(1) = 0 ⇒ 𝑎3 = 6
Comparing second powers:

𝑎2 + 3𝑎3 + 6𝑎4 + 10𝑎5 = 𝑎2 + 3(6) + 6(−4) + 10(1) = 0 ⇒ 𝑎2 = −4
C. Trigonometry
Example 1.66
𝑥 1 16 𝜋 𝜋
In the expansion of (cos 𝜃 + 𝑥 sin 𝜃 ) , if 𝑙1 is the least value of the term independent of 𝑥 when 8 ≤ 𝜃 ≤ 4 and 𝑙2
𝜋 𝜋
is the least value of the term independent of 𝑥 when 16 ≤ 𝜃 ≤ 8 , then the ratio 𝑙2 : 𝑙1 is equal to: (JEE-M 2020)
The general term is:

𝑟
16 𝑥 16−𝑟 1 16 𝑥 16−2𝑟
( )( ) ( ) =( )
𝑟 cos 𝜃 𝑥 sin 𝜃 𝑟 cos16−𝑟 𝜃 sin𝑟 𝜃
16 − 2𝑟 = 0 ⇒ 𝑟 = 8
The term independent of 𝑥 is:

16 1 16 28
( ) = ( )
8 cos8 𝜃 sin8 𝜃 8 (sin 2𝜃)8
P a g e 29 | 67
Take the ratio:

16 28 16 28
( ) : ( )
8 (sin 2𝜃2 )8 8 (sin 2𝜃1 )8
1 1
:
(sin 2𝜃2 ) (sin 2𝜃1 )8
8
The term is minimum when the quantity in the denominator is maximum

𝜋 𝜋 1 1 1 1
≤𝜃≤ : = 8 = 8 = = 16
16 8 (sin 2𝜃1 ) 8 𝜋 1 1
(sin 4 ) ( ) 16
√2
𝜋 𝜋 1 1 1
≤𝜃≤ : 8
= 8 = =1
8 4 (sin 2𝜃1 ) 𝜋 1
(sin 2 )
𝑙2 : 𝑙1 = 16: 1 = 16
1.5 Approximations
A. Applications
Example 1.67: Numerical/Partial Expansions

A. Find the fourth power of 102 using a binomial expansion.
5
B. Given that 𝑎 = 10,510,100,501 is a perfect fifth power, find √𝑎
C. Given that 𝑓(𝑥, 𝑦) = 𝑥 5 + 5𝑥 4 𝑦 + 10𝑥 3 𝑦 2 + 10𝑥 2 𝑦 3 + 5𝑥𝑦 4 + 𝑦 5 , evaluate 𝑓(7,13) − 2𝑓(8,12) +
3𝑓(9,11)
Part A
(𝑥 + 𝑦)4 = 𝑥 4 + 4𝑥 3 𝑦 + 6𝑥 2 𝑦 2 + 4𝑥𝑦 3 + 𝑦 4
Substitute 𝑥 = 100, 𝑦 = 2 to get:
(100 + 2)4 = 1004 + (4)(1003 )(2) + (6)(1002 )(22 ) + (4)(1001 )(23 ) + 24
Simplify:
= 100,000,000 + 8,000,000 + 240,000 + 3200 + 16 = 108,243,216
Part B
10,510,100,501 ≈ 1010 = 1005
Hence, expand:
𝑎 = 10,510,100,501 = 1 × 1005 + 5 × 1004 + 10 × 1003 + 10 × 1002 + 5 × 1001 + 100
But notice that the above is just the binomial expansion of:
= (100 + 1)5 = (101)5
5
√𝑎 = 101
Part C
Note that
𝑓(𝑥, 𝑦) = (𝑥 + 𝑦)5
And hence 𝑓(7,13) − 2𝑓(8,12) + 3𝑓(9,11) becomes:
(7 + 13)5 − 2(8 + 12)5 + 3(9 + 11)5
Which simplifies to:
= (20)5 − 2(20)5 + 3(20)5 = 2(20)5 = 2 × 32 × 105 = 64 × 105
Example 1.68: Approximation (Calculator-Allowed)

A. Find the first three terms of the binomial expansion of (1 + 𝑥)4 . Approximate 1.014 using the three
P a g e 30 | 67
terms calculated in Part A. In using this approximation, find the Absolute Error, Relative Error and the
Percentage Error.
B. Write the first three terms of (3 + 2𝑥)6 . Use the three terms written to approximate 3.26 . What is the
percentage error in the approximation?
Part A
(1 + 𝑥)4 = 1 + 4𝑥 + 6𝑥 2 + ⋯
Let 𝑥 = 0.01 in the above to get:
(1 + 0.01)4 = 1 + 4(0.01) + 6(0.01)2 + ⋯ = 1 + 0.04 + 0.0006 + ⋯ ≈ 1.0406
𝐴𝑏𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑡𝑒 𝐸𝑟𝑟𝑜𝑟 = |1.04060401

⏟ − ⏟
1.0406 | = 0.00000401
𝑨𝒄𝒕𝒖𝒂𝒍 𝑨𝒑𝒑𝒓𝒐𝒙𝒊𝒎𝒂𝒕𝒊𝒐𝒏
1.04060401 − 1.0406
𝑅𝑒𝑙𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑣𝑒 𝐸𝑟𝑟𝑜𝑟 = | | = 3.85 × 10−6
1.04060401
1.04060401 − 1.0406
%𝑡𝑎𝑔𝑒 𝑒𝑟𝑟𝑜𝑟 = | | × 100 = 3.85 × 10−6 × 100 = 3.85 × 10−4 %
1.04060401
Part B
6 6
(𝑎 + 𝑏)6 = 𝑎6 + ( ) 𝑎5 𝑏 + ( ) 𝑎4 𝑏 2 + ⋯
1 2
Substitute 𝑎 = 3, 𝑏 = 2𝑥 in the above:
(3 + 2𝑥)6 = 36 + (6)(35 )(2)𝑥 + (15)(34 )(22 )(𝑥 2 ) + ⋯ = 729 + 2916𝑥 + 4860𝑥 2 + ⋯
Substitute 𝑥 = 0.1 in the above:
= 729 + 2916(0.1) + 4860(0.1)2 + ⋯ = 729 + 291.6 + 48.6 + ⋯ ≈ 1069.2
1073.74 − 1069.2 4.54
% 𝐸𝑟𝑟𝑜𝑟 = | | × 100 = × 100 = 0.42%
1073.74 1073.74
1.6 NT: Remainders

A. Remainders
Example 1.69
The remainder when 7103 is divided by 17 is: (JEE Main, April 13, 2023-II)
7103 = 7(49)51 = 7(51 − 2)51

Expand the binomial
51 51 51
= 7 [5151 + ( ) (51)50 (−2) + ⋯ ( ) (51)1 (−2)50 + ( ) (−2)51 ]
1 50 51
If we consider the remainder, we can drop the purple terms since they are all divisible by 17:
= 7(−2)51
= −7(251 )
= −7(23 × 248 )
= −7(8 × (24 )12 )
= −56(17 − 1)12
We could expand the binomial, but once we did, all but the last term would have a zero remainder, and hence we
can ignore those terms. We are left with the last term:
= −56(−1)12 = −56 = −5 = 12
P a g e 31 | 67
1.70: Remainders
(𝑥 + 𝑎)𝑛 ≡ 𝑎𝑛 (𝑚𝑜𝑑 𝑥)
In the binomial expansion above, all terms except the last term are divisible by 𝑥.
𝑛 𝑛 𝑛
(𝑥 + 𝑎)𝑛 = 𝑥 𝑛 + ( ) 𝑥 𝑛 𝑎 + ( ) 𝑥 𝑛−1 𝑎2 + ⋯ + ( ) 𝑥𝑎𝑛−1 + 𝑎𝑛
1 2 𝑛−1
Example 1.71
The remainder when 7103 is divided by 17 is: (JEE Main, April 13, 2023-II)
7103 ≡ 7(4951 ) ≡ 7(−2)51 ≡ −7(23 )[24 ]12 ≡ −7(8)[−1]12 ≡ −56 ≡ −5 ≡ 12 (𝑚𝑜𝑑 17)
Note: Make sure to compare this method with the one used earlier. We will use this method as far as possible
going forward.
Example 1.72
A. The remainder when 72022 + 32022 is divided by 5 is: (JEE Main, July 28, 2022-I)
B. If 27999 is divided by 7, then the remainder is: (JEE Main, April 8, 2017)
C. The remainder when 20212023 is divided by 7 is: (JEE Main, July 25, 2022-II)
D. The remainder when 20212022 + 20222021 is divided by 7 is: (JEE Main, July 27, 2022-I)
E. The remainder when 111011 + 101111 is divided by 9 is: (JEE Main, July 25, 2022-II)
F. Determine the remainder when 20232022 − 19992022 is divided by 8. (JEE Main, April 6, 2023-I,
Adapted)
G. If 20213762 is divided by 17, then the remainder is: (JEE Main, March 17, 2021-I)
Part A
22022 + (−2)2022 ≡ 2 ∙ 22022 ≡ 2(41011 ) ≡ 2(−1)1011 ≡ −2 ≡ 3 (𝑚𝑜𝑑 5)
Part B
27999 ≡ (−1)999 ≡ −1 ≡ 6 (𝑚𝑜𝑑 7)
Part C
−22023 ≡ −2(23 )674 ≡ −2(8674 ) ≡ −2(1674 ) ≡ −2 ≡ 5
Part D
(−2)2022 + (−1)2021 ≡ (23 )674 − 1 ≡ 8674 − 1 ≡ 1674 − 1 ≡ 1 − 1 ≡ 0 (𝑚𝑜𝑑 7)
Part E
21011 + 311 ≡ (23 )337 + 32 ∙ 39 ≡ (8)337 + 0 ∙ 39 ≡ (−1)337 ≡ −1 ≡ 8
Part F
Substitute 2023 ≡ 7 ≡ −1(𝑚𝑜𝑑 8), 1999 ≡ 7 ≡ −1(𝑚𝑜𝑑 8)
(−1)2022 − (−1)2022 ≡ 1 − 1 ≡ 0 (𝑚𝑜𝑑 8)
Part G
(−2)3762 ≡ [(−2)4 ]940 × (−2)2 ≡ [16]940 × 4 ≡ [−1]940 × 4 ≡ 1 × 4 ≡ 4
Example 1.73
Let the number 222022 + 202222 leave the remainder 𝛼 when divided by 3, and 𝛽 when divided by 7. Then
(𝛼 2 + 𝛽 2 ) = (JEE Main, April 10, 2023-II)
𝛼 ≡ 222022 + 202222 ≡ 12022 + 022 ≡ 1 + 0 ≡ 1(𝑚𝑜𝑑 3)

𝛽 ≡ 222022 + 202222 ≡ 12022 + (−1)22 ≡ 1 + 1 ≡ 2(𝑚𝑜𝑑 7)
P a g e 32 | 67
𝛼 2 + 𝛽 2 = 12 + 22 = 1 + 4 = 5
1.74: Fractional Part

Questions that ask for fractional part are effectively asking for the remainder.
Example 1.75
3200
A. If {𝑝} denotes the fractional part of the number 𝑝, then { 8
} is equal to: (JEE Main, Sep 06, 2020-I)
42022
B. Fractional part of is equal to: (JEE Main, April 13, 2023-I)
15
2400 𝑘
C. If the fractional part of the number 15
is 15, then 𝑘 is equal to: (JEE Main, Jan 9, 2019-I)
3200 1
𝑃𝑎𝑟𝑡 𝐴: 3200 ≡ 9100 ≡ 1100 ≡ 1 (𝑚𝑜𝑑 8) ⇒ { }=
8 8
2022
4 1
𝑃𝑎𝑟𝑡 𝐵: 42022 ≡ 161011 ≡ 11011 ≡ 1 (𝑚𝑜𝑑 15) ⇒ { }=
15 15
1
𝑃𝑎𝑟𝑡 𝐶: 2400 ≡ 16100 ≡ 1100 ≡ 1 (𝑚𝑜𝑑 15) ⇒ 𝑘 =
15
1.76: Working with Powers

In some questions, the power to use may not be immediately obvious. The next question is one such example.
You will then have to work out the remainders for consecutive powers.
Example 1.77
The remainder on dividing 599 by 11 is: (JEE Main, Jan 31, 2023-I)
52 ≡ 25 ≡ 3
53 ≡ 5 ∙ 52 ≡ 5 ∙ 3 ≡ 15 ≡ 4
5 ≡ 5 ∙ 53 ≡ 5 ∙ 4 ≡ 20 ≡ 9 ≡ −2
4
55 ≡ 5 ∙ 54 ≡ 5 ∙ (−2) ≡ −10 ≡ 1
Hence, we reduce using 55 :

54 ∙ (55 )19 ≡ 625 ∙ (3125)19 ≡ 9 ∙ 119 ≡ 9
Example 1.78
The remainder when 20232023 is divided by 35: (JEE Main, Jan 25, 2023-II)
20232023 ≡ (−7)2023
≡ (−7)(72022 )
≡ (−7)(491011 )
≡ (−7)(50 − 1)1011
≡ (−7)(−1)1011
≡ (−7)(−1)
≡7
1.79: Product of a Binomial Expansion

𝑐(𝑥 + 𝑎)𝑛 ≡ 𝑐𝑥 (𝑚𝑜𝑑 𝑐𝑎)
P a g e 33 | 67
𝑛 𝑛 𝑛
𝑐(𝑥 + 𝑎)𝑛 = 𝑐𝑥 𝑛 + ( ) 𝑐𝑥 𝑛 𝑎 + ( ) 𝑐𝑥 𝑛−1 𝑎2 + ⋯ + ( ) 𝑐𝑥𝑎𝑛−1 + 𝑐𝑎𝑛
1 2 𝑛−1
All except the first term are divisible by 𝑐𝑎.

Hence, the result follows.
Example 1.80
3 × 722 + 2 × 1022 − 44 when divided by 18 leaves remainder: (JEE Main, Aug 27, 2021-II)
3 × 722 ≡ 3(1 + 6)22 ≡ (3 + 3 ∙ 61 + ⋯ ) ≡ 3

2 × 1022 ≡ 2(1 + 9)22 ≡ (2 + 2 ∙ 91 + ⋯ ) ≡ 2
3 × 722 + 2 × 1022 − 44 ≡ 3 + 2 − 44 ≡ −39 ≡ 15
B. Remainders: Variables in the Power
1.81: Powers of −𝟏
1, 𝑛 𝑖𝑠 𝑒𝑣𝑒𝑛
(−1)𝑛 = {
−1, 𝑛 𝑖𝑠 𝑜𝑑𝑑
Example 1.82
The remainder left out when 82𝑛 − 622𝑛+1 is divided by 9 is: (JEE Main 2009)
Substitute 8 ≡ 62 ≡ −1 (𝑚𝑜𝑑 9):

(−1)2𝑛 − (−1)2𝑛+1 ≡ 1 − (−1) ≡ 2 (𝑚𝑜𝑑 9)
Example 1.83
𝑀𝑎𝑟𝑘 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑐𝑜𝑟𝑟𝑒𝑐𝑡 𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑠
2022 2022
S1: 2023 − 1999 is divisible by 8.
S2: 13(13𝑛 ) − 11𝑛 − 13 is divisible by 144 for infinitely many 𝑛 ∈ ℕ (JEE Main, April 6, 2023-I)
Statement 1
20232022 − 19992022 = (1999 + 24)2022 − 19992022
2022 (1999)2021 (24)

= [19992022 + ( ) + ⋯ + 242022 ] − 19992022
1
2022
= 24 [( ) (1999)2021 + ⋯ + 242021 ]
1
2022 (1999)2021
= 8 ∙ 3 [( ) + ⋯ + 242021 ]
1
Every term in the above is a multiple of 24, and hence it is divisible by 8.
Statement 2
Rewrite 13 = 1 + 12:
(12 + 1)𝑛+1 − 11𝑛 − 13 = [1 + (𝑛 + 1)(12) + (𝒏 + 𝟏) 𝟏𝟐𝟐 + ⋯ ] − 11𝑛 − 13
𝟐
If we consider only the remainder of the above:
P a g e 34 | 67
= [1 + (𝑛 + 1)(12)] − 11𝑛 − 13 = [1 + 12𝑛 + 12] − 11𝑛 − 13 = 𝑛
𝑛
If 𝑛 is a multiple of 144, then has remainder 0. Hence, there are infinitely many values.
144
𝑆𝑡𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑖𝑠 𝑡𝑟𝑢𝑒.
C. Last Few Digits
1.84: Last Digit

Determining the last digit is the same as determining the remainder when divided by 100.
1.85: Last Two Digits

Determining the last two digits is the same as determining the remainder when divided by 100.
Example 1.86
Determine the ten’s digit of 171993 . (MathCounts 1994 Workout 10)
Write the given number as a binomial expansion:

(7 + 10)1993 = 71993 + (1993) 71992 101 + ⋯
1992
All terms after the second term will have 102 or higher as a factor. Hence, we only need to check the two terms
above.
Note that 74 = 2401.

71992 ≡ (74 )498 ≡ (1)498 ≡ 1 (𝑚𝑜𝑑 100)
71993 = 71992 × 7 = (74 )498 × 7 = (1)498 × 7 = 1 × 7 = 7
And, again, we are only concerned with last two digits:

7 + (1993)(10)(01)
= 7 + 19930 = 19937
𝑇𝑒𝑛′ 𝑠 𝐷𝑖𝑔𝑖𝑡 = 3
1.87: Last Three Digits

Determining the last three digits is the same as determining the remainder when divided by 1000.
Example 1.88
What is the hundreds digit of 20112011? (AMC 10B 2011/23)
Ignore the thousands digit and above at all stages of the calculations:
11 11
(11)2011 ≡ (10 + 1)2011 ≡ ⋯ + ( ) (102 )(12009 ) + ( ) (101 )(12010 ) + 1 (𝑚𝑜𝑑 1000)
2 1
11 × 10
≡ ⋯+ (100) + 110 + 1 = ⋯ + 5500 + 111 = 6𝟔11
2
𝐻𝑢𝑛𝑑𝑟𝑒𝑑′ 𝑠 𝐷𝑖𝑔𝑖𝑡 = 6
D. Remainders: Further Questions
P a g e 35 | 67
1.89: Converting from one mod to another

Some questions may require you to convert the remainder in one mod base to a remainder in another mod
base.
Example 1.90
If the remainder when 𝑥 is divided by 4 is 3, then the remainder when (2020 + 𝑥)2022 is divided by 8 is: (JEE
Main, Feb 25, 2021-II)
Substitute 𝑥 ≡ 3(𝑚𝑜𝑑 4):

𝑁 ≡ 2020 + 3 ≡ 0 + 3 ≡ 3 (𝑚𝑜𝑑 4)
Convert from mod arithmetic to algebra and square both sides:

𝑁 = 4𝑘 − 1, 𝑘∈ℤ
𝑁 2 = 16𝑘 2 − 8𝑘 + 1 ≡ 1 (𝑚𝑜𝑑 8)
Hence:
(2020 + 𝑥)2022 ≡ 𝑁 2022 ≡ (𝑁 2 )1011 ≡ 11011 ≡ 1 (𝑚𝑜𝑑 8)
Method II: Casework

3 (𝑚𝑜𝑑 4) converted to 𝑚𝑜𝑑 8 gives us two cases:
𝑥 ≡ 3 ≡ 7(𝑚𝑜𝑑 4) ⇔ 𝑥 ≡ 3 (𝑚𝑜𝑑 8) 𝑂𝑅 𝑥 ≡ 7 (𝑚𝑜𝑑 8)
𝐶𝑎𝑠𝑒 𝐼: 32022 ≡ 91011 ≡ 11011 ≡ 1 (𝑚𝑜𝑑 8)

𝐶𝑎𝑠𝑒 𝐼𝐼: 72022 ≡ (−1)2022 ≡ 12022 ≡ 1 (𝑚𝑜𝑑 8)
In both cases the answer is 1.
Example 1.91
The total number of two-digit numbers 𝑛 such that 3𝑛 + 7𝑛 is a multiple of 10, is: (JEE Main, Feb 25, 2021-II)
Method I: Pattern
3𝑛 7𝑛
𝑛=1 3 7 10
𝑛=2 9 9 18
𝑛=3 7 3 10
𝑛=4 1 1 2
Method II: Remainder Theorem

Consider the polynomial
𝑃(𝑎) = 𝑎𝑛 + 𝑏 𝑛 , 𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒 𝑏 𝑖𝑠 𝑎 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡
To check if 𝑎 + 𝑏 is a root
𝑎 + 𝑏 = 0 ⇒ 𝑎 = −𝑏
𝑃(−𝑏) = (−𝑏)𝑛 + 𝑏 𝑛
Which equals:
2 ∙ 𝑏 𝑛 (𝑛 𝑖𝑠 𝑒𝑣𝑒𝑛)
0 (𝑛 𝑖𝑠 𝑜𝑑𝑑)
P a g e 36 | 67
𝑎𝑛 + 𝑏 𝑛 is divisible by 𝑎 + 𝑏 when 𝑛 is odd.

𝑎𝑛 + 𝑏 𝑛 is not divisible by 𝑎 + 𝑏 when 𝑛 is even.
We need to count number of two-digit odd numbers

= 45
Example 1.92
If 𝑋 = {4𝑛 − 3𝑛 − 1: 𝑛 ∈ ℕ} and 𝑌 = {9(𝑛 − 1): 𝑛 ∈ ℕ}, where ℕ is the set of natural numbers, then 𝑋 ∪ 𝑌 is
equal to: (JEE-M 2014)
The set 𝑌 is the multiples of 9 starting from 0:

{0,9,18,27, … }
For the set 𝑋 we get

𝑛 = 1: 41 − 3(1) − 1 = 0
𝑛 = 2: 42 − 3(2) − 1 = 16 − 6 − 1 = 9
𝑋 ∪ 𝑌 = {𝐴𝑙𝑙 𝑚𝑢𝑙𝑡𝑖𝑝𝑙𝑒𝑠 𝑜𝑓 9 𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑟𝑡𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑓𝑟𝑜𝑚 0 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑖𝑛𝑐𝑟𝑒𝑎𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑔}
Method I: Binomial Theorem

(1 + 3)𝑛 − 3𝑛 − 1
𝑛 1 𝑛
= [1 + ( ) 3 + ( ) 32 + ⋯ ] − 3𝑛 − 1
1 2
𝑛 2
= [1 + 3𝑛 + ( ) 3 + ⋯ ] − 3𝑛 − 1
2
𝑛 𝑛
= ( ) 32 + ( ) 33 + ⋯
2 3
𝑛 𝑛
= 9 [( ) + ( ) 3 + ⋯ ]
2 3
= 9𝐾, 𝐾 ∈ ℕ
Method II: Mod Arithmetic
4𝑛 − 3𝑛 − 1 ≡ 0 (𝑚𝑜𝑑 9)
4𝑛 ≡ 3𝑛 + 1 (𝑚𝑜𝑑 9)
Consider 𝑛 = 3𝑘 + 𝑚, 𝑘 ∈ ℕ
Case I: 𝑚 = 0
𝐿𝐻𝑆 ≡ 4𝑛 ≡ 43𝑘 ≡ 64𝑘 ≡ 1𝑘 ≡ 1
𝑅𝐻𝑆 ≡ 3(3) + 1 ≡ 1
Case II: 𝑚 = 1
𝐿𝐻𝑆 ≡ 4𝑛 ≡ 43𝑘+1 ≡ 43𝑘 ∙ 4 ≡ 64𝑘 ∙ 4 ≡ 1𝑘 ∙ 4 ≡ 4
𝑅𝐻𝑆 ≡ 3(1) + 1 ≡ 4
Case III: 𝑚 = 2
𝐿𝐻𝑆 ≡ 4𝑛 ≡ 43𝑘+2 ≡ 43𝑘 ∙ 16 ≡ 64𝑘 ∙ 7 ≡ 1𝑘 ∙ 7 ≡ 7
𝑅𝐻𝑆 ≡ 3(2) + 1 ≡ 7
1.7 NT: Other Topics

A. Number of Factors
P a g e 37 | 67
Example 1.93
Recall that the number of factors of 𝑥 with prime factorization 𝑝𝑎 𝑞𝑏 … is given, using the multiplication
principle of counting, by:
(𝑎 + 1)(𝑏 + 1) …
5 4 3 2
Let 𝑁 = 69 + 5 × 69 + 10 × 69 + 10 × 69 + 5 × 69 + 1. How many positive integers are factors of 𝑁?
(AHSME 1986/23)
Strategy
Collapse
(𝑎 + 𝑏)2 = (𝑎 + 𝑏)(𝑎 + 𝑏) = 𝑎2 + 2𝑎𝑏 + 𝑏 2
(𝑎 + 𝑏)5 = 𝑎5 + 5𝑎4 𝑏 + 10𝑎3 𝑏 2 + 10𝑎2 𝑏3 + 5𝑎𝑏 4 + 𝑏 5
The expression in the question meets the pattern above:

695 + 5 × 694 + 10 × 693 + 10 × 692 + 5 × 69 + 1 = (69 + 1)5 = 705
⏟
𝑎=69,𝑏=1
Prime Factorize
We can write the prime factorization of 70 as follows:
705 = (2 × 5 × 7)5
And then, using the property (𝑎𝑏)𝑚 = 𝑎𝑚 𝑏 𝑚 , we can write:

25 × 5 5 × 75
Number of Factors
And, then using the formula for the number of factors of a number:
(5 + 1)(5 + 1)(5 + 1) = 63 = 216 𝐹𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑜𝑟𝑠
B. Diophantine Equations
Example 1.94
1 22
The natural number 𝑚, for which the coefficient of 𝑥 in the binomial expansion of (𝑥 𝑚 + 𝑥 2 ) is 1540 is: (JEE
Main, Sep 05, 2020-I)
The general term is

22 22
( ) (𝑥 𝑚 )22−𝑟 (𝑥 −2 )𝑟 = ( ) 𝑥 22𝑚−𝑚𝑟−2𝑟
𝑟 𝑟
𝑥 22𝑚−𝑚𝑟−2𝑟 = 𝑥 1
22𝑚 − 𝑚𝑟 − 2𝑟 = 1
1 + 2𝑟
𝑚=
22 − 𝑟
22 22 22 22
( ) = 22, ( ) = 231, ( ) = ( ) = 1540 ⇒ 𝑟 = 3 𝑜𝑟 𝑟 = 19
1 2 3 19
Try 𝑟 = 3:
1 + 2(3) 1 + 2(3) 7
𝑚= = = ⇒ 𝑁𝑜𝑡 𝑉𝑎𝑙𝑖𝑑
22 − 3 22 − 3 19
Try 𝑟 = 19:
1 + 2(19) 39
𝑚= = = 𝟏𝟑
22 − 19 3
P a g e 38 | 67
Example 1.95
A. Determine all ordered pairs of natural numbers (𝑚, 𝑟) such that 22𝑚 − 𝑚𝑟 − 2𝑟 = 1.
B. Explain how part A would be useful in the context of the previous example.
Part A
Solve the given equation for 𝑟:
22𝑚 − 1
𝑟=
𝑚+2
Rewrite and divide:
22𝑚 + 44 − 44 − 1 45
𝑟= = 22 −
𝑚+2 𝑚+2
Hence 𝑚 + 2 must be a factor of 45
𝑚 + 2 ∈ {1,3,5,9,15,45}
𝑚 ∈ {−1,1,3,7,13,43}
Reject 𝑚 = −1 since 𝑚 is a natural number:
𝑚 ∈ {1,3,7,13,43}
Part B
If the condition for 𝑟 had been more complicated, then we could have determined the solution set for 𝑚 first,
and then worked with the condition for 𝑟.
Example 1.96
𝑛
6
𝑋 = (√𝑥 − 3) , 𝑛 ≤ 15
𝑥2
Let 𝛼 be the constant term in the binomial expansion of 𝑋. If the sum of the coefficients of the remaining terms
is 649, and the coefficient of 𝑥 −𝑛 is 𝜆𝛼 then 𝜆 = (JEE Main, April 13, 2023-I)
Comparing with (𝑎𝑥 + 𝑏𝑦)𝑛 :

1 3 𝑛 1 3
𝑋 = (𝑥 2 + (−6)𝑥 −2 ) ⇒ 𝑝 = 𝑥 2 , 𝑞 = 𝑥 −2
Substitute in 𝑝𝑞:
1 𝑛−𝑟 3 𝑟 𝑛−𝑟 3 𝑛−𝑟 3
𝑝𝑞 = (𝑥 2 ) (𝑥 −2 ) = 𝑥 2 ∙ 𝑥 −2𝑟 = 𝑥 − 𝑟
2 2
Since the power of the above expression must be zero in the constant term:
𝑛−𝑟 3
− 𝑟=0⇒ ⏟ 𝑛 = 4𝑟
2 2 𝑬𝒒𝒖𝒂𝒕𝒊𝒐𝒏 𝑰
𝑛
6
𝑆𝑢𝑚 𝑜𝑓 𝑐𝑜𝑒𝑓𝑓𝑖𝑐𝑖𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑠 = (√1 − 3) = (1 − 6)𝑛 = (−5)𝑛
12
𝑛 𝑛
𝛼 = 𝐶𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡 𝑇𝑒𝑟𝑚 = ( ) (−6)4
0.25𝑛
𝑛 𝑛
(−5)𝑛
⏟ +( ) (−6)4 = 649
0.25𝑛
𝑛 and 𝑟 are positive integers. Since 𝑛 ≤ 15, there the only possible cases are:
(𝑟, 𝑛) ∈ {(1,4), (2,8), (3,12)}
Case I: Try 𝑟 = 1, 𝑛 = 4:
P a g e 39 | 67
𝑛 𝑛 4
(−5)𝑛 + ( 4
) (−6)4 = (−5)4 − ( ) (−6)4 = 625625 − (−24) = 649 ⇒ 𝑉𝑎𝑙𝑖𝑑
0.25𝑛 1
To find the term number, where 𝑥 −𝑛 = 𝑥 −4

4−𝑟 3
− 𝑟 = −4 ⇒ 4 − 4𝑟 = −8 ⇒ 𝑟 = 3
2 2
Substitute 𝑛 = 4, 𝑟 = 3 to get:
𝑛 𝑛−𝑟 𝑟 4
𝜆𝛼 ( 𝑟 ) 𝑥 𝑦 ( ) (11 )(−6)3 −24 ∙ 36
𝜆= = = 1 = = 36
𝛼 𝛼 −24 −24
1.8 Product of Expansions

A. Product of Expansions
Example 1.97: Binomial × Binomial

Consider (1 + 𝑥)5 (1 − 𝑥)4 , which consists of a binomial multiplied by a binomial. Find the:
A. first three terms
B. number of terms in the expanded expression.
Part A
The given expression consists of two binomials. We can expand each individually:
(1 + 𝑥)5 = 1 + 5𝑥 + 10𝑥 2 + 10𝑥 3 + 5𝑥 4 + 𝑥 5
(1 − 𝑥)4 = 1 − 4𝑥 + 6𝑥 2 − 4𝑥 3 + 𝑥 4
𝐹𝑖𝑟𝑠𝑡 𝑇𝑒𝑟𝑚 = 1 × 1 = 1
𝑆𝑒𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑑 𝑇𝑒𝑟𝑚 = (1)(−4𝑥) + (1)(5𝑥) = −4𝑥 + 5𝑥 = 𝑥
𝑇ℎ𝑖𝑟𝑑 𝑇𝑒𝑟𝑚 = (1)(10𝑥 2 ) + (−4𝑥)(5𝑥) + (1)(6𝑥 2 ) = 10𝑥 2 − 20𝑥 2 + 6𝑥 2 = −4𝑥 2
Part B
𝐿𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑠𝑡 𝑝𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟 𝑜𝑓 𝑥 = 0
𝐻𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑒𝑠𝑡 𝑝𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟 𝑜𝑓 𝑥 = 5 + 4 = 9
We will have all powers in between. Hence,
𝑁𝑜. 𝑜𝑓 𝑇𝑒𝑟𝑚𝑠 = 9 − 0 + 1 = 10
Example 1.98: Binomial × Trinomial

In the expansion of (1 + 𝑡 + 𝑡 2 )(1 − 𝑡)7 , find the:
A. First three terms
B. term with power 𝑡 6
C. number of terms
Part A
Expand:
(1 − 𝑡)7 = 1 + (7) (−𝑡) + (7) (−𝑡)2 + ⋯ = 1 − 7𝑡 + 21𝑡 2 + ⋯
1 2
Note that we only need the first three terms. Because the further terms will have powers
(−𝑡)3 , (−𝑡)4 , …
Which will never give a power that we want (such as 𝑡 or 𝑡 2 ).
P a g e 40 | 67
(1 + 𝑡 + 𝑡 2 )(1 − 7𝑡 + 21𝑡 2 + ⋯ )
Constant Term:
1×1=1
Term with t:
[1 × 𝑡] + [(−7𝑡) × 1] = 𝑡 − 7𝑡 = −6𝑡
Term with 𝑡 2 :
[(1)(21𝑡 2 )] + [(𝑡)(−7𝑡)] + [(𝑡 2 )(1)] = 21𝑡 2 − 7𝑡 2 + 𝑡 2 = 15𝑡 2
Add the above three terms to get:
1 − 6𝑡 + 15𝑡 2
Part B
Consider:
(𝟏 + 𝒕 + 𝒕𝟐 )
We can get:
𝑡 6 = 𝒕𝟔 × 𝒕𝟎 = 𝒕 𝟓 × 𝒕𝟏 = 𝒕𝟒 × 𝒕𝟐
Hence, we need the red terms above from (1 − 𝑡)7 :
7 7 7 7 7 7
( ) 𝑡 4 − ( ) 𝑡 5 + ( ) 𝑡 6 = ( ) 𝑡 4 − ( ) 𝑡 5 + ( ) 𝑡 6 = 35𝑡 4 − 21𝑡 5 + 7𝑡 6
4 5 6 4 5 6
(1 + 𝑡 + 𝑡 2 )(… + 35𝑡 4 − 21𝑡 5 + 7𝑡 6 + ⋯ ) = (1)(7𝑡 6 ) + (𝑡)(−21𝑡 5 ) + (𝑡 2 )(35𝑡 4 ) = 21𝑡 6

Part C
(1 + 𝑡 + 𝑡 2 )(1 − 𝑡)7 = (1 + 𝑡 + 𝑡 2 )(1 − 7𝑡 + ⋯ − 𝑡 7 )
When we multiply the above, we will get terms:
𝑡 0 , 𝑡1 , … , 𝑡 9 ⇒ 10 𝑇𝑒𝑟𝑚𝑠
Example 1.99
Coefficient of 𝑡 24 in (1 + 𝑡 2 )12 (1 + 𝑡12 )(1 + 𝑡 24 ) is (JEE Adv. 2003S)
Multiply the last two terms together:

(1 + 𝑡 2 )12 (𝟏 + 𝒕𝟏𝟐 + 𝒕𝟐𝟒 + 𝑡 36 )
Identify the terms that will multiply to give 𝑡 24 :
𝟏𝟐
𝟏 × 𝒕𝟐𝟒 + 𝒕𝟏𝟐 × ( ) 𝒕𝟏𝟐 + 𝒕𝟐𝟒 × 𝟏
𝟔
Factor out 𝑡 24 :
12 12
= [1 + ( ) + 1] 𝑡 24 = [( ) + 2] 𝑡 24 = 926𝑡 24
6 6
𝐶𝑜𝑒𝑓𝑓𝑖𝑐𝑖𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑖𝑠 924
Example 1.100: Back Calculations

If in the expansion of (1 + 𝑥)𝑚 (1 − 𝑥)𝑛 , the coefficients of 𝑥 and 𝑥 2 are 3 and −6 respectively, then 𝑚 is _____
(JEE Adv. 1999)
𝑚 𝑚
(1 + 𝑥)𝑚 = 1 + ( ) 𝑥 + ( ) 𝑥 2 + ⋯
1 2
𝑛 𝑛 𝑛 2
(1 − 𝑥) = 1 − ( ) 𝑥 + ( ) 𝑥 + ⋯
1 2
The 𝑥 term must be:
𝑚 𝑛 𝑚 𝑛
1 × ( ) 𝑥 + 1 × (− ( ) 𝑥) = [( ) − ( )] 𝑥 = (𝑚 − 𝑛)𝑥 ⇒ ⏟
𝑚−𝑛 =3
1 1 1 1
The 𝑥 2 term must be:
P a g e 41 | 67
𝑚 𝑚 𝑛 𝑛 𝑚(𝑚 − 1) − 2𝑚𝑛 + 𝑛(𝑛 − 1) 2

1 × ( ) 𝑥 2 + [( ) 𝑥] [− ( ) 𝑥] + 1 × ( ) 𝑥 2 = ( )𝑥
2 1 1 2 2
𝑚2 − 2𝑚𝑛 + 𝑛2 − 𝑚 − 𝑛 = (−6)(2) ⇒ (𝑚 − 𝑛)2 − (𝑚 + 𝑛) = −12 ⇒ ⏟

𝑚 + 𝑛 = 21
Add Equations I and II:
2𝑚 = 24 ⇒ 𝑚 = 12
Example 1.101: Diophantine Equations

Coefficient of 𝑥 11 in the expansion of (1 + 𝑥 2 )4 (1 + 𝑥 3 )7 (1 + 𝑥 4 )12 is (JEE Advanced 2014)
General Term
Find the general term of each term in the above
4
(1 + 𝑥 2 )4 ℎ𝑎𝑠 (𝑎 + 1)𝑠𝑡 𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑚 = ( ) 𝑥 2𝑎
𝑎
7
(1 + 𝑥 3 )7 ℎ𝑎𝑠 (𝑏 + 1)𝑠𝑡 𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑚 = ( ) 𝑥 3𝑏
𝑏
4 12 𝑠𝑡 12
(1 + 𝑥 ) ℎ𝑎𝑠 (𝑐 + 1) 𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑚 = ( ) 𝑥 4𝑐
𝑐
Required Terms
To have a power of 11, we must have:
2𝑎 + 3𝑏 + 4𝑐 = 11, 𝑎, 𝑏, 𝑐 ∈ 𝑁
We do this using casework:
𝑐 = 0 ⇒ 2𝑎 + 3𝑏 = 11 ⇒ (2𝑎, 3𝑏, 4𝑐) = {(8,3,0), (2,9,0)} ⇒ (𝑎, 𝑏, 𝑐) = (4,1,0)(1,3,0)
𝑐 = 1 ⇒ 2𝑎 + 3𝑏 = 7 ⇒ (2𝑎, 3𝑏, 4𝑐) = {(4,3,4)} ⇒ (𝑎, 𝑏, 𝑐) = (2,1,1)
𝑐 = 2 ⇒ 2𝑎 + 3𝑏 = 3 ⇒ (2𝑎, 3𝑏, 4𝑐) = {(0,3,8)} ⇒ (𝑎, 𝑏, 𝑐) = (0,1,2)
Coefficient
4 7 12 4 7 12 4 7 12 4 7 12
( ) ( ) ( ) + ( ) ( ) ( ) + ( ) ( ) ( ) + ( ) ( ) ( ) = 7 + 140 + 504 + 462 = 1113
4 1 0 1 3 0 2 1 1 0 1 2
B. Constant Term
The constant term in a binomial expansion is also called the term independent of the variable.
Example 1.102: Basics

2
3 6
(2𝑥 − )
𝑥
𝑛
( ) 𝑥 𝑛−𝑟 𝑦 𝑟
𝑟
1 𝑟
(𝑥 2 )6−𝑟 ( ) = 𝑥0
𝑥
Use the property: (𝑎𝑚 )𝑛 = 𝑎𝑚𝑛
𝑥 12−2𝑟 𝑥 −𝑟 = 𝑥 0
𝑥 12−2𝑟−𝑟 = 𝑥 0
𝑥 12−3𝑟 = 𝑥 0
12 − 3𝑟 = 0
𝑟=4
P a g e 42 | 67
6 3 4 81
( ) (𝑥 2 )6−4 ( ) = 15𝑥 4 ( 4 ) = 1,215
4 𝑥 𝑥
Example 1.103: Reducible to Binomial

1 6 1 6
(2𝑦 − ) ( + 𝑦)
𝑦 2𝑦
Find the
A. term independent of 𝑦 in the above expression.
B. number of terms in the expanded expression.
Part A
We can multiply the two expressions to get a binomial expression:
6 6
1 1 1 1 6
[(2𝑦 − ) ( + 𝑦)] = [1 + 2𝑦 2 − 2 − 1] = [2𝑦 2 − 2 ]
𝑦 2𝑦 2𝑦 2𝑦
We now want the term independent of 𝑦, which will meet the condition that
1 𝑟
(𝑦 2 )6−𝑟 ( 2 ) = 𝑦 0 ⇒ (𝑦12−2𝑟 )(𝑦 −2𝑟 ) = 𝑦 0 ⇒ 𝑦12−4𝑟 = 𝑦 0 ⇒ 12 − 4𝑟 = 0 ⇒ 𝑟 = 3
𝑦
Find the term with 𝑟 = 3, which is the fourth term:
6 1 3 𝟔 × 5 × 4 −𝟐𝟑 𝒚𝟑
( ) (2𝑦)3 (− ) = ( ) ( 𝟑 𝟑 ) = 5 × 4 × (−1) = −20
3 2𝑦 𝟔 𝟐 𝒚
Part B
Every term in the above expression has a unique power of 𝑦. Hence, the number of terms in the above
expression is:
6+1=7
Example 1.104: Binomial × Binomial

1 6
Find the term independent of 𝑥 in (2 − 𝑥)3 (3𝑥 − 𝑥) . Also, find the number of terms.
Expand each part of the expression

The first part gives us:
(2 − 𝑥)3 = 𝟖 − 12𝑥 + 𝟔𝒙𝟐 + 𝑥 3
The second part gives us:
6 1 6 1
( ) (− ) 𝑥 0 ⇒ 𝑥 𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑚 𝑖𝑠 6
0 3𝑥 𝑥
5
6 1 1
( ) (− ) 𝑥 1 ⇒ 𝑥 𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑚 𝑖𝑠 4
1 3𝑥 𝑥
𝟒
𝟔 𝟏 𝟏
( ) (− ) 𝒙𝟐 ⇒ 𝒙 𝒕𝒆𝒓𝒎 𝒊𝒔 𝟐
𝟐 𝟑𝒙 𝒙
𝟑
𝟔 𝟏 𝟏
( ) (− ) 𝒙𝟑 ⇒ 𝒙 𝒕𝒆𝒓𝒎 𝒊𝒔 𝟎 = 𝟏
𝟑 𝟑𝒙 𝒙
6 1 2 4
( ) (− ) 𝑥 ⇒ 𝑥 𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑚 𝑖𝑠 𝑥 2
4 3𝑥
6 1 1
( ) (− ) 𝑥 5 ⇒ 𝑥 𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑚 𝑖𝑠 𝑥 4
5 3𝑥
6 1 0
( ) (− ) 𝑥 6 ⇒ 𝑥 𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑚 𝑖𝑠 𝑥 6
6 3𝑥
P a g e 43 | 67
Determine the terms to multiply

We can get 𝑥 0 in two ways
6 1 3 𝟔×5×4 1 −160
⏟
8 × ( ) (− ) 𝑥 3 = 8 ( ) (− ) =
𝑪𝒐𝒏𝒔𝒕𝒂𝒏𝒕
⏟3 3𝑥 𝟔 27 27
𝑻𝒆𝒓𝒎 𝑪𝒐𝒏𝒔𝒕𝒂𝒏𝒕 𝑻𝒆𝒓𝒎
4
6 1 𝟔×5 1 30
⏟2 × ( ) (− ) 𝑥 2 = 6𝒙𝟐 (
6𝑥 )( 𝟐
)=
𝟐
⏟2 3𝑥 𝟐 81𝒙 27
𝒙
𝑻𝒆𝒓𝒎 𝟏
𝑻𝒆𝒓𝒎
𝒙𝟐
Add the two to get:
−160 30 130
+ =−
27 27 27
1.9 Sum and Difference

A. Sum
Till now, we have been looking at using the Binomial Theorem to expand binomials. Now, we look at
applications where we have the sum or the difference of the expansion of two expressions, which are conjugates
of each other.
Example 1.105
𝑎 = (𝑥 + 𝑦)𝑛 , 𝑏 = (𝑥 − 𝑦)𝑛
𝐹𝑖𝑛𝑑 ⏟
𝑎 +𝑏, 𝑎 − 𝑏 for 𝑛 = 1,2,3, and conjecture what is the general pattern that applies
⏟
𝑺𝒖𝒎 𝑫𝒊𝒇𝒇𝒆𝒓𝒆𝒏𝒄𝒆
𝒏=𝟏
𝑎 + 𝑏 = (𝑥 + 𝒚) + (𝑥 − 𝒚) = 2𝑥
⏟
1𝑠𝑡×2
𝑎 − 𝑏 = (𝒙 + 𝑦) − (𝒙 − 𝑦) = 2𝑦
⏟
2𝑛𝑑×2
𝒏=𝟐
𝑎 + 𝑏 = (𝑥 + 𝑦)2 + (𝑥 − 𝑦)2 = (𝑥 2 + 𝟐𝒙𝒚 + 𝑦 2 ) + (𝑥 2 − 𝟐𝒙𝒚 + 𝑦 2 ) = 2𝑥
⏟2 + 2𝑦
⏟2
1𝑠𝑡×2 3𝑟𝑑×2
2 2 𝟐 𝟐 𝟐 𝟐
𝑎 − 𝑏 = (𝑥 + 𝑦) − (𝑥 − 𝑦) = (𝒙 + 2𝑥𝑦 + 𝒚 ) − (𝒙 − 2𝑥𝑦 + 𝒚 ) = 4𝑥𝑦
⏟
2𝑛𝑑×2
𝒏=𝟑
(𝑥 + 𝑦)3 + (𝑥 − 𝑦)3 = (𝑥 3 + 3𝑥 2 𝑦 + 3𝑥𝑦 2 + 𝑦 3 ) + (𝑥 3 − 3𝑥 2 𝑦 + 3𝑥𝑦 2 − 𝑦 3 )
= 2𝑥 3 + 6𝑥 2 𝑦
We don’t know if the pattern applies further, but we can conjecture that:
➢ Sum: We get double of the odd terms
➢ Difference: We get double of the even terms
1.106: Sum of Binomial Conjugate Expansions

The sum of binomial conjugate expansion is twice each of the odd numbered terms.
𝑛 𝒏 𝑛 𝒏
(𝑥 + 𝑦)𝑛 = ( ) 𝑥 𝑛 𝑦 0 + ( ) 𝒙𝒏−𝟏 𝒚𝟏 + ( ) 𝑥 𝑛−2 𝑦 2 + ( ) 𝒙𝒏−𝟑 𝒚𝟑 + ⋯
0 𝟏 2 𝟑
𝒏 𝒏 𝟎 𝒏 𝒏−𝟏 𝟏 𝒏 𝒏−𝟐 𝟐 𝒏
(𝒙 − 𝒚) = ( ) 𝒙 𝒚 − ( ) 𝒙 𝒚 + ( ) 𝒙 𝒚 − ( ) 𝒙𝒏−𝟑 𝒚𝟑 + ⋯
𝒏
𝟎 𝟏 𝟐 𝟑
P a g e 44 | 67
Add the two equations above and note that the violet terms (even terms) all cancel:
𝑛 𝑛 𝑛 𝑛
(𝑥 + 𝑦)𝑛 + (𝑥 − 𝑦)𝑛 = 2 [(⏟ ) 𝑥 𝑛 𝑦 0 + (⏟ ) 𝑥 𝑛−2 𝑦 2 + (⏟ ) 𝑥 𝑛−4 𝑦 4 + (⏟ ) 𝑥 𝑛−6 𝑦 6 + ⋯ ]
0 2 4 6
1𝑠𝑡 𝑇𝑒𝑟𝑚 3𝑟𝑑 𝑇𝑒𝑟𝑚 5𝑡ℎ 𝑇𝑒𝑟𝑚 7𝑡ℎ 𝑇𝑒𝑟𝑚
𝑛
𝑛
(𝑥 + 𝑦)𝑛 + (𝑥 − 𝑦)𝑛 = 2 ∑ ( ) 𝑥 𝑛−𝑟 𝑦 𝑟
𝑟
𝑟∈𝐸𝑣𝑒𝑛
Example 1.107
6 6
If 𝛼 and 𝛽 be the coefficients of 𝑥 4 and 𝑥 2 respectively in the expansion of (𝑥 + √𝑥 2 − 1) + (𝑥 − √𝑥 2 − 1) ,
then 𝛼 − 𝛽: (JEE Main 2018; JEE Main 2019; JEE Main, Jan 8, 2020-II)
We want odd numbered terms:

2(𝑇1 + 𝑇3 + 𝑇5 + 𝑇7 )
6 6 2 6 4 6 6
= 2 [( ) 𝑥 6 + ( ) 𝑥 4 (√𝑥 2 − 1) + ( ) 𝑥 2 (√𝑥 2 − 1) + ( ) (√𝑥 2 − 1) ]
0 2 4 6
= 2[𝑥 6 + 15𝑥 4 (𝑥 2 − 1) + 15𝑥 2 (𝑥 2 − 1)2 + (𝑥 2 − 1)3 ]
= 2[𝒙𝟔 + 15(𝒙𝟔 − 𝑥 4 ) + 15𝑥 2 (𝒙𝟒 − 2𝑥 2 + 1) + (𝒙𝟔 − 3𝑥 4 + 3𝑥 2 − 𝟏)]

= 2[15(−𝑥 4 ) + 15𝑥 2 (−2𝑥 2 + 1) + (−3𝑥 4 + 3𝑥 2 )]
= 2[−15𝑥 4 − 30𝑥 4 + 15𝑥 2 + −3𝑥 4 + 3𝑥 2 ]
= 2[−48𝑥 4 + 18𝑥 2 ]
= −96𝑥 4 + 36𝑥 2
𝛼 − 𝛽 = −96 − 36 = −132
B. Difference
1.108: Difference of Binomial Conjugate Expansions

The difference of binomial conjugate expansions is twice each of the even numbered terms.
𝒏 𝑛 𝒏 𝑛
(𝑥 + 𝑦)𝑛 = ( ) 𝒙𝒏 𝒚𝟎 + ( ) 𝑥 𝑛−1 𝑦1 + ( ) 𝒙𝒏−𝟐 𝒚𝟐 + ( ) 𝑥 𝑛−3 𝑦 3 + ⋯
𝟎 1 𝟐 3
𝑛 𝒏 𝒏 𝟎 𝑛 𝑛−1 1 𝒏 𝒏−𝟐 𝟐 𝑛 𝑛−3 3
(𝑥 − 𝑦) = ( ) 𝒙 𝒚 − ( ) 𝑥 𝑦 + ( )𝒙 𝒚 − ( )𝑥 𝑦 +⋯
𝟎 1 𝟐 3
Subtract the second equation from the first, and note the violet terms (odd numbered terms) vanish:
𝑛 𝑛 𝑛 𝑛
(𝑥 + 𝑦)𝑛 − (𝑥 − 𝑦)𝑛 = 2 [(⏟ ) 𝑥 𝑛−1 𝑦1 + (⏟ ) 𝑥 𝑛−3 𝑦 3 + (⏟ ) 𝑥 𝑛−5 𝑦 5 + (⏟ ) 𝑥 𝑛−7 𝑦 7 + ⋯ ]
1 3 5 7
2𝑛𝑑 𝑇𝑒𝑟𝑚 4𝑡ℎ 𝑇𝑒𝑟𝑚 6𝑡ℎ 𝑇𝑒𝑟𝑚 8𝑡ℎ 𝑇𝑒𝑟𝑚
𝑛
𝑛
(𝑥 + 𝑎) − (𝑥 − 𝑎) = 2 ∑ ( ) 𝑥 𝑛−𝑟 𝑦 𝑟
𝑛 𝑛
𝑟
𝑟∈𝑂𝑑𝑑
Example 1.109
(𝑎 + 𝑏)2 + (𝑎 − 𝑏)2
(𝑎 + 𝑏)2 + (𝑎 − 𝑏)2 = 𝑎2 + 2𝑎𝑏 + 𝑏 2 + 𝑎2 − 2𝑎𝑏 + 𝑏 2 = 2(𝑎2 + 𝑏 2 )
P a g e 45 | 67
(𝑎 + 𝑏)2 − (𝑎 − 𝑏)2 = 𝑎2 + 2𝑎𝑏 + 𝑏 2 − [𝑎2 − 2𝑎𝑏 + 𝑏 2 ] = 4𝑎𝑏
Example 1.110
4
Find the integer closest to (2 + √5) using the Binomial Theorem. Also, find the error in your approximation
using a calculator.
We could do a brute force expansion, but that is not very useful.

4
(2 + √5) = 16 + (4)(8)(√5)
⏟ + (6)(4)(5) + (4)(2)(5√5)
⏟ + 25
𝟐𝒏𝒅 𝑻𝒆𝒓𝒎 𝟒𝒕𝒉 𝑻𝒆𝒓𝒎
We want to be rid of the radical terms, which are all the even terms.
4
4
1 4 1
(2 − √5) ≈ (2 − 2.23) ≈ (− ) = ⇒ 𝑉𝑒𝑟𝑦 𝑆𝑚𝑎𝑙𝑙 𝑁𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟
4 256
Hence, we are going to find:
4 4 4 0 4 2 4 4
(2 + √5) + (2 − √5) = 2 [ ( ) (24 )(√5) + ( ) (22 )(√5) + ( ) (20 )(√5) ]
⏟0 ⏟2 ⏟4
𝟏𝒔𝒕 𝑻𝒆𝒓𝒎 𝟑𝒓𝒅 𝑻𝒆𝒓𝒎 𝟓𝒕𝒉 𝑻𝒆𝒓𝒎
Simplify:
2[16 + (6)(4)(5) + 25] = 2[161] = 322
4
𝐸𝑟𝑟𝑜𝑟 = 322 − (2 + √5) ≈ 0.0031
Example 1.111
The larger of 9950 + 10050 and 10150 is: (JEE Adv. 1982)
Let
𝑎 = 10150 = (100 + 1)50
𝑏 = 99 + 10050 = (100 − 1)50 + 10050
50
From the above, we know that we can use the formula for difference of binomial conjugates:
𝑎−𝑏
= (100 + 1) − (100 − 1)50 − 10050
50
50 50
= 2 [( ) 10049 + ( ) 10047 + ⋯ ] − 10050
1 3
50
= [2 × 50 × 100 + 2 × ( ) 10047 + ⋯ ] − 10050
49
3
50
= [𝟏𝟎𝟎 + 2 × ( ) 10047 + ⋯ ] − 𝟏𝟎𝟎𝟓𝟎
𝟓𝟎
3
50
= [2 × ( ) 10047 + ⋯ ]
3
= 𝑠𝑜𝑚𝑒 + 𝑣𝑒 𝑞𝑢𝑎𝑛𝑡𝑖𝑡𝑦
Since
𝑎−𝑏 >0⇒𝑎 >𝑏
Example 1.112
2𝑛 2𝑛
If 𝑛 is a positive integer, then (√3 + 1) − (√3 − 1) is: (JEE Main 2012)
a) An irrational number
b) an odd positive integer
c) an even positive integer
d) a rational number other than positive integers
P a g e 46 | 67
2𝑛 𝑛 2𝑛 2𝑛−1 𝑛 2𝑛−1
(√3 + 1) − (√3 − 1)
= 2 [( ) (√3) + ⋯ ] = 2 [( ) 3 2 + ⋯ ]
1 1
2𝑛−1 1
Since 2 = 𝑛 − 2 is not an integer, the final answer will be irrational.
Option A.
Example 1.1133
The number of elements in the set (JEE Main, July 22, 2021-II)
{𝑛 ∈ {1,2,3, … ,100}, 11𝑛 > 10𝑛 + 9𝑛 }
11𝑛 − 9𝑛 > 10𝑛

(10 + 1)𝑛 − (10 − 1)𝑛 > 10𝑛
Use the formula for the difference of two binomial conjugates:

2𝑇2 + 2𝑇4 + ⋯ > 10𝑛
Since 𝑇4 , 𝑇6 , 𝑇8 , … > 0
2𝑇2 ≥ 10𝑛 ⇒ 2𝑛10𝑛−1 ≥ 10𝑛 ⇒ 𝑛 ≥ 5
𝑛 𝑛
Check for values of 𝑛 < 5 using 2[𝑇2 + 𝑇4 + ⋯ ] = 2 [( ) 10𝑛−1 + ( ) 10𝑛−3 + ⋯ ]:
1 3
1 1−1
𝑛 = 1: 𝑇2 = 2 [( ) 10 ] = 2 < 10
1
2
𝑛 = 2: 𝑇2 = 2 [( ) 102−1 ] = 40 < 100
1
3 3
𝑛 = 3: 𝑇2 + 𝑇4 = 2 [( ) 103−1 + ( ) 103−3 ] = 602 < 1000
1 3
4 4−1 4 4−3
𝑛 = 4: 𝑇2 + 𝑇4 = 2 [( ) 10 + ( ) 10 ] = 2[4000 + 40] = 8080 < 10,000
1 3
{5,6,7, … ,100} ⇒ 100 − 5 + 1 = 96 𝑉𝑎𝑙𝑢𝑒𝑠
Example 1.114: Number of Terms
C. Informal
Example 1.115
6
Find the integer part of (√3 + 1) .
6 6
Add 𝑦 = (√3 − 1) to both sides of 𝑥 = (√3 + 1)
6 6
𝑥
⏟+ 𝑦 = (√3 + 1) + (√3 − 1)
Using the sum of binomial conjugates, the RHS is:

6 6 6 6 4 6 2
(√3 + 1) + (√3 − 1) = 2 [(√3) + ( ) (√3) + ( ) (√3) + 1] = 2[27 + 15(9) + 15(3) + 1] = 416
⏟ 2 4
𝑹𝒆𝒔𝒖𝒍𝒕 𝟏
𝑥 + 𝑦 = 416 ⇒ 𝑥 = 416 − 𝑦
3
This is solved using Inequality concepts in the Note on that topic.
P a g e 47 | 67
Apply the integer function both sides:

⌊𝑥⌋ = [416 − 𝑦]
6
Since 𝑦 = (√3 − 1) ≈ (1.73 − 1)6 = (0.73)6 → 𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑦 𝑠𝑚𝑎𝑙𝑙 𝑝𝑜𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑖𝑣𝑒 𝑛𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟.
⌊𝑥⌋ = 415
D. A More Formal Version

We can use the sum of two binomial conjugates to find the integer part of a binomial expansion. 4
1.116: Integer and Fractional Part

Any number can be written as the sum of its integer and fractional part
𝑥 = ⌊𝑥⌋ + {𝑥}
Where
⌊𝑥⌋ = 𝐼𝑛𝑡𝑒𝑔𝑒𝑟 𝑃𝑎𝑟𝑡 𝑂𝑅 𝐺𝑟𝑒𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑠𝑡 𝐼𝑛𝑡𝑒𝑔𝑒𝑟 𝐹𝑢𝑛𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛
{𝑥} = 𝐹𝑟𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛𝑎𝑙 𝑃𝑎𝑟𝑡
0 < {𝑥} < 1
4.75 = ⏟
4 + 0.75
⏟
𝐼𝑛𝑡𝑒𝑔𝑒𝑟 𝐹𝑟𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛𝑎𝑙
1.117: A useful result

Given
0 < 𝑦 < 1, {𝑥} + 𝑦 ∈ ℤ
We can conclude:
{𝑥} + 𝑦 = 1
0<𝑦<1
⏟
𝑰𝒏𝒆𝒒𝒖𝒂𝒍𝒊𝒕𝒚 𝑰
The fractional part of a number is always between 0 and 1:
0 < {𝑥} < 1
⏟
𝑰𝒏𝒆𝒒𝒖𝒂𝒍𝒊𝒕𝒚 𝑰𝑰
Add the two inequalities:
0 < {𝑥} + 𝑦 < 2
If {𝑥} + 𝑦 is an integer, then the only possible value it can take is:
{𝑥} + 𝑦 = 1
Example 1.118
6
A. Find the integer part of (√3 + 1) .
B. Verify your answer using a calculator.
Using the sum of binomial conjugates, we get the odd numbered terms:
6 6 6 6 4 6 2
(√3 + 1) + (√3 − 1) = 2 [(√3) + ( ) (√3) + ( ) (√3) + 1] = 2[27 + 15(9) + 15(3) + 1] = 416
⏟ 2 4
𝑹𝒆𝒔𝒖𝒍𝒕 𝟏
Note that we have only even powers, which is very nice since we no longer have any radicals.
4
Under certain conditions, of course. We will see the conditions after we see the technique.
P a g e 48 | 67
Let:
6
𝑥 = ⌊𝑥⌋ + {𝑥} = (√3 + 1)
6
Add 𝑦 = (√3 − 1) to both sides,
6 6
⌊𝑥⌋
⏟ + {𝑥} + 𝑦 = (√3 + 1) + (√3 − 1)
Substitute Result 1:
⌊𝑥⌋
⏟ + {𝑥} + 𝑦 = 416
⏟
𝑰𝒏𝒕𝒆𝒈𝒆𝒓 𝑰𝒏𝒕𝒆𝒈𝒆𝒓
Since the RHS is an integer, the LHS must also be an integer. On the LHS, ⌊𝑥⌋ is an integer. Hence,
{𝑥} + 𝑦 ∈ ℤ
Since
6
𝑦 = (√3 − 1) ≈ (1.73 − 1)6 = (0.73)6 ⇒ 0 < 𝑦 < 1
Substitute the result 0 < {𝑥} < 1, 0 < 𝑦 < 1, {𝑥} + 𝑦 ∈ ℤ ⇒ {𝑥} + 𝑦 = 1 in the above:
⌊𝑥⌋ + 1 = 416
⌊𝑥⌋ = 415
We can verify our work using a calculator:
Example 1.119
√𝑎 + 1
Consider the method from the previous example, which was used to find the integer part of the expression with
𝑎 = 3.
A. Explain why the method will work with 𝑎 = 2
B. Explain why the method will work with 𝑎 = 5
C. Generalize your answer to Parts A and B
Part A
It will work with 𝑎 = 2
P a g e 49 | 67
Part B
√5 − 1 ≈ 2.23 − 1 = 1.23 > 1
Hence, this method will not work to find the integer part of:
√5 + 1
𝑛
𝑦 = (√5 − 1) ≈ (2.23 − 1)𝑛 = (1.23)𝑛 = 𝑠𝑜𝑚𝑒 𝑙𝑎𝑟𝑔𝑒 𝑛𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟
1.120: A useful result

Given
0 < 𝑦 < 1, {𝑥} + 𝑦 ∈ ℤ
We can conclude:
{𝑥} − 𝑦 = 0
0
⏟< 𝑦 < 1
𝑰𝒏𝒆𝒒𝒖𝒂𝒍𝒊𝒕𝒚 𝑰
The fractional part of a number is always between 0 and 1:
0 < {𝑥} < 1
⏟
𝑰𝒏𝒆𝒒𝒖𝒂𝒍𝒊𝒕𝒚 𝑰𝑰
𝑀𝑎𝑥({𝑥} − 𝑦) = 𝑀𝑎𝑥({𝑥}) − 𝑀𝑖𝑛(𝑦) = 1 − 0 = 1

𝑀𝑖𝑛({𝑥} − 𝑦) = 𝑀𝑖𝑛({𝑥}) − 𝑀𝑎𝑥(𝑦) = 0 − 1 = −1
Note that since the endpoints are not included in the inequalities, 1 and −1 cannot be achieved, but they are the
endpoints of what can be achieved.
−1 < {𝑥} − 𝑦 < 1
If {𝑥} + 𝑦 is an integer, then the only possible value it can take is:
{𝑥} − 𝑦 = 0
Example 1.121
13 13
Explain why the fractional part of (8√3 + 13) is given by (8√3 − 13) . In other words, explain why
13 13
{(8√3 + 13) } = (8√3 − 13)
Where
{𝑥} = 𝐹𝑟𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛𝑎𝑙 𝑝𝑎𝑟𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝑥
Let
13
𝑥 = ⌊𝑥⌋ + {𝑥} = (8√3 + 13)
13
Subtract 𝑦 = (8√3 − 13) from both sides:
13 13
⌊𝑥⌋ + {𝑥} − 𝑌 = (8√3 + 13) − (8√3 − 13)
The RHS is a difference of binomial conjugates. You can simplify keeping double of only the even numbered
terms:
P a g e 50 | 67
⌊𝑥⌋ + {𝑥} − 𝑌 = 2 [(13) (8√3) (13) + (13) (8√3) (13)3 + ⋯ + (13) (8√3) (13)13 ]
12 10 0
1 3 13
Note that the RHS has radicals to an even power only. Hence, the RHS is an even integer.
⌊𝑥⌋ + {𝑥} − 𝑌 ∈ ℤ
Since ⌊𝑥⌋ ∈ ℤ:
{𝑥} − 𝑌𝑦 ∈ ℤ
13
𝑌 = (8√3 − 13) ≈ (8 ∙ 1.73 − 13)13 = (0.84)13 < 1 ⇒ 0 < 𝑌 < 1
0 < {𝑥} < 1
Combine the above three to get:

{𝑥} − 𝑌 = 0 ⇒ {𝑥} = 𝑌
Example 1.122
9 9
Explain why the fractional part of (7√2 + 9) is given by(7√2 − 9) . In other words, explain why
9 9
{(7√2 + 9) } = (7√2 − 9)
Where
{𝑡} = 𝐹𝑟𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛𝑎𝑙 𝑝𝑎𝑟𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝑥
Let
9
𝑦 = ⌊𝑦⌋ + {𝑦} = (7√2 + 9)
9
Subtract 𝑌 = (7√2 − 9) from both sides:
9 9
⌊𝑦⌋ + {𝑦} − 𝑌 = (7√2 + 9) − (7√2 − 9)
The RHS is a difference of binomial conjugates. You can simplify keeping double of only the even numbered
terms:
⌊𝑦⌋ + {𝑦} − 𝑌 = 2 [(9) (7√2) (9) + ⋯ + (9) (7√2) (9)9 ]
8 0
1 9
Note that the RHS has radicals to an even power only. Hence, the RHS is an even integer.
⌊𝑦⌋ + {𝑦} − 𝑌 ∈ ℤ
Since ⌊𝑦⌋ ∈ ℤ:
{𝑦} − 𝑌 ∈ ℤ
9
𝑌 = (7√2 − 9) ≈ (7 ∙ 1.41 − 9)9 = (0.87)9 < 1 ⇒ 0 < 𝑌 < 1
0 < {𝑦} < 1
Combine the above three to get:

{𝑦} − 𝑌 = 0 ⇒ {𝑦} = 𝑌
Example 1.123
13 9
Let 𝑥 = (8√3 + 13) and 𝑦 = (7√2 + 9) . If ⌊𝑡⌋ denotes the greatest integer ≤ 𝑡, then:
A. ⌊𝑥⌋ + ⌊𝑦⌋ is even
B. ⌊𝑥⌋ is odd but ⌊𝑦⌋ is even
C. ⌊𝑥⌋ is even but ⌊𝑦⌋ is odd
P a g e 51 | 67
D. ⌊𝑥⌋ and ⌊𝑦⌋ are both odd (JEE Main, Jan 30, 2023, Shift-II)
13 13
⌊𝑥⌋ + {𝑥} − 𝑌 = (8√3 + 13) − (8√3 − 13)
And we also that know that {𝑥} = 𝑌:

13 13
⌊𝑥⌋ = (8√3 + 13) − (8√3 − 13)
And we also know that the RHS is an even integer:

⌊𝑥⌋ ∈ 𝐸𝑣𝑒𝑛 𝐼𝑛𝑡𝑒𝑔𝑒𝑟
9 9
⌊𝑦⌋ + {𝑦} − 𝑌 = (7√2 + 9) − (7√2 − 9)
And we also that know that {𝑦} = 𝑌:

9 9
⌊𝑦⌋ = (7√2 + 9) − (7√2 − 9)
And we also know that the RHS is an even integer

⌊𝑦⌋ ∈ 𝐸𝑣𝑒𝑛 𝐼𝑛𝑡𝑒𝑔𝑒𝑟
𝑂𝑝𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝐴
P a g e 52 | 67
2. FURTHER TOPICS
2.1 Binomial Identities
A. Binomial Identities
Example 2.1: Binomial Identities

Use the binomial theorem to prove the identities below:
𝑛 𝑛 𝑛 𝑛
A. 2𝑛 = ( ) + ( ) + ( ) + ⋯ + ( )
0 1 2 𝑛
B. ( ) − ( ) + ( ) − ( ) + ⋯ + ( ) = 0
0 1 2 3 𝑛
𝑛 𝑛 𝑛 𝑛 𝑛 𝑛 𝑛
C. ( ) + ( ) + ( ) + ⋯ + ( ) = ( ) + ( ) + … + ( )
0 2 4 𝑛 1 3 𝑛
Part A
Substitute 𝑥 = 1, 𝑦 = 1 in the Binomial Theorem:
𝐿𝐻𝑆 = (𝑥 + 𝑦)𝑛 = (1 + 1)𝑛 = 2𝑛
𝑛 𝑛 𝑛 𝑛
𝑅𝐻𝑆 = ( ) + ( ) + ( ) + ⋯ + ( )
0 1 2 𝑛
And we know that:
𝑛 𝑛 𝑛 𝑛
𝐿𝐻𝑆 = 𝑅𝐻𝑆 ⇒ 2𝑛 = ( ) + ( ) + ( ) + ⋯ + ( )
0 1 2 𝑛
Part B
Let 𝑥 = 1, 𝑦 = −1 in the Binomial Theorem:
𝐿𝐻𝑆 = (1 − 1)𝑛 = 0𝑛 = 0, 𝑛 ≠ 0
𝑅𝐻𝑆 = ( ) − ( ) + ( ) − ( ) + ⋯ + ( )
0 1 2 3 𝑛
Part C
Take all the negative terms to the RHS in the identity proved in Part B, we are done.
2.2 Multinomial Theorem

A. Change of Variable
Example 2.2
Expand (𝑎 + 𝑏 + 𝑐)2
Let 𝑏 + 𝑐 = 𝑥, which gives us:

(𝑎 + 𝑥)2 = 𝑎2 + 2𝑎𝑥 + 𝑥 2
Substitute 𝑥 = 𝑏 + 𝑐:
𝑎2 + 2𝑎(𝑏 + 𝑐) + (𝑏 + 𝑐)2
= 𝑎 + 2𝑎𝑏 + 2𝑎𝑐 + 𝑏 2 + 2𝑏𝑐 + 𝑐 2
2
= 𝑎2 + 𝑏 2 + 𝑐 2 + 2𝑎𝑏 + 2𝑎𝑐 + 2𝑏𝑐
Example 2.3
Expand (𝑎 + 𝑏 + 𝑐)3
Let 𝑏 + 𝑐 = 𝑥, which gives us:

(𝑎 + 𝑥)3 = 𝑎3 + 3𝑎2 𝑥 + 3𝑎𝑥 2 + 𝑥 3
Substitute 𝑥 = 𝑏 + 𝑐:
= 𝑎3 + 3𝑎2 (𝑏 + 𝑐) + 3𝑎(𝑏 + 𝑐)2 + (𝑏 + 𝑐)3
P a g e 53 | 67
= 𝑎3 + 3𝑎2 𝑏 + 3𝑎2 𝑐 + 3𝑎(𝑏 2 + 2𝑏𝑐 + 𝑐 2 ) + 𝑏 3 + 3𝑏 2 𝑐 + 3𝑏𝑐 2 + 𝑐 3
Example 2.4
Expand (𝑎 + 2𝑏 − 3𝑐)3
Use a change of variable. Let 𝑦 = 2𝑏 − 3𝑐. Then:

(𝑎 + 2𝑏 − 3𝑐)3 = (𝑎 + 𝑦)3
= 𝑎3 + 3𝑎2 𝑦 + 3𝑎𝑦 2 + 𝑦 3
= 𝑎3 + 6𝑎2 𝑏 − 9𝑎2 𝑐 + 12𝑎𝑏 2 − 36𝑎𝑏𝑐 + 27𝑎𝑐 2 + 8𝑏 3 − 36𝑏 2 𝑐 + 54𝑏𝑐 2 − 27𝑐 3
2.5: Number of Terms in a Trinomial

Find the number of terms in (𝒂 + 𝒃 + 𝒄)𝒏
(𝑎 + 𝑏 + 𝑐)𝑛 = [𝑎 + (𝑏 + 𝑐)]𝑛
Use the binomial expansion:
𝑛 𝑛 𝑛
⏟𝑛 + (⏟ ) 𝑎𝑛−1 (𝑏 + 𝑐) + (⏟ ) 𝑎𝑛−2 (𝑏 + 𝑐)2 + ⋯ + (⏟ ) 𝑎0 (𝑏 + 𝑐)𝑛
𝑎
1 2 𝑛
𝟏 𝑻𝒆𝒓𝒎
𝟐 𝑻𝒆𝒓𝒎𝒔 𝟑 𝑻𝒆𝒓𝒎𝒔 (𝒏+𝟏) 𝒕𝒆𝒓𝒎𝒔
𝑛(𝑛 − 1) 𝑛−2 2
⏟𝑛 + ⏟
𝑎 𝑛𝑎𝑛−1 𝑏 + 𝑛𝑎𝑛−1 𝑏𝑐 + 𝑎 (𝑏 + 2𝑏𝑐 + 𝑐 2 ) + ⋯
⏟ 2
𝟏 𝑻𝒆𝒓𝒎 𝟐 𝑻𝒆𝒓𝒎𝒔
𝟑 𝑻𝒆𝒓𝒎𝒔
Total Number of Terms
(𝑛 + 1)(𝑛 + 2)
1 + 2 + ⋯ + (𝑛 + 1) =
2
Example 2.6
2 4 𝑛
If the number of terms in the expansion of (1 − 𝑥 + 𝑥 2 ) , 𝑥 ≠ 0 is 28, then the sum of the coefficients of all the
terms in the terms in this expansion is (JEE Main 2016)
(𝑛 + 1)(𝑛 + 2)
= 28 ⇒ (𝑛 + 1)(𝑛 + 2) = 56 ⇒ 𝑛 = 6
2
Substitute 𝑥 = 1:
2 4 6
(1 − + ) = (1 − 2 + 4)6 = 36 = 729
𝑥 𝑥2
B. Finding Coefficients
Example 2.7
(𝑎 + 𝑏)2 = (𝑎 + 𝑏)(𝑎 + 𝑏) = 𝑎2 + 𝑎𝑏 + 𝑎𝑏 + 𝑏 2
I need to pick 2 variables, each of which is either an a or b.

The number of ways to choose both 𝑎 will give the coefficient of a^2:
2C2 = 1
The number of ways to choose exactly one 𝑎 will give the coefficient of ab, which is:
P a g e 54 | 67
2C1 = 2
(Once we choose one a, and we know that the sum of the powers is 2, then automatically, we are going to choose
one b.)
C. Multinomial Theorem
The coefficient of 𝑎𝑝 𝑏 𝑞 𝑐 𝑟 in (𝑎 + 𝑏 + 𝑐)𝑛 is given by

𝑛!
𝑝! 𝑞! 𝑟!
Example 2.8
Find the coefficient of 𝑥 3 𝑦 3 𝑧 2 in the expansion of (𝑥 + 𝑦 + 𝑧)8 .
Combinations
The sum of the coefficients of (𝑥 + 𝑦 + 𝑧)8 is 8. Out of the sum of 8, we want 3 of the variables to be x, which can
be done in:
8
( ) 𝑤𝑎𝑦𝑠
3
Out of the remaining 5 variables, we want 3 of the variables to be y, which can be done in:
5
( ) 𝑊𝑎𝑦𝑠
3
And once we have chosen the x variables, and the y variables, the z variables are automatically chosen. Hence,
the final answer is:
8 5 8! 𝟓! 8!
( )( ) = × = = 560
3 3 𝟓! 3! 3! 2! 3! 3! 2!
Permutations of Repeated Objects
We need to pick 8 variables, out of which 3 are 𝑥, 3 are 𝑦, and 2 are 𝑧. This is the same as the number of ways to
arrange 8 objects, out of which:
➢ There are three identical 𝑥’s
➢ There are three identical 𝑦’s
➢ There are two identical 𝑧’s
Which is given by:
8!
= 560
3! 3! 2!
Multinomial Theorem
𝑛!
Substitute 𝑛 = 8, 𝑝 = 3, 𝑞 = 3, 𝑟 = 2 in :
𝑝!𝑞!𝑟!
8!
= 560
3! 3! 2!
D. Pascal’s Triangle
2.9: Pascal’s Triangle: As Numbers
2.10: Pascal’s Rule: Combinatorial

𝒏−𝟏 𝒏−𝟏 𝒏
( )+( )=( )
𝒌−𝟏 𝒌 𝒌
We use the double counting strategy.
P a g e 55 | 67
Choose 𝒌 out of 𝒏 objects

Choosing 𝑘 out of 𝑛 objects can be done in:
𝑛
𝑘
Cases for a particular object 𝒙
Consider there is a particular object 𝑥 among the 𝑛 objects, and we wish to choose 𝑘 out of 𝑛 objects. We can
consider two cases:
Case I: Object 𝒙 is included among the 𝒌
This leaves us 𝑘 − 1 objects to be chosen from the remaining 𝑛 − 1 objects, which can be done in
𝑛−1
𝑘−1
Case II: Object 𝒙 is not included among the 𝒌
This leaves us 𝑘 objects to be chosen from the remaining 𝑛 − 1 objects, which can be done in
𝑛−1
𝑘
Total Ways
The total ways are then the sum of Case I, and Case II:
𝑛−1 𝑛−1
( )+( )
𝑘−1 𝑘
Equate the Two Methods
But, both methods of counting must lead to the same answer, and hence
𝑛−1 𝑛−1 𝑛
( )+( )=( )
𝑘−1 𝑘 𝑘
2.11: Pascal’s Rule: Algebraic

𝒏−𝟏 𝒏−𝟏 𝒏
( )+( )=( )
𝒌−𝟏 𝒌 𝒌
Use the formula for combinations on the LHS:

𝑛−1 𝑛−1 (𝑛 − 1)! (𝑛 − 1)!
𝐿𝐻𝑆 = ( )+( )= +
𝑘−1 𝑘 (𝑘 − 1)! (𝑛 − 𝑘)! 𝑘! (𝑛 − 𝑘 − 1)!
Add the two fractions by taking the LCM:
𝒌(𝑛 − 1)! (𝑛 − 1)! (𝒏 − 𝒌)
+
𝒌(𝑘 − 1)! − 𝑘)! 𝑘! − 𝑘 − 1)! (𝒏 − 𝒌)!
(𝑛 (𝑛
Combine the factorials in the denominator using the property 𝑛! = 𝑛(𝑛 − 1)!:
𝒌(𝑛 − 1)! + (𝑛 − 1)! (𝒏 − 𝒌)
+
𝑘! (𝑛 − 𝑘)! 𝑘! (𝑛 − 𝑘)!
(𝑛
Take − 1)! common in the numerator, and note that we get precisely the expression for the combinatorial
formula for the RHS:
(𝑛 − 1)! (𝒌 + 𝒏 − 𝒌) (𝑛 − 1)! (𝒏) 𝑛! 𝑛
= = = ( ) = 𝑅𝐻𝑆
𝑘! (𝑛 − 𝑘)! 𝑘! (𝑛 − 𝑘)! 𝑘! (𝑛 − 𝑘)! 𝑘
2.12: Using Pascal’s Rule
2.3 Generating Functions

A. The Idea
2.13: Generating Function
P a g e 56 | 67
A counting generating function is a series that we can use to count some quantity of interest.
Example 2.14
Solve in natural numbers:
𝑎+𝑏=5
Since 𝑎 ≥ 1, 𝑏 ≥ 1 let 𝑎 = 𝐴 + 1, 𝑏 = 𝐵 + 1
𝐴+1+𝐵+1=5
𝐴+𝐵 =3
(3,0), (2,1), (1,2)(0,3) ⇒ 4 𝑆𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛𝑠
Example 2.15
Solve in natural numbers:
𝑎+𝑏=5
Consider 𝑥 raised to the above as a power:

𝑥 𝑎+𝑏 = 𝑥 5
The restriction on 𝑎 is that it is a natural number:

1 ≤ 𝑎 ≤ 4: 𝑃1 = 𝑥 + 𝑥 2 + 𝑥 3 + 𝑥 4
1 ≤ 𝑏 ≤ 4: 𝑃2 = 𝑥 + 𝑥 2 + 𝑥 3 + 𝑥 4
The number of solutions to 𝑎 + 𝑏 = 5 is the same as the coefficient of 𝑥 5 in the multiplication:

𝑃1 𝑃2
= (𝑥 + 𝑥 2 + 𝑥 3 + 𝑥 4 )(𝑥 + 𝑥 2 + 𝑥 3 + 𝑥 4 )
= 𝑥 2 (1 + 𝑥 + 𝑥 2 + 𝑥 3 )(1 + 𝑥 + 𝑥 2 + 𝑥 3 )
= 𝑥 2 [𝑥 3 ∙ 1 + 𝑥 2 ∙ 𝑥 + 𝑥 ∙ 𝑥 2 + 1 ∙ 𝑥 3 ]
= 𝑥 2 [4𝑥 3 ]
= 4𝑥 5
Coefficient of 𝑥 5 is
4 ⇒ 4 𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛𝑠
Example 2.16
I have an urn with an infinite number of balls. I wish to pick an odd non-zero number of red balls, an even
(possibly zero) number of blue balls, and green balls in multiples of three such that the number of green balls is
non-zero. I pick a total of 𝑛 balls.
A. Write the generating function.

B. In how many ways can we pick a hundred balls. Write your answer as a coefficient of a term in the
generating function from Part A. (Numerical calculations not required).
Part A
With 𝑅 = 𝑅𝑒𝑑, 𝐵 = 𝐵𝑙𝑢𝑒, 𝐺 = 𝐺𝑟𝑒𝑒𝑛:
𝑅+𝐵+𝐺 = 𝑛
Valid values for the number of red balls are:

{1,3,5,7, … ,2𝑘 + 1, … }
We convert these into exponents:
P a g e 57 | 67
𝑅𝑒𝑑 = 𝑥 1 + 𝑥 3 + 𝑥 5 + ⋯ + 𝑥 2𝑘+1 + ⋯
{0,2,4, … ,2𝑘, … }
𝐵𝑙𝑢𝑒 = 𝑥 + 𝑥 2 + 𝑥 4 + ⋯ + 𝑥 2𝑘 + ⋯
0
{3,6,9, … ,3𝑘, … }
𝐺𝑟𝑒𝑒𝑛 = 𝑥 3 + 𝑥 6 + ⋯ + 𝑥 3𝑘 + ⋯
The generating function is:

1 3 5 2𝑘+1 0 2 4 2𝑘 3 6 3𝑘
𝐺(𝑥) = (𝑥
⏟ + 𝑥 + 𝑥 + ⋯+𝑥 + ⋯ ) (𝑥
⏟ + 𝑥 + 𝑥 + ⋯ + 𝑥 + ⋯ ) (𝑥
⏟ + 𝑥 + ⋯+ 𝑥 + ⋯)
𝑅𝑒𝑑 𝐵𝑙𝑢𝑒 𝐺𝑟𝑒𝑒𝑛
Part B
The number of ways is the coefficient of 𝑥 100 in
𝐺(𝑥)
2.17: Formal Power Series

We will be treating the generating functions that we are using as 𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑚𝑎𝑙 power series.
We can add, subtract, multiply and divide the series without thinking about the validity of the operations.
➢ This is because we are concerned with coefficients, and not with convergence.
B. Using Coefficients/Probability Generating Function
2.18: Probability Generating Function

A series whose coefficients can be used to determine the probabilities of a quantity of interest is a probability
generating function.
Example 2.19
An urn has 𝑁 balls, of which 𝑔 are green and 𝑟 are red. You draw 𝑛 balls with replacement. Write a generating
function to give the probability of drawing 𝑎 are green and 𝑏 are red.
.
𝑎+𝑏 =𝑛
𝑛≤𝑁
For a single ball, let

𝑔 𝑟
𝑃(𝐺𝑟𝑒𝑒𝑛) = = 𝐺, 𝑃(𝑅𝑒𝑑) = = 𝑅(𝑠𝑎𝑦)
𝑁 𝑁
(𝐺𝑥 + 𝑅𝑦)2 = 𝐺 2 𝑥 2 + 𝐺𝑥𝑅𝑦 + 𝑅𝑦𝐺𝑥 + 𝑅 2 𝑦 2

𝑉𝑎𝑙𝑢𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑐𝑜𝑒𝑓𝑓𝑖𝑐𝑖𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝑥 𝑎 𝑦 𝑏 𝑖𝑛 (𝐺𝑥 + 𝑅𝑦)𝑛
2.20: Multiplication
C. Geometric Series
2.21: Finite Geometric Series

The sum of a finite geometric series with 𝑓𝑖𝑟𝑠𝑡 𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑚 = 𝑎 and 𝑐𝑜𝑚𝑚𝑜𝑛 𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜 = 𝑟 and 𝑛 terms is:
P a g e 58 | 67
𝑎(1 − 𝑟 𝑛 )
𝑆=
1−𝑟
Example 2.22
1 + 𝑥 + 𝑥2 + 𝑥3 + ⋯ + 𝑥𝑛
A. Write the sum of the above using a finite geometric series.
B. Write the coefficients that it generates.
This is a finite geometric series with 𝑓𝑖𝑟𝑠𝑡 𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑚 = 𝑎 = 1, 𝑐𝑜𝑚𝑚𝑜𝑛 𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜 = 𝑟 = 𝑥 and 𝑛 + 1 terms. It has sum:
𝑎(1 − 𝑟 𝑛 ) 1 − 𝑥 𝑛+1
𝑆= =
1−𝑟 1−𝑥
𝐶𝑜𝑒𝑓𝑓𝑖𝑐𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑠 𝑎𝑟𝑒 (1,1,

⏟ … ,1 , 0,0,0, … )
𝒏 𝟏′ 𝒔
Example 2.23
A. Write a generating function to determine the number of ways a sum of 𝑛 can be obtained from rolling
two dice: one with six faces numbered from 1 to 6, and the other with four faces numbered from 1 to 4.
B. Treat the generating functions as a geometric series and write their sum.
𝑥(1 − 𝑥 4 )
𝐷𝑖𝑒 𝑤𝑖𝑡ℎ 4 𝑓𝑎𝑐𝑒𝑠: 𝑥 1 + 𝑥 2 + ⋯ + 𝑥 4 =
1−𝑥
𝑥(1 − 𝑥6)
𝐷𝑖𝑒 𝑤𝑖𝑡ℎ 6 𝑓𝑎𝑐𝑒𝑠: 𝑥 1 + 𝑥 2 + ⋯ + 𝑥 6 =
1−𝑥
We get the final answer, we need the multiplication of the two generating functions:
𝑥(1 − 𝑥 4 ) 𝑥(1 − 𝑥 6 ) 𝑥 2 (1 − 𝑥 4 )(1 − 𝑥 6 )
[ ][ ]=
1−𝑥 1−𝑥 (1 − 𝑥)2
2.24: Infinite Geometric Series

The sum of an infinite geometric series with 𝑓𝑖𝑟𝑠𝑡 𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑚 = 𝑎 and 𝑐𝑜𝑚𝑚𝑜𝑛 𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜 = 𝑟 is:
𝑎
𝑆= , −1 < 𝑟 < 1
1−𝑟
➢ Again, we are concerned with coefficients, and hence we will treat it as a 𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑚𝑎𝑙 power series.
Example 2.25
1 + 𝑥 + 𝑥2 + 𝑥3 + ⋯
A. Write the sum of the above using a infinite geometric series.
This is an ⏟
𝑖𝑛𝑓𝑖𝑛𝑖𝑡𝑒 𝑔𝑒𝑜𝑚𝑒𝑡𝑟𝑖𝑐 𝑠𝑒𝑟𝑖𝑒𝑠 with 𝑎 = 1, 𝑟 = 𝑥 and it has sum:
𝑰𝑮𝑺
𝑎 1
𝑆= = = (1 − 𝑥)−1
1−𝑟 1−𝑥
(1,1,1, … )
Example 2.26
P a g e 59 | 67
1 − 𝑥 + 𝑥2 − 𝑥3 + ⋯
Substitute 𝑎 = 1, 𝑟 = −𝑥:
𝑎 1 1
𝑆= = = = (1 + 𝑥)−1
1 − 𝑟 1 − (−𝑥) 1 + 𝑥
Example 2.27
1 + 𝑎𝑥 + 𝑎2 𝑥 2 + 𝑎3 𝑥 3 + ⋯
Substitute 𝑓𝑖𝑟𝑠𝑡 𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑚 = 1, 𝑐𝑜𝑚𝑚𝑜𝑛 𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜 = 𝑎𝑥

𝑎 1
𝑆= = = (1 − 𝑎𝑥)−1
1 − 𝑟 1 − 𝑎𝑥
(𝑎0 , 𝑎1 , 𝑎2 , 𝑎3 , … )
Example 2.28
Write a generating function to determine the number of ways to hand over exactly 𝑛, 𝑛 ∈ ℕ rupees if you have
many 1 − 𝑟𝑢𝑝𝑒𝑒 coins, 2 − 𝑟𝑢𝑝𝑒𝑒 𝑐𝑜𝑖𝑛𝑠 and 5 − 𝑟𝑢𝑝𝑒𝑒 coins. You do not need to use each type of coin.
(1 + 𝑥 + 𝑥 2 + ⋯ ) ⏟
𝐺(𝑥) = ⏟ (1 + 𝑥 2 + 𝑥 4 + ⋯ ) ⏟
(1 + 𝑥 5 + 𝑥 10 + ⋯ )
𝟏 𝑹𝒖𝒑𝒆𝒆 𝑪𝒐𝒊𝒏 𝟐 𝑹𝒖𝒑𝒆𝒆 𝑪𝒐𝒊𝒏𝒔 𝟓 𝑹𝒖𝒑𝒆𝒆 𝑪𝒐𝒊𝒏𝒔
1 1 1
𝐺(𝑥) = ( )( 2
)( ) = (1 − 𝑥)−1 (1 − 𝑥 2 )−1 (1 − 𝑥 5 )−1
1−𝑥 1−𝑥 1 − 𝑥5
D. Extracting Coefficients
Earlier, we looked at writing a generating function as a geometric series.
Now, we turn the problem around, and ask for the coefficient of a generating function that a geometric series
represents.
Example 2.29
What is the coefficient of 𝑥 7 in:
1
1−𝑥
1
1 − 2𝑥
1
= 1 + 𝑥 + 𝑥2 + ⋯ + 𝑥7 + ⋯
1−𝑥
𝐶𝑜𝑒𝑓𝑓𝑖𝑐𝑖𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝑥 7 = 1
1
= 1 + 2𝑥 + 4𝑥 2 + ⋯ + 2𝑛 𝑥 𝑛 + ⋯
1 − 2𝑥
𝐶𝑜𝑒𝑓𝑓𝑖𝑐𝑖𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝑥 7 = 27 = 128
P a g e 60 | 67
E. Multiplication
Example 2.30
𝑥4
1 − 3𝑥
A. Expand.
B. Determine coefficient of 𝑥 7 .
𝑥4 1
C. The coefficient of 𝑥 7 in 1−3𝑥 is equal to the coefficient of 𝑥 𝑛 in 1−3𝑥. What is 𝑛?
D. What is the series of coefficents that the above function generates?
𝑥4 1
= 𝑥4 ∙ = 𝑥 4 (1 + 3𝑥 + 9𝑥 2 + 27𝑥 3 … ) = 𝑥 0+4 + 3𝑥 1+4 + 9𝑥 2+4 + 27𝑥 3+4 + ⋯
1 − 3𝑥 1 − 3𝑥
𝐶𝑜𝑒𝑓𝑓𝑖𝑐𝑖𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝑥 7 = 37−4 = 33 = 27
𝑛=3
Coefficients:
(0,0,0,0,1,3,9, … , )
2.31: Multiplying Two Functions
Example 2.32
Use multiplication to get the series associated with:
1
(1 − 𝑥)2
1 1 2
= ( )
(1 − 𝑥)2 1−𝑥
Expand the expression inside the brackets as an infinite series:

= (1 + 𝑥 + 𝑥 2 + 𝑥 3 + ⋯ )2
Write the square as a product:

= (1 + 𝑥 + 𝑥 2 + 𝑥 3 + ⋯ )(1 + 𝑥 + 𝑥 2 + 𝑥 3 + ⋯ )
= 1 + 𝑥 + 𝑥2 + 𝑥3 + 𝑥4 + ⋯
𝑥 + 𝑥2 + 𝑥3 + 𝑥4 + ⋯
𝑥2 + 𝑥3 + 𝑥4 + ⋯
𝑥3 + 𝑥4 + ⋯
= 1 + 2𝑥 + 3𝑥 2 + 4𝑥 3 + ⋯
Example 2.33
The generating function to determine the number of ways a sum of 𝑛 can be obtained from rolling two dice: one
with six faces numbered from 1 to 6, and the other with four faces numbered from 1 to 4 is given by:
𝑥 2 (1 − 𝑥 4 )(1 − 𝑥 6 )
(1 − 𝑥)2
P a g e 61 | 67
Move the denominator to the numerator:

= 𝑥 2 (1 − 𝑥 4 )(1 − 𝑥 6 )(1 − 𝑥)−2
Substitute using the expansion from the previous example:

1 2 3 4 5 6
= 𝑥 2 (1 − 𝑥 4 )(1 − 𝑥 6 )(1 + 2𝑥 + 3𝑥 2 + 4𝑥 3 + ⋯ )
1 2 3 4 5 6 7
2 3 4 5 6 7 8
Multiplying: 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
4 5 6 7 8 9 10
𝐺(𝑥) = (1 − 𝑥 4 )(1 − 𝑥 6 )(𝑥 2 + 2𝑥 3 + 3𝑥 4 + 4𝑥 5 + 5𝑥 6 + 6𝑥 7 + 7𝑥 8 + ⋯ )
𝑁𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟 𝑜𝑓 𝑤𝑎𝑦𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑚𝑎𝑘𝑖𝑛𝑔 2 =Coefficient of 𝑥 2 in 𝐺(𝑥)

= 1 × 1 × 𝑥 2 = 𝑥 2 ⇒ 𝐶𝑜𝑒𝑓𝑓𝑖𝑐𝑖𝑒𝑛𝑡 = 1

= 1 × 1 × 2𝑥 3 = 2𝑥 3 ⇒ 𝐶𝑜𝑒𝑓𝑓𝑖𝑐𝑖𝑒𝑛𝑡 = 2

= 1 × 1 × 3𝑥 4 = 3𝑥 4 ⇒ 𝐶𝑜𝑒𝑓𝑓𝑖𝑐𝑖𝑒𝑛𝑡 = 3

= 1 × 1 × 4𝑥 5 = 4𝑥 5 ⇒ 𝐶𝑜𝑒𝑓𝑓𝑖𝑐𝑖𝑒𝑛𝑡 = 4
𝑁𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟 𝑜𝑓 𝑤𝑎𝑦𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑚𝑎𝑘𝑖𝑛𝑔 6 =Coefficient of 𝑥 6 in 𝐺(2)

= (1 × 1 × 5𝑥 6 ) + (−𝑥 4 )(𝑥 2 ) = 5𝑥 6 − 𝑥 6 = 4𝑥 6 ⇒ 𝐶𝑜𝑒𝑓𝑓𝑖𝑐𝑖𝑒𝑛𝑡 = 4
F. Finding Generating Functions
Example 2.34
2.4 Generalized Binomial Theorem

A. Binomial Coefficients for Real Numbers
2.35: Binomial Coefficients

𝑛 𝑛!
( )=
𝑟 𝑟! (𝑛 − 𝑟)!
2.36: Binomial Coefficients: Alternate Version

𝑛 𝑛(𝑛 − 1)(𝑛 − 2) … (𝑛 − 𝑟 + 1)
( )=
𝑟 𝑟!
For positive integer 𝑛 and nonnegative integer 𝑟 such that 0 ≤ 𝑟 ≤ 𝑛 we have

𝑛 𝑛!
( )=
𝑟 𝑟! (𝑛 − 𝑟)!
P a g e 62 | 67
Expand using the recursive definition:

𝑛(𝑛 − 1)(𝑛 − 2) … (𝑛 − 𝑟 + 1)(𝑛 − 𝑟)!
=
𝑟! (𝑛 − 𝑟)!
𝑛(𝑛 − 1)(𝑛 − 2) … (𝑛 − 𝑟 + 1)
=
𝑟!
10 10 ∙ 9 ∙ 8 ∙ 7 ∙ 6! 10 ∙ 9 ∙ 8 ∙ 7
( )= =
4 4! 6! 4!
2.37: Generalized Binomial Coefficients

𝑛 𝑛(𝑛 − 1)(𝑛 − 2) … (𝑛 − 𝑟 + 1)
( ):= , 𝑛 ∈ ℝ, 𝑟 𝑖𝑠 𝑝𝑜𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑖𝑣𝑒 𝑖𝑛𝑡𝑒𝑔𝑒𝑟
𝑟 𝑟!
➢ ≔ is used to emphasize that it is a definition
Example 2.38
B. Binomial Coefficients for Negative Integers
2.39: Binomial Coefficients for negative integers
P a g e 63 | 67
Example 2.40
C. Generalized Binomial Theorem

➢ The binomial expansion for (𝑥 + 𝑦)𝑛 , 𝑛 ∈ ℕ has 𝑛 + 1 terms
➢ The binomial expansion for (𝑥 + 𝑦)−𝑛 , 𝑛 ∈ ℕ is an infinite series.
2.41: Binomial Theorem

𝑛 𝑛 𝑛 𝑛
0 1 2 𝑛
2.42: Binomial Theorem for Negative Exponents

∞
1 𝑛 𝑛+1 2 𝑛+𝑟−1 𝑟 𝑛+𝑟−1 𝑟
= (1 − 𝑥)−𝑛 = 1 + ( ) 𝑥 + ( )𝑥 + ⋯+ ( )𝑥 + ⋯ = ∑( )𝑥
(1 − 𝑥)𝑛 1 2 𝑟 𝑟
𝑟=0
➢ Why is it always positive?

The (−1)𝑟 from the binomial coefficient and (−𝑥)𝑟 from the binomial formula cancel out.
P a g e 64 | 67
Example 2.43
Example 2.44
P a g e 65 | 67
A. Product of Two Binomials
Example 2.45
Find the coefficient of 𝑥 5 in (1 + 𝑥 + 𝑥 2 )8 (EAMCET, 18 Sep 2020, Shift-II)
8
1 − 𝑥3
(1 + 𝑥 + 𝑥 2 )8 = ( ) = (1 − 𝑥 3 )8 (1 − 𝑥)−8 = (1 − 8𝑥 3 + ⋯ )(1 − 𝑥)−8
1−𝑥
8+5−1 12
0 + 5: (1) ( ) = ( ) = 11 ∙ 9 ∙ 8 = 8(99)
5 5
8+2−1 9
3 + 2: (−8) ( ) = −8 ( ) = −8(36)
5 2
8(99) − 8(36) = 8(63) = 8(64) − 8 = 512 − 8 = 504
Example 2.46
P a g e 66 | 67
2.5 Further Topics

47 Examples
P a g e 67 | 67

S06 Binomial Theorem

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BINOMIAL

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1.1: Binomial Expansion

(𝑎 + 𝑏)0 = 1, 𝑎, 𝑏 𝑛𝑜𝑡 𝑏𝑜𝑡ℎ 𝑧𝑒𝑟𝑜

➢ The power of 𝑎 keeps decreasing with each term.

1.2: Number of Terms

(𝑎 + 𝑏)3 = 𝑎3 + 3𝑎2 𝑏 + 3𝑎𝑏 2 + 𝑏 3 ⇒ 4 𝑇𝑒𝑟𝑚𝑠

= [[(𝑎 + 3𝑏)(𝑎 − 3𝑏)]2 ]2 = (𝑎2 − 9𝑏 2 )4 ⇒ 5 𝑇𝑒𝑟𝑚𝑠

1.5: Pascal’s Triangle

1.7: Patterns in Pascal’s Triangle

1.8: Pascal’s Triangle as Binomial Coefficients 4 4 4 4 4 4

First Number in 𝒏𝒕𝒉 Row

1.9: Binomial Formula

Example 1.12: Expanding Radicals

1.2 Specific Terms

1.13: 𝑵𝒕𝒉 Term

In the first term of (𝑥 + 𝑦)7

The first term will have power

Hence, we want to find the second term:

B. Term from End

Example 1.16: From End

1.17: Middle Term

Example 1.18: Identifying Middle Terms

Using the formula:

A. Given that 𝑛 = 5, find the term with 𝐻 3

Substitute 𝑛 = 15, 𝑥 = 𝑥 4 , 𝑦 = 𝑥 −3:

The power of the general term is:

The coefficient is:

Example 1.25: Constant Term

The constant term is the last (10𝑡ℎ) term.

Example 1.26: Constant Term

2𝑛 𝑛−𝑟 𝑟 2 8 (3𝑥 2 )8−6

Example 1.27: Constant Term

Example 1.28: Constant Term

1.29: Constant Term

Hence, we must have

(𝑎𝑝 + 𝑏𝑞)𝑛 has general term

F. Integral, Rational, Irrational and Radical Free Terms

The general term is

The general term is

1.36: Symmetry in Coefficients

We know from combinations:

B. Equal with opposite signs

Note that the sum of the coefficients is

Write only the coefficients of (1 − 𝑥)100:

1.3 Back Calculations

Example 1.40: Coefficients of Specific Terms

Solve the equations

Since the coefficients are equal:

Cancel, and eliminate fractions:

Since the coefficients are equal:

Calculate the value of 𝑟:

Since the coefficients are equal:

Example 1.48: Sum is Zero

D. Ratio of Consecutive Coefficients

1.49: Ratio of Consecutive Binomial Coefficients

The first ratio is:

Subtract Equations II from Equation I:

From Equations I and II:

Use a change of variable. Let 𝑁 = 𝑛 + 5:

Subtract Equation II from Equation I:

Use a change of variable. Let 𝑁 = 𝑛 + 2.

Subtract Equation II from Equation I

Subtract Equation II from Equation I