Chapter 1

Review of digital communication systems

Woldia University
Institute of Technology
School of Electrical and Computer Engineering

1
 Course objective
1. Present the mathematical basis and theory of signals and
systems that help describe and understand digital
communication techniques and equipment
2. Apply such concepts and ideas to information
transmission links which must be made robust in the
presence of noise and other impairments and perform at
rates that are as high as possible
3. Show how such transmission links are used in fixed and
mobile data communication systems for voice and video
transmissions

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Basic elements of digital communication system

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Introduction
 The figure illustrates a functional block diagram of a typical
digital communication system showing the key components
of the system
 We will briefly review and discuss the functions of these key
elements of the communication system
 Source output
 The output from an information source could be
 Analog signal such as voice or video signal or
 Digital signal that is discrete in time and having a finite number
of characters
 Messages from the source are converted into a sequence of binary
digits
 Ideally, the source message should be represented by as few as
possible binary digits

4
 Cont. …
 Source encoding
 The process of efficiently converting source outputs into
a sequence of binary digits, called information sequence
 The representation of the source output in binary form
should have as little or no redundancy (data
compression)
 Channel encoding
 Introduce, in a controlled manner, some redundancy in
the binary information sequence
 The redundancy can be used at the receiver to overcome
the effects of noise and other interferences on the
transmission channel
 Trivial example: Repeat each binary digit n times
5
 Cont. …
 Non-trivial example: Taking k information bits at a time and
mapping each k-bit sequence into a unique n-bit sequence,
called the codeword
 (𝑛 > 𝑘) measure of redundancy is the ratio k/n ( or n/k), called the
code rate
 Digital Modulator
 This is an interface between the channel encoder and the
communication channel
 It maps the coded information sequence into signal waveforms that
can be transmitted over the channel
 Consider the coded sequence is to be transmitted one bit at a time
at some uniform rate R bits/s
 The modulator may simply map the binary digits as follows

6
 Cont. …
 This is an example of binary modulation in which each bit
from the encoder is transmitted separately
 Called binary phase-shift keying – BPSK
 Alternatively, modulator may transmit 𝑛 coded information
bits at a time using distinct waveforms 𝑠𝑖 (𝑡), 𝑖 = 0,1, … 𝑀 − 1 ,
𝑀 = 2 𝑛 called M-ary modulation
 Note here that a new 𝑛 -bit coded sequence enters the
𝑛
modulator every seconds
𝑅
 If the channel bit rate is fixed at 𝑅 , the amount of time
available to transmit one of the 𝑀 waveforms
(corresponding to the 𝑛 -bit sequence) is 𝑛 times the time
period in a system that uses binary modulation

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 Cont. …
 Communication Channel: Physical medium that is used
to send the signal from the transmitter to the receiver
 Examples include
 Wireless transmission- the atmosphere or free space
 Wireline, optical fiber, coaxial cables
 Storage channels: Information storage and retrieval
devices-magnetic tapes, compact discs, etc
 Transmitted signals are corrupted, in a random manner,
by a variety of additive noise such as thermal noise,
atmospheric noise, man made noise, etc and also
attenuation and fading in amplitude and phase

8
 Cont. …
 Channels can be modeled in a variety of ways that take
into account the particular properties of the channel
 Examples are additive noise channel, linear filter channel, etc
 Digital demodulator: The demodulator processes the
channel-corrupted transmitted waveforms and reduces
them to a sequence of numbers (digits) that represent
estimates of the transmitted coded data symbols ( binary
or M-ary)
 The channel decoder: attempts to reconstruct the original
information sequence from the knowledge of the code
used and the redundancy contained in the received data
estimate

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Cont. …
 A measure of how accurately the demodulator and decoder
recover the original sequence is the average probability of
bit-error at the output of the decoder for a given power level
(signal-to-noise-ratio)
 The probability of error is in general a function of
 Code characteristics
 Type of waveforms used
 Transmitter power
 Channel characteristics and
 Method of demodulation and decoding
 We will explore most of these factors that affect the
reliability of digital communication

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 Advantages of digital communication systems
Advantages of digital communication over its analog
counterpart
 Greater noise immunity and robustness to channel impairments
 Perform well in multipath and fading conditions
 Allow signal conditioning and processing techniques
 Error-control codes: Detect and/or correct transmission
errors
 Equalization: to improve the performance of the overall link
 Source coding
 Encryption: greater security
 Easier signal generation and processing

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 Major factors for the growth of digital communication
1. Impact of the Computer: Computers are processors and
sources of data as well as tools for communication
2. Digital communication offers flexibility and compatibility:
The adoption of a common digital format makes it
possible for a transmission system to handle many
different sources of information in a flexible manner
3. Improved reliability due to improved theory,
microelectronics and system design
4. Availability of wide-band channels such as optical fibers,
coaxial cables and geo-stationary satellites
5. Availability of integrated solid-state electronics
technology makes possible increased system complexity
by orders of magnitude in a cost effective manner

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Major factors for the growth of digital communication systems

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Overview
 Introduction to modulation and demodulation
 Basics of digital modulation
 Types of digital modulation techniques
 Digital modulation techniques in the Presence of Noise
 Optimum receiver for digital modulation techniques in the
presence of noise
 Multipath propagation mechanism and Mitigation
techniques

2
Introduction to modulation and demodulation
 Topics to be covered

3
Discussions
 What is modulation?
 What are the benefits of modulation?
 What are the types modulation?

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 Modulation & demodulation
 Modulation is the process of encoding information from a
message source in a manner suitable for transmission
 It maps the coded information sequence into signal waveforms
that can be transmitted over the channel
 It could be done by varying either amplitude, phase,
frequency,(combination forms) of a carrier signal in
accordance with the message signal.
 It translates base-band message signal to band-pass signal
 Analogue and digital modulation
 Demodulation: Process of extracting the baseband message
 Coherent or non-coherent
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Cont. …

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 Some benefits of modulation
 Reduction of antenna height
𝜆 𝑐
 The size of antenna is ~ = 𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒, 𝜆 is wave length of the RF wave.
4 4𝑓
 3 KHz 25 Km antenna
 3 GHz 2.5 cm antenna
 Avoids mixing of signals – translate signals to different EM spectrum
 Increase the range of communication
 Similar to throwing a paper by wrapping it around a stone
 Allows multiplexing
 Simultaneous transmission of several baseband signals over similar channel
 Bandwidth efficiency
 Effective use of limited frequency resources
 Improves quality of reception

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Overview
 Basics of digital modulation
 Advantages of digital modulations
 Bit rate and Baud rate
 Performance measures
 Geometric representation and constellation diagrams
 Types of digital modulation techniques
 Digital modulation techniques in the Presence of Noise
 Optimum receiver for digital modulation techniques in the
presence of noise
 Multipath propagation mechanism and Mitigation techniques

8
 Analog vs Digital modulation
Advantages of digital modulation over its analog counterpart
 Greater noise immunity and robustness to channel
impairments
 Perform well in multipath and fading conditions
• Allow signal conditioning and processing techniques
 Error-control codes: Detect and/or correct transmission
errors
 Equalization: to improve the performance of the overall link
 Source coding
 Encryption: greater security
• Possible to be implemented completely in software
• Easier signal generation and processing

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 Bit rate and Baud rate
 Bit rate: is the number of bits (data) that can be carried per
second
 Baud rate: is the number of signal units (or symbols) per
second used for carrying the bits (and achieve the Bit Rate).
 Baud rate can be less than or equal to the bit rate
• Note that each symbol can carry one or more bits
• Baud Rate = Bit rate / Number of bits per symbol
 The number of bits that can be carried by one symbol,
depends on the modulation technique used.
• Example: A modulated signal has a bit rate of 8000bps and
a baud rate of 1000 baud. How many bits are carried by each
signal element?
Bits/Baud = 8000/1000 = 8
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 Performance measures
Two key performance measures of a modulation scheme are;
 Power efficiency: Describes the ability of a modulation
technique to preserve the fidelity of the digital message at low
power levels
 Fidelity: an acceptable bit error probability
 Often expressed as the ratio of the signal energy per bit (𝐸𝑏 ) to
the noise PSD ( 𝑁0 ) required to achieve a given probability of
error (say 10−5 ):

 is a measure of how favorably the tradeoff between fidelity and

signal power is made
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 Cont. …
 Bandwidth efficiency: the ability of a modulation scheme to
accommodate data within a limited bandwidth
 It is defined as the ratio of the data rate R to the required RF
bandwidth B:

 Channel capacity gives an upper bound of achievable

bandwidth efficiency:

 It reflects how efficiently the allocated bandwidth is utilized

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 Geometric representation
 Digital modulation involves choosing a particular analog signal
waveform si (t) from a finite set of S possible signal waveforms
based on the information bits applied to the modulator.
 For binary modulation schemes, a binary information bit is
mapped directly to a signal and S contains only 2 signals,
representing 0 and 1.
 For M-ary modulations, S contains more than 2 signals and
each represents more than a single bit of information. With a
signal set of size M, it is possible to transmit up to log 2 𝑀 bits
per signal.
 Any element of set S, 𝑆 = {s 1 t , s 2 (t), … , sM (t)} , can be
represented as a point in a vector space whose coordinates
are basis signals ∅j 𝑡 , 𝑗 =1,2,…,N, such that N ≤ 𝑀 and

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Cont. …
∞
∅𝑖 𝑡 ∅j 𝑡 𝑑𝑡 = 0, 𝑖 ≠ 𝑗; (Orthogonal)
−∞
∞
2
∅ i𝑡 𝑑𝑡 = 1, (𝑛𝑜𝑟𝑚𝑎𝑙𝑖𝑧𝑒𝑑)
−∞
 𝑠𝑖 𝑡 can be represented as a linear combination of the
basis signals
𝑁

𝑠𝑖 𝑡 = 𝑠 i𝑗 ∅j 𝑡 , 𝑖 = 1, 2, … , 𝑀
𝑗=0
Where,
𝑇
𝑠𝑖𝑗 = 𝑠𝑖 𝑡 ∅ 𝑗 𝑡 𝑑𝑡
0

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Cont. …

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 Constellation diagram
 A graphical representation of the complex envelope of each
possible signal
 The 𝑥 −axis represents the in-phase component and the y-axis
represents the quadrature component of the complex envelope
 The distance between signals on a constellation diagram
relates to how different the modulation waveforms are and how
well a receiver can differentiate between them when random
noise is present.
 Examples

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Types of digital modulation techniques
 Digital modulation techniques can be classified in to the
following broad categories

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Overview
 Introduction to modulation and demodulation
 Types of digital modulation techniques
 Binary modulation techniques
 M-ary modulation techniques
 Digital modulation techniques in the Presence of Noise
 Optimum receiver for digital modulation techniques in the
presence of noise
 Multipath propagation mechanism and Mitigation
techniques

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 Binary modulation
 In binary modulation, the modulator produces one of two
distinct signals in response to one bit of source data at a time.

• In all cases,
 One bit is sent per symbol
 Baud rate = Bit rate
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 Binary Amplitude Shift Keying (ASK)
 Amplitude of a carrier signal is varied to represent binary 1 or
0, while both frequency & phase remain constant
 Commonly, one of the amplitudes is zero

 The average energy per bit

𝐸+0
𝐸𝑏 = 𝑖. 𝑒 𝐸 = 2𝐸 𝑏
2
• Decision region

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 Cont. …
 ASK modulation wave form example

 Demodulation: only the presence or absence of a sinusoid in

a given time interval needs to be determined
 Advantage: simplicity
 Disadvantage: ASK is susceptible to noise and interference
 Application: is used to transmit digital data over optical fiber

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 Binary Frequency Shift keying (BFSK)
 Frequency of carrier signal is varied to represent binary 1 or 0
while amplitude & phase remain constant during each bit
interval

• 𝑓1 and 𝑓2 are selected such that 𝑠1 𝑡 and 𝑠2 𝑡 are orthogonal.

• Two orthogonal basis functions are required

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 Cont. ..
 Signal space representation and decision regions

 Demodulation: demodulator must be able to determine which

of two possible frequencies is present at a given time
 Advantage: FSK is less susceptible to errors than ASK
 Disadvantage: FSK is spectrum inefficient
 Application: over voice lines, in HF radio transmission.

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 Cont. …
 FSK modulation waveform example

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 Binary Phase shift Keying- (BPSK)
 Phase of carrier signal is varied to represent binary 1 or 0
while amplitude & freq. remain constant during each bit interval

• There is only one basis function

2
∅1 𝑡 = cos 2𝜋𝑓 𝑐 𝑡 with 0 ≤ 𝑡 < 𝑇 𝑏
𝑇𝑏

• Then 𝑠1 (𝑡) = 𝐸𝑏 ∅1 𝑡 and 𝑠2 𝑡 = − 𝐸 𝑏 ∅1 𝑡

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 Cont. …
• A BPSK system is characterized by a signal space that is one-
dimensional (i.e. N=1), and has two message points (i.e. M =2)
• Signal space representation and decision regions are;

 Demodulation: demodulator must determine the phase of

received sinusoid with respect to some reference phase
 Advantage: PSK is less susceptible to errors than ASK and
has more efficient bandwidth utilization compared to FSK
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 Cont. …
 Disadvantage: more complex signal detection / recovery
process, than ASK and FSK
 PSK modulation wave form example

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Overview
 Introduction to modulation and demodulation
 Types of digital modulation techniques
 Binary modulation techniques
 M-ary modulation techniques
 Digital modulation techniques in the Presence of Noise
 Optimum receiver for digital modulation techniques in the
presence of noise
 Mitigation techniques

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 M-ary modulation
 In binary modulation, we send only one of two possible
signals during each bit interval 𝑇𝑏
 In M-ary modulation, we can send one of 𝑀 possible signals
during each signaling interval 𝑇
 In almost all applications, 𝑀 = 2𝑛 and 𝑇 = 𝑛𝑇 𝑏 , where 𝑛 is
an integer
 Each of the M signals is called a symbol
 These signals are generated by changing the amplitude,
phase, frequency, or combined forms of a carrier in 𝑀
discrete steps.
 Thus, we have:

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 M-ASK
 Amplitude of a carrier takes M different values
 For example, if M = 4, the ASK refers to four different
Amplitudes in which the carrier is sent.
 As 4 states are possible, two bits can be encoded per symbol
 In general, if number of possible states 𝑀 > 2 , each symbol
can carry log 2 𝑀 bits.
𝑀 = 4, log 2 4 = 2 → 2 bits symbol
𝐴1 cos 2𝜋𝑓𝑐 (𝑡) 𝐴1 = 0: 00
𝐴2 cos 2𝜋𝑓𝑐 (𝑡) 𝐴2 = 1: 01
𝑆𝑡 =
𝐴3 cos 2𝜋𝑓𝑐 (𝑡) 𝐴3 = 2: 10
𝐴4 cos 2𝜋𝑓𝑐 (𝑡) 𝐴4 = 3: 11

 This scheme is therefore more bandwidth efficient than BASK.

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Cont. …
 Constellation plots of M-ASK

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 M-FSK
• The frequency of the carrier takes on M possible values:
• In M-ary FSK modulation, the transmitted signals are defined
by
2𝐸𝑠 𝜋
𝑠𝑖 𝑡 = cos 𝑛𝑐 + 𝑖 𝑡 0 ≤ 𝑡 ≤ 𝑇𝑠 𝑖 = 1, 2, … , 𝑀
𝑇𝑠 𝑇𝑠
Where 𝑓𝑐 = 𝑛𝑐 2𝑇𝑐 , for some fixed integer 𝑛𝑐 .
• The following diagram shows an example of 4-FSK waveform

𝐴 cos 2𝜋𝑓1 (𝑡) 00

𝐴 cos 2𝜋𝑓2 (𝑡) 01
𝑆𝑡 =
𝐴 cos 2𝜋𝑓3 (𝑡) 10
𝐴 cos 2𝜋𝑓4 (𝑡) 11

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 Cont.…
 The M transmitted signal frequencies are separated by 𝟏 𝟐𝑻 𝒔 ,
making the signals orthogonal to one another.
 The average probability of error is given by
𝐸𝑠
𝑝𝑒 ≤ 𝑀 − 1 𝑄 𝑖𝑓 𝑐𝑜ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑑𝑒𝑡𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑖𝑠 𝑢𝑠𝑒𝑑
𝑁0
𝑀−1 −𝐸𝑠
𝑝𝑒 ≤ 𝑒𝑥𝑝 𝑖𝑓 𝑛𝑜𝑛 − 𝑐𝑜ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑑𝑒𝑡𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑖𝑠 𝑢𝑠𝑒𝑑
2 𝑁0
 The channel bandwidth of M-FSK signal can be defined as
𝑅𝑏 (𝑀 + 3)
𝐵𝑊 = 𝑖𝑓 𝑐𝑜ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑑𝑒𝑡𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑖𝑠 𝑢𝑠𝑒𝑑
2 log2 𝑀
𝑅𝑏 𝑀
𝐵𝑊 = 𝑖𝑓 𝑛𝑜𝑛 − 𝑐𝑜ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑑𝑒𝑡𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑖𝑠 𝑢𝑠𝑒𝑑
2 log2 𝑀

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 M-PSK
 The phase of the carrier takes on M possible values, namely,
𝜃𝑖 = 2(𝑖 − 1)𝜋 𝑀, where 𝑖 = 1, 2, … , 𝑀
 The modulated waveform can be expressed as
2𝐸𝑠
𝑠𝑖 𝑡 = cos 2𝜋𝑓𝑐 𝑡 + 2(𝑖 − 1)𝜋 𝑀 , 0 ≤ 𝑡𝑠≤ 𝑇 𝑖 = 1, 2, … , 𝑀
𝑇𝑠
Where 𝐸𝑠 = 𝐸𝑏 log 2 𝑀 and 𝑇𝑠 = 𝑇𝑏 log 2 𝑀
 In quadrature form this equation can be written as;
2𝐸𝑠
𝑠𝑖 𝑡 = cos 2(𝑖 − 1)𝜋 𝑀 cos 2𝜋𝑓
𝑐 𝑡 −
𝑇𝑠

2𝐸𝑠
sin 2(𝑖 − 1)𝜋 𝑀 sin 2𝜋𝑓 𝑐 𝑡
𝑇𝑠

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 Cont. …
2
 By choosing orthogonal basis functions Φ1 𝑡 = cos 2𝜋𝑓𝑐 𝑡
𝑇𝑠

2
and Φ2 𝑡 = sin 2𝜋𝑓𝑐 𝑡 , defined over 0 ≤ 𝑡 ≤ 𝑇 𝑠 , the M-ary
𝑇𝑠
PSK signal can be expressed as;
𝑆𝑀−𝑃𝑆𝐾 𝑡 = 𝐸𝑠 cos 2(𝑖 − 1)𝜋 𝑀 Φ1 𝑡 − 𝐸 𝑠 sin 2(𝑖 − 1)𝜋𝑀 Φ2 𝑡
 Average symbol error probability M-Ary PSK:
2𝐸 𝑏 log 2 𝑀 𝜋
𝑝𝑒 ≤ 2𝑄 𝑁0
sin 𝑀

 Average symbol error probability for differential M-Ary PSK:

4𝐸𝑠 𝜋
𝑝𝑒 ≤ 2𝑄 𝑁0
sin 𝑀

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 Cont. …
 For the case of QPSK (4-PSK)
𝐴 cos 2𝜋𝑓𝑐 𝑡 + 𝜑1 𝜑1 = 0 0 𝜑1 = 45 0 00
𝐴 cos 2𝜋𝑓𝑐 𝑡 + 𝜑2 𝜑1 = 90 0 𝑂𝑟 𝜑1 = 135 0 01
𝑆𝑡 =
𝐴 cos 2𝜋𝑓𝑐 𝑡 + 𝜑3 𝜑3 = 180 0 𝜑3 = 225 0 10
𝐴 cos 2𝜋𝑓𝑐 𝑡 + 𝜑4 𝜑4 = 270 0 𝜑4 = 315 0 11
 Constellation plots of M-ary PSK

 Thus, As M increases, the bandwidth efficiency increases but

the waveform energy (i.e., the power used to send the symbol)
must be increased to keep the BER at a certain level.
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 M-QAM
 Example: 8-QAM
 2 different Amplitudes (𝐴1 = 1; 𝐴2 = 2 )
 4 different Phases (0𝑜 , 90𝑜 , 180𝑜 , 270𝑜 )
 3 bits per symbol
• We can have numerous possible variations of phase shifts and
amplitude shifts, however the number of phase shifts should
be selected to be greater than number of amplitude shifts.
 16-QAM
 There are sixteen QAM symbols 4 bits per symbol
• Average probability of error for M-ary QAM using coherent
detection can be described as;
1 2𝐸𝑚𝑖𝑛
𝑝𝑒 = 4 1 − 𝑄
𝑀 𝑁0

41
QAM Constellation examples

42
Selection of modulation systems

43
Cont. ..
 In the design of a digital communication system, there is
always a trade off between bandwidth efficiency and power
efficiency
 Example:
 Adding error coding to a message,
• Decreases bandwidth efficiency, but reduces the
required power for a particular bit error rate
 On the other hand, higher level modulation schemes
(M-ary keying)
• increases our bandwidth efficiency , but increase the
required received power
 Cost and implementation complexity
 Robustness to channel impairments

44
Bandwidth and power efficiency comparisons

45
Overview
 Introduction to modulation and demodulation
 Types of digital modulation techniques
 Digital modulation techniques in the Presence of Noise
 Optimum receiver for digital modulation techniques in the
presence of noise
 Multipath propagation mechanism and Mitigation
techniques

46
 Noise in digital modulation systems
 Noise is any unwanted signal that tend to disturb the transmission and
processing of signals in communication systems and over which we have
incomplete control.
 External sources: e.g., atmospheric, galactic noise, man-made-
interferences;
 Internal sources: generated by communication devices themselves.
 This type of noise represents a basic limitation on the performance of
electronic communication systems.
 Shot noise: arises in electronic devices such as diodes and transistors
because of the discrete nature of current flow in these devices.
 Thermal noise: caused by the rapid and random motion of electrons
within a conductor due to thermal agitation.

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 Additive White Gaussian Noise (AWGN)
 The additive noise
 n(t) models all types of noise
 zero mean
 White noise
 Its power spectrum density (PSD) is constant over all frequencies, i.e.,

 Factor 1/2 is included to indicate that half the power is associated with
positive frequencies and half with negative.
 The term white is analogous to white light which contains equal
amounts of all frequencies (within the visible band of EM wave).
 Gaussian noise
• Represented in Gaussian random variable with zero mean and
variance of 𝜎𝑛 .

48
 Performances of modulation techniques in AWGN channel

 The channel is assumed to corrupt the signal by the

additive white Gaussian noise.
 Creates distortions in constellation

49
Performances of modulation techniques in AWGN channel

 ASK: symbol error probability

50
 Cont. …
 PSK: symbol error probability

51
 Cont. …
 QAM: symbol error probability

52
Cont. …
 FSK: symbol error probability

53
Overview
 Introduction to spread spectrum
 Pseudo - noise sequence
 Basic spread spectrum techniques
 Direct sequence spread spectrum
 Frequency hopped spread spectrum

2
 Introduction to spread spectrum
 Spread spectrum is a modulation method that increases the
transmitted signal bandwidth to a value much larger than the
needed to transmit the underlying information bits.
 The following three properties are needed for a signal to be
spread-spectrum modulated
1. The signal occupies a bandwidth much larger than the
needed for the information signal
2. The spread-spectrum modulation is done using a spreading
code, which is independent of the data in the signal
3. Dispreading at the receiver is done by correlating the
received signal with a synchronized copy of the spreading
code

3
 Cont. …

General model of spread spectrum digital communication

system

4
 Advantage and dis-advantages of spread spectrum
 What can be gained from apparent waste of spectrum?
 Resists intentional and non-intentional interference
 Can be used for hiding and encrypting signals
 Several users can independently use the same higher
bandwidth with very little interference
 Privacy due to the pseudo random code sequence (code
division multiplexing)
 Disadvantages
 Bandwidth inefficient
 Implementation is somewhat more complex

5
Overview
 Introduction to spread spectrum
 Pseudo - noise sequence
 Basic spread spectrum technique
 Direct sequence spread spectrum
 Frequency hopped spread spectrum

6
 Pseudo-Noise Sequence
 Pseudo-noise (PN) sequence is a periodic binary sequence
with noise like waveform
 It is usually generated by a means of shift register whose
block diagram is shown as:

 The PN sequence generated so is determined by the length

𝑚 of the shift register, its initial state and the feedback logic

7
 Cont. …
 If 𝑠𝑗 𝑘 denote the state of 𝑗𝑡ℎ flip-flop after the 𝑘 𝑡ℎ clock
pulse, then from definition of shift register it follows;
𝑘≥0
𝑠𝑗 𝑘 + 1 = 𝑠 𝑗−1 𝑘 ,
1≤𝑗≤𝑚
 Where 𝑠0 𝑘 is the input applied to the first flip-flop after 𝑘 𝑡ℎ
clock pulse and for the initial state 𝑘 is zero
 This 𝑠0 𝑘 is a Boolean function of each individual states.
 A feedback shift register is said to be linear when the
feedback logic consists of modulo-2 adders.
 In such a case, a zero state (all flip-flops are in 0 state) is not
permitted
 As a result the period on such PN can’t exceed 2𝑚 − 1

8
 Cont. …
 When the period is exactly 2𝑚 − 1, the PN sequence is called
a maximal length sequence or simply 𝑚-sequence
 Example: for a linear feedback shift register shown below,
compute the output PN sequence. It’s assumed that the intial
state of the shift register is 100.

 ANS: 00111010 …
 If the binary symbols 1 and 0 are denoted by levels +1 𝑎𝑛𝑑 −
1 respectively, the subsequent waveform can be given as;

9
 Choosing a maximal length sequence

 How do we find the feedback logic for a desired period N?

 The answer for this question could be to use the following
compiled table for shift register length of 𝑚 = 2, 3, … , 8

10
 Example
 Compute 2-different maximal length sequences using 5 linear
shifted registers

Code for 5,2 : 0000101011101100011111001101001 …

Code for 5, 4, 2, 1 : 0000110101001000101111101100111 …
 Obviously the first code generator has advantage as it requires
fewer feedback connections

11
Overview
 Introduction to spread spectrum
 Pseudo - noise sequence
 Basic concepts of spread spectrum
 Direct sequence spread spectrum
 Signal-Space Dimensionality and processing gain
 Probability of Error
 Frequency hopped spread spectrum

12
 Basic spread spectrum Techniques
 A narrowband signal is spread to a wideband signal
 One method of widening the bandwidth of a data sequence is
involves the use of modulation
 Let 𝑏𝑘 denote a binary data sequence, and 𝑐𝑘 denote a PN
sequence,
 Let 𝑏(𝑡) and 𝑐(𝑡) denote their respective polar non-return to
zero representations in terms of levels ±1
 The desired modulation is achieved by applying the data
signal 𝑏(𝑡) and the PN signal 𝑐(𝑡) to a product modulator as;

13
 Cont. …
 The received signal 𝑟(𝑡) consists of the transmitted signal 𝑚(𝑡)
an additive interference denoted by 𝑖(𝑡) , as shown in the
channel model
𝑟 𝑡 = 𝑚 𝑡 + 𝑖 𝑡 = 𝑐 𝑡 𝑏 𝑡 + 𝑖(𝑡)
 To recover the original message signal 𝑏(𝑡) , the received
signal 𝑟(𝑡) is applied to a demodulator that consists of a
multiplier followed by an integrator, and decision device

 Assuming perfect synchronism, the multiplier output becomes;

𝑧 𝑡 = 𝑐 𝑡 𝑟 𝑡 = 𝑐 2 𝑡 𝑏 𝑡 + 𝑐 𝑡 𝑖(𝑡)

14
 Cont. …
 The above equation shows that the data signal 𝑏(𝑡) is
multiplied twice by the PN signal 𝑐(𝑡), whereas the unwanted
interference 𝑖(𝑡) is multiplied only once.
 Note that c(t) alternates between +1 and -1, and the
alternation is destroyed when it is squared; hence,
𝑐 2 𝑡 = 1 for all 𝑡
 Accordingly, we may simplify the expression of 𝑧(𝑡) as;
𝑧 𝑡 = 𝑏 𝑡 + 𝑐 𝑡 𝑖(𝑡)
 Here 𝑏(𝑡) is narrowband signal while 𝑐 𝑡 𝑖 𝑡 is wideband
 If we use a low pass filter with a bandwidth just large enough
to accommodate the data signal 𝑏(𝑡), spurious component of
𝑐 𝑡 𝑖 𝑡 could be filtered-out.
 Finally a decision will be made by the decision device
15
Overview
 Introduction to spread spectrum
 Pseudo – noise sequence
 Basic concepts of spread spectrum
 Direct sequence spread spectrum
 Frequency hopped spread spectrum

16
 Direct Sequence Spread Spectrum
 The technique presented in the previous section is known as
direct sequence spread spectrum in the context of baseband
transmission
 To use this technique in the passband, we may add BPSK into
the transmitter and receiver, as shown

17
 Cont. …
 In the receiver, the received signal 𝑦(𝑡) is first multiplied by the
PN signal 𝑐(𝑡) yielding an output that equals the coherent
detector input 𝑢(𝑡)
𝑢 𝑡 = 𝑐 𝑡 𝑦 𝑡 = 𝑐 2 𝑡 𝑠 𝑡 + 𝑐 𝑡 𝑗 𝑡 = 𝑠 𝑡 + 𝑐 𝑡 𝑗(𝑡)
 This equation shows that the coherent detector input 𝑢(𝑡)
consists of a BPSK signal 𝑠(𝑡) embedded in additive code-
modulated interference denoted by 𝑐 𝑡 𝑗 𝑡
 The PN code in the receiver spreads the spectrum of the
interference signal (jammer) such that the detection of data
bits can be performed with increased reliability
 Each bit in original signal is represented by multiple bits in the
transmitted signal

18
 Cont. …
 One technique combines digital information stream with the
spreading code bit stream using exclusive-OR
 DSSS can also be elegantly written as pointwise product of
vectors when using ±1 instead of 0/1
 If we assign: “1” = -1, “0” = +1
 Example: Sender A sends 𝐴𝑑 = 1 , and used a chipping
sequence Ac = 010011. Compute transmitted signal 𝐴𝑠 = 𝐴 𝑑 ∗
𝐴𝑐 (pointwise product).
 Rewrite, only one value per chip is shown
𝐴𝑑 = −1, −1, −1, −1, −1, −1 ; 𝐴 𝑐 = +1, −1, +1, +1, −1, −1
 The transmitted signal becomes;
𝐴𝑠 = 𝐴 𝑑 ∗ 𝐴𝑐 = −1, −1, −1, −1, −1, −1 ∗ +1, −1, +1, +1, −1, −1
𝐴𝑠 = −1, +1, −1, −1, +1, +1

19
Example 2: DSSS Transmission on signal Level

20
 DSSS- Receiver
 Converting spreaded chip sequence back to bits
 Receiver
 Needs to know sender’s key 𝐴𝑐 , symbol duration T
 Has received sequence 𝐴𝑅 from A, in perfect phase
synchronization
 Computes a scalar product
𝑇
𝐴𝑒 = 𝐴 𝑅 ∗ 𝐴 𝑐 = 𝐴𝑅 𝑡 . 𝐴 𝑐 𝑡 𝑑𝑡
0
 Example:
𝐴𝑅 = −1, +1, −1, −1, +1, +1 ; 𝐴 𝑐 = +1, −1, +1, +1, −1, −1
𝐴𝑒 = 𝐴 𝑅 ∗ 𝐴𝑐 = −1 + −1 + −1 + −1 + −1 + −1 =−6
 How to use 𝐴𝑒 to decide which bit 𝐴𝑑 has been transmitted?
𝐴𝑒 = −6 < 0 , hence level -1 (symbol: “1” ) was transmitted
21
Cont. …
 If some levels are flipped because of noise/interference
 Example:
𝐴𝑅 = −1, +1, +1, −1, −1, +1 ; 𝐴 𝑐 = +1, −1, +1, +1, −1, −1
𝐴𝑒 = 𝐴 𝑅 ∗ 𝐴𝑐 = −1 + −1 + +1 + −1 + +1 + −1
= −2 > −6
 Decision rule:
 Decide for a 0 if 𝐴𝑒 = 𝐴 𝑅 ∗ 𝐴𝑐 > 0;
 Decide for a 1 if 𝐴𝑒 = 𝐴 𝑅 ∗ 𝐴𝑐 < 0;
 Decide randomly if 𝐴𝑒 = 𝐴 𝑅 ∗ 𝐴𝑐 = 0

22
Overview
 Introduction to spread spectrum
 Pseudo - noise sequence
 Basic concepts of spread spectrum
 Direct sequence spread spectrum
 Frequency hopped spread spectrum

23
 Frequency Hopping Spread Spectrum (FHSS)
 In this technique, the carrier frequency hops randomly from
one frequency to another
 Sequence of frequency changes determined by PN number sequence
 M-FSK is a commonly used modulation format and the technique is
referred to as FH/MFSK
 Additional “hopping” increases the required bandwidth
 It has two versions
 Slow Hopping: several user bits per hop
 Fast hopping: several frequency hops per user bit
 Advantages
 Fading and interference limited to short period
 Uses only small portion of a spectrum at any time
 Disadvantage
 Not as robust as direct sequence spread spectrum

24
 Cont. …

 An individual FH/MFSK tone of short duration is called a chip

and its rate (chip rate 𝑅𝑐 ) is defined by 𝑅𝑐 = max 𝑅 ℎ , 𝑅𝑠 ,
where 𝑅ℎ is the hop-rate and 𝑅𝑠 is the symbol rate

25
Cont. …

26
Overview
 Introduction to spread spectrum
 Pseudo - noise sequence
 Basic concepts of spread spectrum
 Direct sequence spread spectrum
 Frequency hopped spread spectrum
 Slow Frequency Hopping
 Fast Frequency Hopping

27
 Slow Frequency Hopping
 A slow FH/MFSK signal is characterized by having multiple
symbols transmitted per hop
 Hence, each symbol of a slow FH/MFSK signal is a chip
 The bit rat 𝑅𝑏 of the incoming binary data, the symbol rate 𝑅𝑠
of the MFSK signal, the chip rate 𝑅𝑐 , and hope rate 𝑅ℎ are
related by
𝑅𝑏
𝑅𝑐 = 𝑅 𝑠 = ≥ 𝑅 ℎ , 𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒 𝑘 = log 2 𝑀
𝐾
 At each hop, the MFSK tones are separated in frequency by
an integer multiple of the chip rate 𝑅𝑐 = 𝑅 𝑠 , ensuring their
orthogonality.
 Assuming that the jammer decides to spread its average
power J over the entire frequency-hopped spectrum, the
jammer’s effect is equivalent to an AWGN with power spectral
28
 Cont. …
Density 𝑁𝑜/2 , where 𝑁𝑜 = 𝐽 𝑊𝑐 and 𝑊𝑐 is the FH bandwidth
 The spread spectrum system is thus characterized by the
symbol energy-to-noise spectral density ratio:
𝐸 𝑃𝐽
=
𝑁𝑜 𝑅𝑠 𝑊𝑐
 Where the ratio 𝑃 𝐽 is the reciprocal of the jamming margin
and the reciprocal of the denominator (𝑊𝑐 𝑅𝑠 ) is the
processing gain of the slow FH/MFSK which is defined as:
𝑊𝑐
𝑃𝐺 = = 2𝑘
𝑅𝑠
 This gain expressed in dB is equal to 10 log10 2𝑘 ≅ 3𝑘, where
𝑘 is the length of the PN segment employed to select a
frequency hop

29
 Fast Frequency Hopping
 A fast FH/MFSK system differs from a slow FH/MFSK in that there are
multiple hops per M-ary symbol.
 Hence, in fast FH/MFSK system, each hop is a chip.
 In general, fast FH is used to defeat a smart jammer’s tactic that involves
two functions
 Measurements of the spectral content of the transmitted signal
 Retuning of the interfering signal to that portion of the frequency band
 Hence, the transmitted signal should be hopped quickly before the jammer
completes processing of these functions
 For data recovery, non-coherent detection can be used in two procedures;
 For each FH/MFSK symbol, separate decisions are made on the 𝑘
frequency-hop chips received, and a simple rule based on majority vote
is used to estimate the dehopped signal
 For each FH/MFSK symbol, likelihood functions are computed as
functions of the total signal received over k-chips, and the largest one is
selected
30
Examples: Fast and Slow FH/MFSK
1. A slow FH/MFSK system has the following parameters:
Number of bits per MFSK symbol= 4
Number of MFSK symbols per hop= 5
Calculate the processing gain of the system.
2. A fast FH/MFSK system has the following parameters:
Number of bits per MFSK symbol= 4
Number of hops per MFSK symbols = 4
Calculate the processing gain of the system.

31
Introduction to OFDM Communication

1
Overview
 Overview of multipath channel
 OFDM overview
 Block diagram of OFDM communication Systems
 Cyclic prefix (CP) of OFDM
 Detection of OFDM signals
 Summary

2
Overview of Multipath Channel
 Delayed wave causes interference

 The interference is called inter-symbol interference (ISI)

 ISI in-turn creates signal fading (small scale fading)

3
Classification of small-scale fading channels

4
OFDM overview
 As the data rate increases in a multipath environment, the
interference goes from flat fading to frequency selective
 This results in a heavy degradation
 Most popular solution to compensate for ISI are:
 Channel equalizers
 As we move to higher data rates (i.e.> 1 Mbps);
 Equalizer complexity grows to a level of complexity
where the channel changes before compensations
can be done!
 Alternate solution:
 Multi-carrier Modulation (MCM) where channel is
broken up into sub-bands such that the fading over
each sub-channel becomes flat thus eliminating the
problem of ISI

5
 Cont. …
 Single carrier (SC) vs. multi-carrier (MC)

 Single carrier: data are  Multi-carrier : data are shared

transmitted over only one among several carriers and
carrier simultaneously transmitted
 Frequency selective fading  Flat fading per subcarrier
Multi-carrier Modulation

FDMA OFDM

6
Cont. …

7
 Cont. …
 OFDM
 Abbreviation: Orthogonal Frequency Division Multiplexing
 The basic principle of OFDM is to split a high-rate data stream
into a number of lower rate streams that are transmitted
simultaneously over a number of sub-carriers.
 It alleviates the problem of multi-path channel fading effect, and low
spectrum efficiency

 No guard band between the different narrow-bands is needed

8
 Cont. …
 Bandwidth efficiency of OFDM systems compared to FDM

9
Block diagram of an OFDM communication system

10
 Cont. …
 An OFDM system transmitter

 The equivalent low-pass of the transmitted signal is given as

1 𝑁−1
𝑥𝑡 = 𝑠𝑘 (𝑛) 𝑒𝑗2𝜋𝑓 𝑘 𝑡 , 𝑛𝑇 ≤ 𝑡 < 𝑛 + 1 𝑇
𝑇 𝑘=0
 𝑠𝑘 (𝑛) is PSK or QAM baseband modulated symbol

11
 Cont. …
 The transmission rate on each subcarrier is given by
1 1 𝑅𝑠
𝑅= . =
𝑁 𝑇𝑠 𝑁
 An OFDM is a multi-carrier system for which each carrier is
orthogonal to other carriers, i.e.,
1 𝑇 𝑗2𝜋 𝑓 −𝑓 𝑡 1, 𝑗=𝑘
𝑒 𝑗 𝑘 𝑑𝑡 =
𝑇 0 0, 𝑗≠𝑘
 In this case the carriers are minimally separated with
1
∆𝑓 = 𝑓𝑖+1 − 𝑓𝑖 =
𝑇
 Taking the Fourier transform of 𝑥(𝑡) we get
𝑛+1 𝑇 𝑁−1
1
𝑋 𝑓, 𝑛𝑇 = 𝑥(𝑡)𝑒 −𝑗2𝜋𝑓𝑡 𝑑𝑡 = 𝑒 −𝑗𝜃 𝑛 𝑠𝑘 (𝑛) sinc(𝑓𝑇 − 𝑘)
𝑇 𝑛𝑇 𝑘=0

12
Cont. …

13
 Cyclic Prefix (CP) of OFDM
 In multipath channel, delayed replicas of previous OFDM
signal lead to ISI between successive OFDM signals.

 Solution: Insert a guard interval between successive OFDM

signals.

14
 Cont. …
 One of the most important reasons to do OFDM is the
efficient way it deals with multipath delay spread.
 To eliminate inter-symbol interference (ISI) almost
completely, a guard time is introduced for each OFDM
symbol.
 The guard time is chosen larger than the delay spread
 Inserting CP has its own cost, indeed we loose a part of
signal energy since it carries no information.
 The loss is measured as
𝑇𝐶𝑃
𝑆𝑁𝑅𝑙𝑜𝑠𝑠_𝐶𝑃 = −10 log10 1 −
𝑇𝑠
 The fact that we get zero ICI and ISI situation pay off the loss.

15
 Detection of OFDM Signals
 Detection of OFDM signals is achieved using N correlators,
each centered around a different subcarrier frequency

16
 Summary
 The advantage of the FFT-based OFDM system :
 The use of IFFT/FFT can reduce the computational complexity.
 The orthogonality between the adjacent sub-carriers will make
the use of transmission bandwidth more efficient.
 The guard interval is used to resist the inter-symbol interference (ISI).
 The main advantage of the OFDM transmission technique is its
high performance even in frequency selective channels.
 The drawbacks of the OFDM system :
 It is highly vulnerable to synchronization errors.
 Peak to Average Power Ratio (PAPR) problems, amplifiers with large
linear range needed
 OFDM is used in many applications like;
 Digital Audio Broadcasting (DAB), Digital Video broadcasting (DVB),
IEEE 802.11b Wireless LAN systems, DSL modems, LTE; etc.

18
Introduction to MIMO Communication

1
Overview
 Trends of wireless communication
 Limitations due to multipath propagation
 Introduction to MIMO communication
 Introduction to spatial diversity
 Introduction to spatial multiplexing
 Practical applications of MIMO
 MIMO system model

2
Trends of Wireless Communication

3
 Limitations due to Multipath Propagation/ISI
 Delayed wave causes interference

 The interference is called inter-symbol interference (ISI)

 ISI in-turn creates signal fading (small scale fading)

4
Cont. …
 Future wireless applications create insatiability
 Demand for high data rate and high link quality
wireless access
 Spectrum has become a scares and expensive resource
 Bandwidth is very limited
 Regulation, device and system capacity concerns
 Transmit power in limited
 Time and frequency domain processing are at limits, but
space is not
 MIMO

5
 Introduction to MIMO communication
 Abbreviation: MIMO = Multiple Input Multiple Output
 Definition: it refers to a collection of signal processing
techniques developed to enhance the performance of
wireless communication systems using multiple antennas at
the transmitter, receiver, or both.
 MIMO techniques improve communications performance by;
 combating
 exploiting multipath
 MIMO techniques in the first category combat multipath by
creating what is called spatial diversity, and those
techniques that exploit multipath do so by performing spatial
multiplexing.
 These two concepts are subjects of MIMO communications

6
 Cont. …
 These two popular techniques can be represented as;

 Receive and transmit diversity mitigates fading and

significantly improves link quality
 Spatial multiplexing yields substantial increase in spectral
efficiency

7
 Cont. …
 MIMO systems with 𝑁𝑡 transmit antennas and 𝑁𝑟 receive
antennas are referred to as 𝑁𝑡 × 𝑁𝑟 MIMO systems.
 Relationships of key MIMO concepts
MIMO techniques Purpose Approach Method
Spatial diversity Improve reliability Combat fading Space-time coding
Spatial multiplexing Increase data rate Exploit fading Spatial multiplexing
MIMO channel capacity
 Multipath propagation has long been regarded as an
“impairment” because it causes signal fading
 To mitigate this problem, diversity techniques were developed
 Antenna diversity is a widespread form of diversity
 Recent researches have also shown that multipath
propagation can in fact “contribute” to capacity
8
 Shannon Bound for MIMO Systems
SISO (Single Input Single Output)
 Information-theoretic capacity of a single antenna link is
limited by the link’s SNR according to Shannon’s formula

 Each extra bps/Hz requires roughly a doubling of TX power

MISO (Multiple Input Single Output)
 Provides transmit diversity against fading
 Slow logarithmic growth of capacity with no. of antenna

9
Cont. …

SIMO (Single Input Multiple Output)

 Provides receive diversity against fading
 Slow logarithmic growth of capacity with no. of antennas

10
Cont. …
MIMO (Multiple Input Multiple Output)
 Provides diversity at both TX and RX ends
 Linear growth of capacity with no. of antennas

11
Cont. …

12
 Spatial Diversity
 Fading significantly degrades communication performance
 To reduce its impact, the concept of diversity is often used
 Diversity refers to transmitting replicas of the same signal over
a fading channel in such a way that each replica fades
independently of the others
 Reducing the impact of fading through diversity involves two
steps:
 creating independent replicas of the signal; and
 combining the replicas
 Ways to generate replicas of a signal for diversity purposes
 Frequency diversity
 Time diversity
 Spatial diversity
 Polarization diversity
13
 Cont. …

 Ways of combining replicas at the receiver

 Selective combining
 Scanning method
 Maximal ratio combining
 Equal gain combining

14
 Cont. …
 A MIMO system block diagram for spatial diversity

15
 Spatial Multiplexing
 Refers to transmitting multiple data streams over a multipath
channel by exploiting multipath
 By so doing, multiple data channels are able to be transmitted
simultaneously over the same frequency band
 This enables potentially large numbers of bits per second to
be transmitted per Hertz of spectrum
 In SM, multiple signals are assigned to different spatial
channels instead of time or frequency slots, so the signals are
transmitted at the same time over the same bandwidth
 SM does not suffer from bandwidth expansion the way that
TDM and FDM do

16
Cont. …
 A MIMO system for spatial multiplexing

17
Example

18
 Practical applications of MIMO
 The following table lists prominent commercial standards that
support MIMO and the maximum antenna configuration that
each system supports

19
 MIMO System Model
 By MIMO system model, we mean a mathematical description
of the relationship between the transmitted and received
signals
 We start by defining the following parameters:
ℎ𝑖𝑗 = channel response between the 𝑗𝑡ℎ transmit antenna and
𝑖𝑡ℎ receive antenna
𝑟𝑖 = received signal at the 𝑖𝑡ℎ receive antenna
𝑠𝑗 = symbol transmitted from 𝑗𝑡ℎ transmit antenna
𝑛𝑖 = noise signal at the 𝑖𝑡ℎ receive antenna
 It follows
𝑁𝑡

𝑟𝑖 = ℎ𝑖𝑗 𝑠𝑗 + 𝑛𝑖 𝑖 = 1, 2, … , 𝑁𝑟
𝑗=1

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 Cont. …
 In matrix form,
𝐫 = 𝐇𝐬 + 𝐧
Where,
𝑇
𝐬 ≜ 𝑠1 , … , 𝑠𝑁𝑡 ,
𝑇
𝒏 ≜ 𝑛1 , … , 𝑛𝑁𝑡 ,
𝑇
𝐫 ≜ 𝑟1 , … , 𝑟𝑁𝑡 , and
ℎ11 … ℎ1𝑁𝑡
𝐇≜ ⋮ ⋱ ⋮
ℎ𝑁𝑟 1 … ℎ𝑁𝑟 𝑁𝑡

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